Topic 9 Fluids and Solids

• Four known states of matter: solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas

• Understanding of the fundamental properties of matter is important
― Forces break solids: steel beams, bones et al.
― Fluids carry nutrients: the blood
• In this topic, we’ll introduce
― Basic properties of solids and liquids
― some properties of gases
― Take a brief look at surface tension, viscosity, osmosis, and diffusion
 9.1 States of Matter

• All matter consists of atoms or molecules

― A liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape
― A solid has a definite volume and shape
― A gas has no definite volume and shape
― A plasma is highly ionized, equal positive and negative charges
9.1 Dark Matter

Normal matter,
occupy 5%

Dark matter, affects

the motion of stars
orbiting the centers of
galaxies. 25%

Dark energy, drive

rapid acceleration of
the expansion
of the Universe. 70%
 9.2 Density and Pressure

Thinking: The hand grips the egg tightly, but it can't break it. Why
can a sharp object break the egg with very little force?
• The average Pressure P is the force F divided by the area A:
�
�≡
�
Pressure can change from point to point, we usually use average Pressure
9.2 Density and Pressure

Thinking: Snowshoes prevent the

person from sinking into the soft
snow
― Force is distributed over the
large area of each snowshoe, the
pressure is relatively low
 9.3 Variation of Pressure with Depth

• When a fluid is at rest in a container, all portions of the fluid must

be in static
• All points at the same depth must be at the same pressure

For a given volume of fluid,

the force �� must equal the force ��
 9.3 Variation of Pressure with Depth

• Given volume of fluid is in equilibrium, these forces must add to zero

P2 A  P1 A  Mg  0
j
• From the definition of density

M  V   A  y1  y2 
P2  P1   g  y1  y2 

• An atmospheric pressure P0 = 1.013×105

Pa. The pressure P at any depth
ℎ = (�1‒�2) = (0‒�2)
� = �0 + ��ℎ
 9.3 Variation of Pressure with Depth

• Equation of hydrostatic equilibrium

P  P0   gh
— P at a depth h is greater than atmospheric pressure by ���
— P isn’t affected by the shape of the vessel

Thinking：
Pressure at the bottom of a glass filled with water (ρ = 1 000
kg/m3) is P. The water is poured out and the glass is filled with
ethyl alcohol (ρ = 806 kg/m3). What happened to the pressure
at the bottom of the glass？
 9.4 Pressure Measurements

• Open-tube manometer
— PA= PB = P0 + ρgh
Pa or PB is called the absolute pressure
P0 is called the gauge pressure

Thinking: If P in the system is greater

than atmospheric pressure, h is positive.
If P is less than atmospheric pressure (a
partial vacuum), h is negative, meaning
that the right-hand column is lower than
the left-hand column.
9.4 Pressure Measurements

• A mercury barometer
The closed end of the tube is nearly a vacuum,
so � = 0
Another, P0 = P + ρgh
Then, �0 = ��ℎ
ρ:density of the mercury
h: is the height of the mercury column
 9.4 Pressure Measurements

• One atmosphere of pressure equivalent of a column of mercury that

is exactly 0.76 m in height at 0℃ with g = 9.806 65 m/s2. The density
of mercury is 13.595 3 103 kg/m3
P0   gh  13.595  103 kg / m 3 9.80665 m / s 2  (0.760 0 m)
 1.013  105 Pa  1 atm

Funny thing: Force of the atmosphere on our bodies is extremely large!

The fluids permeate our body and produce a tremendous amount of force.
The two cancel each other out to keep our bodies running.
9.4 Pressure Measurements

• Application: Blood Pressure Measurements

1. A rubber bulb forces air into a cuff
2. The flow of blood through the brachial
artery in the arm is stopped
3. Bulb opens a valve, when Pressure in the
cuff and brachial artery is below the
maximum value produced by the Heart
(the systolic pressure) the artery opens
momentarily on each beat of the heart
4. Pressure in the cuff is lowered further, intermittent sounds are heard,
pressure falls below minimum heart pressure (the diastolic pressure)
9.4 Pressure Measurements

• Discuss:
Blood pressure is measured with the cuff of the sphygmomanometer
around the arm. Suppose the blood pressure is measured with the cuff
around the calf of the leg of a standing person. What happens to the
measured blood pressure?
(a) the same here as it is for the arm?
(b) greater than it is for the arm?
(c) Less than it is for the arm?
 9.5 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes' Principle

• Archimedes’ bathtub epiphany

— Archimedes noticed an apparent change in his weight upon lowering
himself into a tub of water
— He discovered a fundamental principle affecting objects submerged in
fluids

• Archimedes’ principle
— An object in a fluid is buoyed up by a force with magnitude equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the object
 9.5 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes' Principle

• Buoyant force
— An object placed in a fluid is subject to the upward buoyant force
— Physical cause of buoyant force �� is the pressure difference between
the upper �� and lower �� sides of the object

�� = mg

�� + �� = ��

The net force exerted by a sphere at rest in water is zero

9.5 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes' Principle

• The application of the Archimedes’ principle 7.84 N 6.68 N

‒ Is the crown made of pure gold?

Tair  mg  0 Twater  mg  B  0

B  Tair  Twater  7.84N  6.86N  0.980 N

B
Vwater  =1.00  10 -14 m 3
g  water
Tair 7.84 N
m  2
 0.800 kg
g 9.80 m / s
m 0.800 kg
crown   4 3
 8.00  103
kg / m 3
＜ 19.3×103 kg/m3
Vcrown 1.00 10 m
9.6 Fluids in Motion

• Streamline flow: A fluid flows regular, every particle that passes a

particular point moves along the same smooth path followed by
previous particles passing that point
— Streamline at any point coincides with the direction of the velocity of
the fluid at that point
— Different streamlines can’t cross each other in steady-flow condition
• Turbulent flow: A fluid flows irregular, above a certain velocity or
under any conditions that can cause abrupt changes in velocity
— The magnitude and direction of velocity at a given point are variable
9.6 Fluids in Motion

• Viscosity: Degree of internal friction in the fluid

— The resistance between two adjacent layers of the fluid moves relative
to each other
— A fluid such as kerosene has a lower viscosity, while crude oil or
molasses has a higher viscosity
• Characteristics ideal fluid:
1. The fluid is nonviscous
2. The fluid is incompressible
3. The fluid motion is steady
4. The fluid moves without turbulence.
9.6.1 Equation of Continuity

• The mass that flows into the bottom of the pipe through A1 in the time
∆t must equal the mass that flows out through A2 in the same interval
1 A1v1   2 A2 v2
A1v1  A2 v2
1   2

— The product of the cross-sectional area of the pipe and the fluid speed
at that cross section is a constant
9.6.1 Application of the Equation of Continuity

Exercise 1: Each second, 5 525 m3 of water flows over the 670-m-wide

cliff. The water is 2 m deep as it reaches the cliff. Estimate its speed at
that instant.
A  (670m)(2m)  1340m 2
Avt
volume flow rate=  Av
t
 1340m 2  v  5525m 3 / s  v  4m / s

Thinking: What happens to the speed of blood in an artery when plaque

starts to build up on the artery’s sides?
9.6.2 Bernoulli’s equation

• As a fluid moves through a pipe of

varying cross section and elevation,
the pressure changes along the pipe
• Bernoulli’s equation that relates the
pressure of the fluid to its speed and
elevation
• Bernoulli’s equation a consequence of
energy conservation as applied to an
ideal fluid

A portrait of Bernoulli
9.6.2 Deriving Bernoulli’s equation

• Assume the fluid is ideal fluid

• In ∆t, the flow through a nonuniform pipe. The force on the lower end
of the fluid is P1A1, where P1 is the pressure at the lower end, the work
— W1  F1Δx1  P1 A1Δx1  PV
1

• Similarly, at the higher end, the work

— W2   P2 A2Δx2   PV
2

• The net work done by the forces

— Wfluid  W1  W2
=PV
1  PV
2
9.6.2 Deriving Bernoulli’s equation

• Suppose the mass of the fluid flows in ∆t is m, the changes in kinetic

energy and gravitational potential energy are
1 2 1 2
— ΔKE  mv2  mv1 ΔPE  mgy2  mgy1
2 2

• The net work can also be expressed as the change in kinetic energy and
potential energy
— Wfluid  ΔKE  ΔPE

• Substituting expressions for each of the terms gives

1 2 1 2
— PV1  PV 2  mv2  mv1  mgy2  mgy1
2 2
9.6.2 Deriving Bernoulli’s equation

• Divide each term by V, ρ = m/V, the expression becomes

1 2 1 2
— P1  P2  2  v2  2  v1   gy2   gy1

• Rearrange the terms as follows

1 2 1 2
— P1   v1   gy1  P2   v2   gy2
2 2
• This is Bernoulli’s equation, often expressed as
— P  1  v 2   gy  constant
2
1 2
Thus, the sum of the pressure P, the kinetic energy per unit volume, 2  v ,
and the potential energy per unit volume, ρgy, has the same value at all
points along a streamline
9.6.2 An important consequence of Bernoulli’s equation

• Venturi tube can be used to measure the speed of fluid flow

— The pipe is horizontal, y1= y2, Bernoulli’s equation can be written
1 2 1 2
P1   v1  P2   v2
2 2
• v2 in the constricted region must
be greater than v1 in the region
of greater diameter
• Thus, P2 must be less than P1

Consequence: Swiftly moving fluids exert less pressure than do slowly

moving fluids.
9.6.2 Funny Quick Quiz

• You observe two helium balloons floating next to each other at the
ends of strings secured to a table. The facing surfaces of the balloons
are separated by 1–2 cm. You blow through the opening between the
balloons. What happens to the balloons?

—(a) They move toward each other.

—(b) They move away from each other.
—(c) They are unaffected
 9.7 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics

The dimples on the ball help entrain the air along the curve of the ball’s
surface. The ball pushes the air down, by Newton’s third law the air must
push up on the ball and cause it to rise. This allows it to travel much far
than it would if it were not spinning.
 9.7 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics

• An aneurysm narrows the blood vessels. Blood flows slowly, from the
equation of continuity, the pressure goes up.
• The excess pressure can cause the artery to rupture
9.7 Funny Quick Quiz

• A plane has wings, each with area 4.00 m2, air flows over the top of
the wing at 245 m/s and underneath the wing at 222 m/s. Find the
mass of the airplane such that the lift on the plane will support its
weight. The density of air ρ=1.29 kg/m3
1 2 1 2
P1   v1  P2   v2
2 2
1 2 1 2 1
ΔP  P1  P2   v2   v1    v22  v12 
2 2 2
1
ΔP  1.29kg / m3  2452 m2 / s2  2222 m2 / s2 
2
= 6.93  103 Pa

2 AΔP  mg  0  m  5.66 103 kg

 The attract force between liquid

• A molecule is completely surrounded by

other molecules, it’s net force is zero
• B molecule is not attracted equally in all
directions, which is pulled toward the
interior of the liquid.
• But B is net force, mainly because of
surface tension which makes the surface
area of the liquid as small as possible
The attract force between liquid

A needle floats on water:

Molecular forces now act at all

points along the depression, tending
to restore the surface to its original
horizontal position.

The vertical components of these

forces act to balance the force of
gravity on the needle.
 The definition of surface tension

• The surface tension γ in a film of liquid is defined as the magnitude

of the surface tension force F divided by the length L along which the
force acts, SI unit is the newton per meter (N/m):
F

L
• Surface tension can be thought of as the energy content of the fluid at
its surface per unit surface area. Manipulate the units of the surface
tension γ : N Nm J
 2
 2
m m m
By the principle of energy minimization, the surface area of a liquid is
always as small as possible.
Measure the surface tension

• A circular wire (circumference L) is

lifted from liquid. The surface film
clings to the inside and outside edges of
the wire (circumference 2L), holds
back the wire, causes the spring to
stretch. The spring was calibrated, the
force overcame surface tension which
can be measured:
F
 An apparatus measure
2L
the surface tension
9.8 Applications of Surface Tension

PROBLEM Many insects can literally

walk on water, using surface tension for
their support. To show this is feasible,
assume the insect’s “foot” is spherical.
When the insect steps onto the water with
all six legs, a epression is formed in the
water around each foot, as shown in right.
The surface tension of the water produces
upward forces on the water that tend to
restore the water surface to its normally
flat shape. If the insect’s mass is 2.0 ×
10−5 kg and the radius of each foot is
1.5 × 10−4 m, find the angle �.
Start with the surface tension equation: � = ��
Focus on one circular foot, substituting � = 2��.
Multiply by cos� to get the vertical component �� :
�� = �(2��) cos �
Write Newton’s second law for the insect’s one foot, which
supports one-sixth of the insect’s weight:
� = �� − ����� = 0
1
�(2��) cos � − �� = 0
6
Solve for cos u and substitute:
��
cos� = (1)
12���
(2.0×10−5 ��)(9.80�/�2 )
= =0.47
12�(1.5×10−4 �)(0.073�/�)
Take the inverse cosine of both sides to find the angle �:
� = ���−1 (0.47) = 62°
Think: Why the big object can’t on float on liquid?

�� ∝ �3 �∝�

cos� can’t big than 1.

9.8 Applications of Surface Tension

• Soap or detergent decreases the surface tension of water and will

clean your clothes better than plain water does
• The surface tension decreases with increasing temperature, because
the faster moving molecules at high temperature. That’s way hot water
cleans better
• The surface tissue of the air sacs in lungs contains a fluid. Our lungs
secretes a substance that lowers the surface tension of the liquid from
0.05 N/m to 0.005 N/m, allowing us to breathe normally.
 9.8.1 The Surface of Liquid

• Have you ever closely examined that the surface of water or mercury
in a glass container has different shape?
• The differences can be explained: the forces between molecules.
— cohesive forces and adhesive forces
9.8.1 The Surface of Liquid

• Cohesive forces: forces between like molecules, such as the forces

between water molecules
• Adhesive forces: forces between unlike molecules, such as those
exerted by glass on water
• Explain the surface shapes of different liquids
— Water in the glass: adhesive forces between water and glass
molecules > cohesive forces between water molecules
— Mercury in the glass: cohesive forces between mercury atoms >
adhesive forces between mercury and glass
Contact angle

The angle f between the solid surface and a line drawn

tangent to the liquid at the surface is called the contact angle

Decrease cohesive: detergents are added to water to wash

clothes or dishes
Decrease adhesive: The clothing is sprayed with a
waterproofing agent.
 9.8.2 Capillary Action

• At the point of contact between liquid

and solid, the upward force of surface
tension is directed as shown in the figure.
— From the definition of surface tension,
the force:

F A liquid rises in
   F =  L =  (2 r ) a narrow tube
L
— The vertical component of this force due to surface tension is

Fv   (2 r )(cos  )
9.8.2 Capillary Action

— For the liquid is in equilibrium, the upward force equals to the weight
of the cylinder of water of height h inside the tube. The weight of this
water: w  Mg  Vg   g r h 2

— Applying Newton’s second law for equilibrium

2
 (2 r )(cos  )   g r h 2
 h cos 
 gr
• Common Capillarity
— Draw small samples of blood from a needle prick in the skin
— Water seepage through capillary pores in the blocks or the mortar
may cause damage to the inside of the building
— Plants depend on capillary action to transport water and nutrients
9.8.3 Viscous Fluid Flow

Nonviscous flow velocity profile Viscous flow velocity profile

• Viscosity: The internal friction of a fluid

— Easier to pour water out of a container than to pour honey
— Nonviscous fluid flows through a pipe with no resistance, a uniform
cross section, same velocity
— Viscous fluid has the greatest velocity at center, low velocity on both
side because of adhesive forces between molecules and the wall surface
 9.8.3 Viscous Fluid Flow

• A layer of liquid between two solid surfaces, the lower surface is fixed
and the upper surface moves to the right with a velocity � under the

action of an external force �

— � can be expressed as
F  Av / d

— � required to move the upper

plate at a fixed speed � , thus
Av
F 
d
 is the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid (N∙s/m2)
 9.8.4 Poiseuille’s Law

• A section of a tube of length L and radius R containing a fluid under a

pressure P1 at the left end and a pressure P2 at the right
• The rate of flow depends on the pressure difference (P1 ‒ P2),
dimensions of the tube, and the viscosity of the fluid:

∆� ��4 (�1 − �2 )
=
∆� 8��
— The above equation is Poiseuille’s law
— � is the coefficient of viscosity of fluid
9.8.4 Apply Poiseuille’s Law

• Test: A man receives a blood transfusion through a needle of radius

0.20 mm and length 2.0 cm. The density of blood is 1 050 kg/m3. The
bottle supplying the blood is 0.500 m above the patient’s arm. What is
the rate of flow through the needle?
— Calculate the pressure difference
P1  P2   gh  1050kg / m3  9.80m / s2  (0.500m)
 5.15 103 Pa
ΔV  R  P1  P2 
4

— Substitute into Poiseuille’s law: 

Δt 8 L
  2.0  10 m   5.15  103 Pa 
4 4


8  2.7  103 N  s / m2  2.0  102 m
 6.0 108 m3 / s
9.8.5 Reynolds Number

• Sufficient high velocities, fluid flow changes from simple streamline

flow to turbulent flow which characterized by a highly irregular
motion of the fluid. The onset of turbulence in a tube is determined by
a dimensionless factor called the Reynolds number, RN:
 vd
RN 

ρ: Density of the fluid d: Diameter of the tube
v: Average speed  : Viscosity of the fluid

2000<RN<3000

Streamline unstable turbulence

RN<2000 RN>3000
 9.9 Transport Phenomena

• When a fluid flows in a tube, two basic mechanisms that produces the
flow: pressure difference and concentration difference
• When a fluid flows due to concentration differences, two fundamental
processes involved: diffusion and osmosis

The diffusion of a molecular gas

9.9.1 Diffusion

The dashed line is

an imaginary barrier,
separating the two regions

• In a diffusion process, molecules move from a region with high

concentration to a region with low concentration
• In fact, molecules on the left will move to the right, and vice versa.
until they're in equilibrium. The rate of movement of molecules from
left to right will equal the rate from right to left in equilibrium.
 9.9.1 Diffusion

• The basic equation for diffusion is Fick’s law:

mass ΔM  C2  C1 
Diffusion rate    DA  
time Δt  L 

where D: diffusion coefficient , units of square meters per second

(C2 ‒ C1) / L: concentration gradient
9.9.2 The Size of Cells and osmosis

• Diffusion through cell membranes is vital in carrying oxygen to the

cells of the body and in removing carbon dioxide and other waste
products from them
• Model a cell as a cube, each side with length L. The total surface area
is 6L2 and the volume is L3. The surface area to volume is then

surface area 6L2 6

 3 
volume L L

— the more smaller the size, the more efficiently transport nutrients and
waste products across the cell membrane.
9.9.2 The Size of Cells and osmosis

Selectively permeable membrane: The membrane can choose

the through the molecules by their size.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane from a high water concentration to a low
water concentration.

Cell with sugar

concentration of 1%

5% Sugar solution
9.9.2 The Size of Cells and osmosis

In the body, blood is cleansed of

impurities by osmosis as it flows
through the kidneys
Glomerulus: waste products and
some essential salts and minerals
are removed
Tubules: most of the essential
elements are returned to it
9.9.2 The Size of Cells and osmosis

• If the kidneys fail, an

artificial kidney or a dialysis
machine can filter the blood.
9.9.3 Motion Through a viscous Medium

A tiny ball falling slowly through a viscous medium, the magnitude of

the resistive force on it of radius r, a fluid of viscosity � with speed v:

Fr  6 rv → Stokes’ law

Some important applications:
— Describing the sedimentation of particulate matter in blood
— Robert Millikan calculated the radius of charged oil droplets falling
through air, determined the charge of the electron, and awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1923 for his pioneering work on elemental charges
9.9.3 Motion Through a viscous Medium

• A sphere falling through a viscous medium,

resistive frictional force ��, buoyant force �,

the force of gravity �.
— The magnitude of � is given:
4 3
w   gV   g   r 
3 

• According to Archimedes’ principle, the magnitude of the buoyant

force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the sphere:

4 3 ρf is the density of the fluid

B   f gV   f g   r 
3 
9.9.3 Motion Through a viscous Medium

• As the ball starts to fall, the velocity increases from zero, and the
friction increases from zero. Finally, the sphere reaches terminal
speed when
4 3 4 3
Fr  B  w  6 rvt   f g   r    g   r 
3  3 

• When this equation is solved for ��, we get

2r 2 g
vt 
9
   f 
9.9.4 Sedimentation and Centrifugation

• A non-spherical object falling through a viscous medium. We can’t

use Stokes’ law for the resistive force.
1. Assume that resistive force has a magnitude given by Fr = kv, k is a
coefficient that must be determined experimentally.
2. The object reaches its terminal speed when the downward force of
gravity is balanced by the net upward force, or w = B + Fr
f
3. The buoyant force B   f gV  mg

4. Substitute this expression for B and �� = ��, we can have
f mg   f 
mg  mg  kvt  vt  1  
 k   
9.9.4 Sedimentation and Centrifugation

mg   f 
vt  1  
k   

• The terminal speed for particles in biological samples is usually quite

small. For example, the terminal speed for blood cells falling through
plasma is about 5 cm/h in the gravitational field of the Earth.
• The terminal speeds for the molecules that make up a cell are many
orders of magnitude smaller than this because of their smaller mass.
• The speed at which materials fall through a fluid is called the
sedimentation rate and is important in clinical analysis
9.9.4 Sedimentation and Centrifugation

• clinical analysis
— A fluid containing various biological
molecules is placed in a centrifuge and whirled
at very high angular speeds
— Under these conditions, the particles gain a
large radial acceleration
ac  v 2 / r   2 r
which is much greater than the free-fall
acceleration, so the final speed:
m 2 r   f  the most massive particles will settle
vt  1   
k    out on the bottom of a test tube first
Glycerin in water diffuses along a horizontal column that has a
cross-sectional area of 2.0 ��2 . The concentration gradient is
3.0 × 10−2 kg/ �4 , and the diffusion rate is found to 5.7 ×
10−15 kg/s. Determine the diffusion coefficient.

Solution:
From the equation
∆� �2 − �1
= ��
∆� �
5.7 × 10−15 kg/s −9 �2 /�
�= = 0.95 × 10
2.0 × 10−4 �2 × 3.0 × 10−2 kg/ �4
The viscous force on an oil drop is measured to be equal to
3.0 × 10−13 N when the drop is falling through air with a
speed of 4.5 × 10−4 m/s. If the radius of the drop is 2.5 ×
10−6 m, what is the viscosity of air?

Solution:
Consider the Stokes’ law
�� = 6����
We can get
��
�=
6���
3.0×10−13 �
=
6�×4.5×10−4 �/�×2.5×10−6 �
≈ 1.4 × 10−5 � ∙ �/�2
Summary

9.1 States of Matter

Solid, liquid, gaseous, and plasma. They were divided by the force among
the molecular of them.

9.2 density and Pressure

The density r of a substance of uniform composition is its mass per unit
volume—kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) in the SI system:
�
�=
�
The pressure P in a fluid, measured in pascals (Pa), is the force per unit area
that the fluid exerts on an object immersed in it:
�
�=
�
9.3 variation of Pressure with depth
The pressure in an incompressible fluid varies with depth h according to the
expression
� = �0 + ��ℎ
Summary

9.5 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’ Principle

When an object is partially or fully submerged in a fluid, the fluid exerts an
upward force, called the buoyant force, on the object. By the Archimedes’
law
�� = ������ ������ �

9.6 Fluids in Motion

Assuming the fluid is nonviscous and incompressible and that its motion is in
a steady state with no turbulence
Equation of continuity:
�1 �1 = �2 �2
Bernoulli’s equation:
1 1
�1 + ��1 2 + ���1 = �2 + ��2 2 + ���2
2 2
9.8 Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscous Fluid Flow

Surface Tension
�
�=
�
Cohesive forces: forces between water molecules
Adhesive forces: forces between unlike molecules
Viscosity: refers to the internal friction of a fluid
��
�=�
�
where � is the coefficient of viscosity
Poiseuille’s Law
∆� ��4 (�1 − �2 )
���� �� ���� = =
∆� 8��
Reynolds Number:
���
�� =
�
9.9 Transport Phenomena

Fick’s law
���� ∆� �2 − �1
��������� ���� = = = ��( )
���� ∆� �
The proportionality constant D is called the diffusion coefficient
Stokes’ law
�� = 6����
sedimentation rate
�� ��
�� = (1 − )
� �
 Homework

P 315 exercice 43
P 316 exercice 59
P 317 exercice 61