Assignment 1 Solution

AST 104: The Universe Around Us

Spring 2026

Question 1
(a)
What follows is a table comparing θ in degrees, its conversion to radians, sin θ,
and tan θ for angles from 1◦ to 20◦ :

Angle (◦ ) Angle (radians) sin θ tan θ

1 0.01745 0.01745 0.01746
2 0.03491 0.03490 0.03492
3 0.05236 0.05234 0.05241
4 0.06981 0.06976 0.06993
5 0.08727 0.08716 0.08749
6 0.10472 0.10453 0.10498
7 0.12217 0.12187 0.12248
8 0.13963 0.13917 0.13994
9 0.15708 0.15643 0.15729
10 0.17453 0.17365 0.17633
11 0.19199 0.19081 0.19438
12 0.20944 0.20791 0.21256
13 0.22689 0.22495 0.23086
14 0.24435 0.24192 0.24931
15 0.26180 0.25882 0.26795
16 0.27926 0.27564 0.28689
17 0.29671 0.29237 0.30620
18 0.31416 0.30902 0.32587
19 0.33161 0.32557 0.34596
20 0.34907 0.34202 0.36400

Table 1: Comparison of θ (in radians) with sin θ and tan θ for angles 1◦ to 20◦ .

The table shows that for angles between 1◦ and 20◦ , the values of sin θ and
tan θ are very close to the angle (when expressed in radians) as it gets smaller,
confirming the small angle approximation.

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(b)
The Moon’s angular diameter is approximately 0.5◦ . Converting this to radians:

0.5◦ × π
180 ≈ 0.00873 radians

Since 0.00873 is a very small number, for practical purposes in our calcula-
tions throughout this course, the small angle approximation applies. Any other
object we look at in this course is bound to be a smaller angular size than the
moon, since its the largest appearing object in our sky, hence the small angle
approximation will hold everywhere.

(c)

Chord length:

sin(θ/2) = l/r
r sin(θ/2) = l

Using the small-angle approximation sin θ ≈ θ, we get:

r(θ/2) = l
rθ = 2l

This equation represents the formula for arc length!

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Question 2
The Earth undergoes several types of motion, each with distinct effects on as-
tronomical observations:

Rotation
The Earth rotates about its axis once approximately every 24 hours. This
rotation is responsible for the apparent daily motion of celestial objects in the
sky, including the rising and setting of the Sun, Moon, and stars.

Revolution
The Earth orbits the Sun once every 365.25 days, defining a year. This mo-
tion causes the apparent annual shift of constellations in the night sky and is
responsible for the changing seasons due to Earth’s axial tilt of about 23.5◦ .

Axial Precession
The Earth’s axis is not fixed but slowly wobbles in a circular motion, a phe-
nomenon called precession. This cycle, caused by gravitational interactions with
the Moon and Sun, takes approximately 26,000 years to complete. As a result,
the celestial north pole (the point where Earth’s axis points in the sky) gradually
traces a circular path among the stars.

Effects on the North Star

Currently, the Earth’s north celestial pole is near the star Polaris, making it the
North Star. However, due to precession, the pole will shift over millennia. For
example:

• Around 12,000 years from now, the bright star Vega in the Lyra constel-
lation will become the new North Star.
• Polaris was not always the North Star; around 3000 BCE, the pole was
closer to the star Thuban in the Draco constellation.
• In approximately 26,000 years, the precession cycle will return the pole to
its current position near Polaris.

Will There Ever Be a South Star?

The Southern Hemisphere does not currently have a prominent star near its
celestial pole. However, precession affects the south celestial pole in the same
way as the north, meaning a bright star will eventually align with it. In about
7,500 years, the star Gamma Chamaeleontis may become the South Star.
Around 14,000 years from now, Canopus, the second-brightest star in the sky,

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will be relatively close to the south celestial pole, though not as precisely as
Polaris is today. Thus, while the Northern Hemisphere currently enjoys a bright
pole star, the Southern Hemisphere will also have one in the distant future due
to Earth’s axial precession.

Question 3
The Earth experiences seasons due to its axial tilt of approximately 23.5 de-
grees relative to its orbital plane around the Sun. This tilt causes different
parts of the Earth to receive varying amounts of sunlight throughout the year.
Here’s how it works:

• Axial Tilt: The Earth’s axis is tilted, not perpendicular to its orbit.
This means that as the Earth orbits the Sun, the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres are alternately tilted toward or away from the Sun.
• Revolution Around the Sun: As the Earth orbits the Sun, the angle at
which sunlight hits the Earth changes, causing variations in temperature
and daylight.

Concept of Lahaina Noon

Lahaina Noon is a unique phenomenon that occurs in tropical regions located
between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°
S). During Lahaina Noon, the Sun is directly overhead at solar noon, causing
vertical objects to cast no shadow. This happens twice a year when the Sun’s
declination matches the latitude of the location.

Special Latitudes on Earth

• Equator (0° latitude): The Sun is directly overhead during the equinoxes
(March 20/21 and September 22/23).
• Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N): The Sun is directly overhead during the
June solstice.
• Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S): The Sun is directly overhead during
the December solstice.
• Arctic Circle (66.5° N): Experiences 24 hours of daylight during the
June solstice and 24 hours of darkness during the December solstice.
• Antarctic Circle (66.5° S): Experiences 24 hours of daylight during the
December solstice and 24 hours of darkness during the June solstice.

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Figure 1: Lahaina Noon and its special locations. Source: https:
//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Lahaina_noon_
subsolar_point.svg

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Question 4
Greek astrology, developed during the Hellenistic period, was based on the geo-
centric model, with Earth at the center of the cosmos. Key elements include:
• Zodiac System: 12 constellations through which the Sun, Moon, and
planets moved, influencing human affairs.
• Planetary Movements: The five visible planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn) were associated with gods and traits.
• Celestial Spheres: Nested spheres carried celestial bodies, with the out-
ermost sphere holding the fixed stars.
• Aspects: Angular relationships (e.g., conjunctions, oppositions) were
used to interpret astrological charts.

Inconsistencies with Modern Science

Greek astrology conflicts with modern science in several ways:

• Geocentrism: Disproven by the heliocentric model (Earth orbits the

Sun).
• No Causal Mechanism: No scientific basis for celestial bodies influenc-
ing human behavior.

• Precession of the Equinoxes: Zodiac constellations have shifted, mis-

aligning with astrological signs.
• Retrograde Motion: An optical illusion, not a significant astrological
event.
• Lack of Evidence: Scientific studies find no correlation between astro-
logical predictions and reality.

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Question 5
We are given two pieces of information:
1. The number of stars within 12 light-years of the Sun is approximately 33.
2. The volume of the Milky Way’s disk is roughly 109 (one billion) times that
of a sphere with a radius of 12 light-years.

Assuming that the stellar density in the local region is representative of the
entire disk, the total number of stars in the Milky Way can be estimated by
scaling up the local count by the volume ratio:

Total number of stars ≈ 33109 = 33 billion stars.

Comparison with the Textbook Value

The textbook states that the Milky Way contains more than 100 billion stars.
Thus, our estimate of 33 billion stars is significantly lower than the textbook’s
value.

Possible Reasons for the Discrepancy

• Nonuniform Stellar Density: The stellar density in the solar neigh-
borhood might not be typical for the entire galaxy. The central bulge and
other regions have much higher densities.
• Geometry Assumptions: The dimensions of the Milky Way (100,000
light-years in diameter and 1000 light-years thick) are approximations.
Moreover, the disk volume does not account for the stars in the bulge or
halo.
• Incomplete Local Count: The local count of 33 stars might not include
faint stars, brown dwarfs, or members of binary/multiple star systems.

• Sampling Bias: The solar neighborhood may not represent the average
stellar density across the Milky Way.
• Simplifying Assumptions: The assumption of a uniform distribution
of stars throughout the galaxy is a major simplification of its true complex
structure.

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Question 6
Calculating Earth’s Circumference Using Posidonius’ Method
Posidonius’ method involves measuring the altitude difference of a star between
two locations on the same meridian and using the distance between them. It is
essential for the two cities to be at the same longitude (on the same meridian)
for this method to work correctly.
The following example uses three pairs of locations to estimate the average
circumference:

Pair 1: City A and City B

• City A: 30◦ N, 100◦ W, Star Altitude = 40◦
• City B: 35◦ N, 100◦ W, Star Altitude = 35◦
• Altitude Difference (∆θ): 5◦
• Distance: 555 km
360◦
• Circumference: 5◦ × 555 km = 39, 960 km

Pair 2: City C and City D

• City C: 25◦ N, 80◦ W, Star Altitude = 50◦
• City D: 30◦ N, 80◦ W, Star Altitude = 45◦
• Altitude Difference (∆θ): 5◦
• Distance: 560 km
360◦
• Circumference: 5◦ × 560 km = 40, 320 km

Pair 3: City E and City F

• City E: 20◦ N, 120◦ E, Star Altitude = 25◦
• City F: 25◦ N, 120◦ E, Star Altitude = 20◦
• Altitude Difference (∆θ): 5◦
• Distance: 550 km
360◦
• Circumference: 5◦ × 550 km = 39, 600 km

Average Circumference
39, 960 + 40, 320 + 39, 600
Average = = 39, 960 km
3
This approximation is close to the actual Earth’s circumference of approxi-
mately 40, 075 km.

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Question 7
Eratosthenes’ Method to Determine Earth’s Radius
Eratosthenes (276–194 BCE) calculated Earth’s circumference (and thus its
radius) using geometric principles based on observations of the Sun’s angle at
two locations.

Key Geometric Facts

• Parallel Sun Rays: Sunlight reaches Earth as parallel rays due to the
Sun’s vast distance. This ensures angles measured at different locations
are directly comparable.

• Central Angle Equivalence: The angle formed by a vertical object

(e.g., a gnomon) and its shadow at one location equals the central angle
between that location and another where the Sun is directly overhead.
• Arc Length Relationship: The distance between two locations on the
same meridian corresponds to the arc length s of the central angle θ in a
circle. For Earth, this implies:
θ s 360◦
◦
= =⇒ C = ·s (1)
360 C θ
where C is Earth’s circumference.

Steps in Eratosthenes’ Method

1. Measure the Sun’s Angle: At local noon on the summer solstice, mea-
sure the angle θ between a vertical rod and its shadow in a location (e.g.,
Alexandria). Eratosthenes found θ = 7.2◦ .
2. Identify a Reference Location: Choose a second location (e.g., Syene)
where the Sun is directly overhead at the same time (θ = 0◦ ), meaning
the two cities lie on the same meridian.
3. Determine the Arc Length: Measure the distance s between the two
cities. Eratosthenes used s ≈ 800 km (5,000 stadia).
360◦
4. Calculate Circumference: Using the relationship C = θ · s:

360◦
C= × 800 km = 40, 000 km (2)
7.2◦

5. Compute the Radius: From the circumference C = 2πR, solve for R:

C 40, 000 km
R= = ≈ 6, 366 km (3)
2π 2π

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Conclusion
Eratosthenes’ method relies on the geometric equivalence of the Sun’s angular
difference and the central angle between two locations. His result (R ≈ 6, 366
km) is remarkably close to the modern value of 6, 371 km.

360◦
R≈ ·s (4)
2πθ
Short 2-minute video for understanding this concept: [Link]
com/watch?v=f-ppBtuc_wQ

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Question 8
Determining the Distance to the Moon
To determine the distance to the Moon, we follow these systematic steps:

1. Calculate Earth’s Radius: Use Eratosthenes’ method by measuring

the shadow cast by the Sun in different cities and applying geometric
principles to find Earth’s curvature.
2. Estimate Moon’s Size: Timing how long it takes for the Moon to move
across the setting Sun during a solar eclipse helps calculate how many
Earth Radii make up the Moon’s diameter.
3. Apply Lunar Method: Use geometric ratios to find the relationship
between the Moon’s radius and its distance from Earth.
4. Final Computation: Use the derived ratio along with the known Earth
radius to compute the actual lunar distance.

Example Calculation
Step 1: Finding Earth’s Radius
Eratosthenes measured the Sun’s shadow in Syene and Alexandria (approxi-
mately 800 km apart). The Sun was 7.2◦ from the vertical in Alexandria. Since
7.2◦ is 50
1
of a circle, the circumference C is:

C = 50 × 800 km = 40, 000 km (5)

The Earth’s radius (RE ) is:

C 40, 000
RE = ≈ ≈ 6, 366 km (6)
2π 2π

Step 2: Finding the Moon’s Size

By observing a solar eclipse or the setting sun, we determine the diameter of
the Moon in terms of Earth Radii.

Step 3: Finding the Moon’s Distance

Aristarchus estimated that the Moon’s distance (DM ) is approximately 60 times
the Earth’s radius.

DM = 60 × RE = 60 × 6, 366 km ≈ 382, 000 km (7)

Conclusion: The estimated distance to the Moon is approximately 382,000

km.

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Figure 2: Geometric setup of Aristarchus’ method for determining the Earth-
Sun distance.

Question 9
Aristarchus’ Measurement of the Distance to the Sun
Aristarchus of Samos, an ancient Greek astronomer, proposed a method to
determine the distance to the Sun based on the angular measurements of the
Moon and Sun during a half-moon phase. His approach relied on geometric
reasoning and the application of trigonometry.

Geometric Principles
When the Moon is at first or last quarter (i.e., half-illuminated), the Earth,
Moon, and Sun form a right-angled triangle:
• The right angle is located at the Moon.
• The angle at the Earth, denoted as θ, was estimated by Aristarchus to be
approximately 87◦ . (Modern measurements place it closer to 89.85◦ ).
• Using basic trigonometry, the ratio of the Earth-Sun distance (ds ) to the
Earth-Moon distance (dm ) can be expressed as:

ds 1
= (8)
dm cos(θ)

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Calculation
Substituting Aristarchus’ estimated angle of 87◦ :
ds 1
≈ ≈ 19 (9)
dm cos(87◦ )

Conclusion
This result suggested that the Sun is about 19 times farther from Earth than
the Moon[cite: 233]. Although this was a significant underestimate (modern
values place this ratio at approximately 400), Aristarchus’ method was ground-
breaking in demonstrating how geometric principles could be used to measure
astronomical distances.

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Question 10
How the Transit of Venus Helps Determine the Astronom-
ical Unit
The transit of Venus across the Sun is a rare astronomical event that provides
a method for calculating the Astronomical Unit (AU), which is the average
distance between the Earth and the Sun.

1. Parallax Effect
• During a transit, Venus appears as a small dot moving across the face of
the Sun.
• Observers at different locations on Earth see Venus follow slightly different
paths due to parallax.

• By measuring the difference in the apparent paths of Venus (the parallax

angle, θ), we can use trigonometry to determine the distance between
Earth and Venus.

2. Kepler’s Third Law

Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion relates the orbital periods of planets
to their average distances from the Sun. The law states:

T12 a3
2 = 13 (10)
T2 a2

where:
• T1 and T2 are the orbital periods of Earth and Venus, respectively.
• a1 and a2 are the semi-major axes (average distances) of Earth and Venus
from the Sun.
Since the orbital periods are known, the ratio of their distances from the Sun
can be determined.

3. Combining Parallax and Kepler’s Law

• From the parallax measurements, we determine the distance between
Earth and Venus.

• Using Kepler’s Third Law, we know the ratio of Earth’s distance to Venus’s
distance from the Sun.
• Combining these two results allows us to calculate the absolute distance
from Earth to the Sun, which is the Astronomical Unit (AU).

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4. Historical Significance
The 1761 and 1769 transits of Venus were used by astronomers to make the first
accurate estimates of the AU. Modern measurements have refined this value to
approximately 149.6 million kilometers.

Key Equation
The distance to the Sun (dSun ) can be calculated using the parallax angle (θ)
and the baseline distance between observation points on Earth (b):

b
dSun = (11)
θ
By combining this with Kepler’s Third Law, the AU is determined.

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Question 11
Computing Light-Second, Light-Hour, Light-Day, and Light-
Year
Given the speed of light c = 3 × 108 m/s, we first convert it to kilometers:
c = 3 × 105 km/s (12)

1. Light-Second
Distance light travels in 1 second:
Light-second = c × 1 s = 3 × 105 km (13)

2. Light-Hour
Convert 1 hour to seconds:
1 hour = 3600 s (14)
Distance light travels in 1 hour:
Light-hour = c × 3600 s = 3 × 105 km/s × 3600 = 1.08 × 109 km (15)

3. Light-Day
Convert 1 day to hours:
1 day = 24 hours (16)
Distance light travels in 1 day:
Light-day = Light-hour × 24 = 1.08 × 109 km × 24 = 2.592 × 1010 km (17)

4. Light-Year
Convert 1 year to days (using 365 days/year):
1 year = 365 days (18)
Distance light travels in 1 year:
Light-year = Light-day × 365 = 2.592 × 1010 km/day × 365 = 9.4608 × 1012 km
(19)

Final Results
• Light-second: 300, 000 km (3 × 105 km)
• Light-hour: 1.08 × 109 km
• Light-day: 2.592 × 1010 km
• Light-year: 9.4608 × 1012 km

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Question 12
Computing Parallax Deviation
Parallax Formula
The stellar parallax angle p (in arcseconds) is related to distance d (in parsecs)
by:
1
p=
d
where:
• p is measured in arcseconds,
• d is measured in parsecs.

(a) Nearest Star

The nearest star system is Proxima Centauri at approximately 1.3 parsecs.
1
p= ≈ 0.77 arcseconds
1.3
Thus, the nearest star shows a parallax deviation of about:

p ≈ 0.77′′

(b) Furthest Stars in the Milky Way

The diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100,000 light-years.
Since:

1 parsec ≈ 3.26 light-years

100,000
d= ≈ 30,700 parsecs
3.26
Therefore:
1
p= ≈ 3.26 × 10−5 arcseconds
30,700

p ≈ 0.00003′′
This is 30 micro-arcseconds.

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(c) Nearest Galaxy
The nearest large galaxy is Andromeda, at approximately 2.5 million light-years.
2,500,000
d= ≈ 7.67 × 105 parsecs
3.26
Thus:
1
p=
7.67 × 105

p ≈ 1.3 × 10−6 arcseconds

p ≈ 1 micro-arcsecond

Implications vis a vis Gaia

The Gaia space observatory measures parallaxes down to about 10 micro-arcseconds
for bright stars.

• Nearest stars: easily measurable.

• Far Milky Way stars: measurable with difficulty.
• Nearest galaxy: beyond Gaia’s practical parallax precision.

Thus Gaia can map our galaxy in 3D but cannot measure distances to ex-
ternal galaxies via parallax.

Greek Thought on Parallax

Ancient Greek astronomers expected that if the Earth orbited the Sun, nearby
stars should show annual parallax.
However, no parallax was observed with naked-eye precision (limit ∼ 1 ar-
cminute).
They therefore concluded either:
• The Earth does not move (geocentric view), or

• The stars are extremely distant.

Because stellar distances are so enormous that parallax angles are tiny, the
Greeks favored geocentrism.
Parallax was finally measured in 1838 by Friedrich Bessel, confirming helio-
centrism.
This demonstrated that the Universe is vastly larger than the Greeks had
imagined.

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Question 13
The Size and Age of the Universe
The observable Universe is approximately 93 billion light-years in diameter,
yet its age is only about 14 billion years. This discrepancy arises due to the
expansion of the Universe, which is governed by the principles of cosmology and
general relativity.
The relationship between these two numbers can be understood as follows:

• Cosmic Expansion: The Universe has been expanding since the Big
Bang, meaning that the distance between galaxies has increased over time.
• Light Emission: The farthest light we observe today comes from regions
of the Universe that emitted it billions of years ago when they were much
closer.
• Recession: Due to cosmic expansion, these regions have continued to
move away, increasing their current distance from us.

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Question 14
(a) Ecliptic Plane
The ecliptic plane is the imaginary plane containing Earth’s orbit around the
Sun. It represents the apparent path the Sun takes across the sky over the course
of a year as seen from Earth. The Earth’s axial tilt of about 23.5◦ means that
the celestial equator (the projection of Earth’s equator into space) is inclined
relative to the ecliptic. The zodiac constellations lie along this plane.

(b) North Star (Polaris)

The North Star, or Polaris, is a bright star near the celestial north pole. Because
Earth’s axis points almost directly at Polaris, it appears nearly fixed in the sky
while other stars rotate around it. This makes it an essential navigation tool,
as its altitude above the horizon approximately equals an observer’s latitude in
the Northern Hemisphere.

(c) RA/DEC and Alt/Az

These are two different coordinate systems used in astronomy to locate objects
in the sky.

Right Ascension (RA) and Declination (DEC) (Equatorial Coordinate

System)
• Right Ascension (RA) is similar to longitude but for the celestial
sphere[cite: 47]. It is measured in hours, minutes, and seconds, with
24 hours making a full 360◦ circle.

• Declination (DEC) is similar to latitude, measuring how far an object

is north or south of the celestial equator in degrees.
• This system is fixed to the stars, meaning an object’s coordinates do not
change over time.

Altitude (Alt) and Azimuth (Az) (Horizon Coordinate System)

• Altitude (Alt) measures how high an object is in the sky, from 0◦ (hori-
zon) to 90◦ (zenith, directly overhead).
• Azimuth (Az) measures the direction along the horizon, from 0◦ (North),
90◦ (East), 180◦ (South), to 270◦ (West).
• This system is observer-dependent, meaning the coordinates change as the
observer’s location or time changes.

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Question 15
Phases of the Moon
On Earth, the Moon’s orbit is tilted by about 5◦ relative to the ecliptic. Because
of this tilt, we do not get eclipses every month.
In the hypothetical case where the Moon’s orbit lies exactly in the ecliptic
plane:

• The geometry of sunlight remains the same.

• Therefore, the phases (new, crescent, first quarter, gibbous, full, etc.)
would be unchanged.

The sequence of phases would still follow from the changing Sun–Moon–planet
angle during the orbit.
Thus:

The phases would remain exactly the same as on Earth.

Eclipses
An eclipse occurs when the Sun, planet, and Moon align exactly.
On Earth:
• Solar eclipses occur only when the Moon is at new phase and near a node.
• Lunar eclipses occur only when the Moon is full and near a node.
Because Earth’s Moon orbit is tilted, alignment does not occur every month.

In the Hypothetical Case

If the Moon’s orbit were in the ecliptic plane:

• Every new moon would produce a solar eclipse.

• Every full moon would produce a lunar eclipse.

Thus:

There would be two eclipses every month.

That means:
• One solar eclipse per orbital period.
• One lunar eclipse per orbital period.

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Consequences
• Eclipses would be extremely common.
• They would no longer be rare astronomical events.

• Solar eclipses would still be total or partial depending on the observer’s

location.
• Lunar eclipses would be visible across the entire night hemisphere.

Conclusion
On such a planet:

Phases: unchanged
Eclipses: occur every month (two per cycle)

The rarity of eclipses on Earth is entirely due to the 5◦ inclination of the

Moon’s orbit relative to the ecliptic.

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