MODULE-1 CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
• A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.”
• Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings.
• A cell can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks
of life.
• Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane.
• Also present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and
lipids.
• Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.
• 10 micrometres to 20cms.
• Most of the animal cells are small and range between 1-100 micrometres. But
the average size of human body cells is between 20-30 micrometres.
• The organism Mycoplasma gallicepticum is the smallest cell. It is about 10
micrometres in size. The largest cell is the egg of the ostrich. It is about 15 to
18 cm long and wide.
• The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of every cell organelle is
called Cell Biology.
• Robert Hooke (1665) was the first Biologist who discovered cells.
• All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular),
or many cells (multicellular).
• Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the body
and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.
• Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism.
They are of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our
body is made up of cells of different shapes and sizes.
• Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to
organism, the count of cells may vary. Humans have more number of cells
compared to that of bacteria.
• Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to
carry out life processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary
material of the organisms is also present in the cells.
Who discovered cells?
• Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665- small rooms named as “cells”.
• Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound microscope
with higher magnification- “living”
• In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the
cell structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.
Characteristics of Cells
• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
• The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a
separate membrane.
• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction
and cell growth.
• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
Cell and its organelles
Cell Theory
• Schleiden and Schwann first proposed the cell theory, which was later modified by
Rudolf Virchow.
• Postulated and widely accepted hypothesis of how most life on Earth operates is
known as the “cell theory.
Parts of Cell Theory
There are three main postulates of cell theory are as follows:
• First, cells make up all living things.
• Second, cells are the basic building blocks for developing tissues, organs, and fully
developed living creatures.
• The third, and maybe most crucial, aspect of the hypothesis is that cells can only
develop from other cells.
Types of Cells
• Prokaryotic cell
• Eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm in
μm in diameter diameter
Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically simple in
complex in nature nature
Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have Present
a nucleoid region in the cell
Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger in
spherical in shape size and linear in shape
DNA arrangement Circular Linear
Mitochondria Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
Endoplasmic Absent Present
reticulum
Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes
Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysosomes and centrosomes are
absent present
Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
Eukaryotic cells
Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell Shape
Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape
Cell Wall
Present Absent
Plasma/Cell Membrane
Present Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Present Present
Nucleus
Present and lies on one side of the cell Present and lies in the centre of the cell
Lysosomes
Present but are very rare Present
Golgi Apparatus
Present Present
Cytoplasm
Present Present
Ribosomes
Present Present
Plastids
Present Absent
Vacuoles
Stem Cells
“Stem cells are special human cells that can develop into many different types of
cells, from muscle cells to brain cells.”
• Different from other cells
• Undifferentiated cells
• Stem cells also have the ability to repair damaged cells. These cells have strong healing
power. They can evolve into any type of cell.
• Totipotency
• Regeneration
Classification of stem cells based on
Source of origin Type of differentiation
Totipotent
Induced
Embryonic Adult stem Mesenchymal
Pleuripotent Pleuripotent
stem cells cells stem cells
stem cells
Multipotent
Unipotent
Applications of Stem cells
Stem Cell Therapy
• Tissue Regeneration
----- Kidney & Liver transplantation
• Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease
• Treatment of Brain Diseases
----- Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease
• Treatment of Blood Disorders
------ Cancers, sickle cell anaemia
Biomolecules
• The Iiving matter is composed of mainly six elements – C, H, O, N, P and
S - constitute about 90% of the dry weight of the human body.
• Several other functionally important elements are also found in the cells
like Ca, K, Na, Cl, Mg, Fe, Cu, Co, I, Zn, F, Mo and Se.
Chemical Molecules of Life
• Life is composed of lifeless chemical molecules.
• [Link] contains about 6,000 different organic compounds.
• Man may contain about 1,00,000 different types of molecules.
All these biomolecules are organic, which means they contain ‘carbon’.
Biomolecules
Inorganic Organic
Carbohydrates
Minerals
Lipids
Gases
Amino acids
Water
Proteins
Enzymes
Nucleic acids
Vitamins
Biomolecules
Micromolecules Macromolecules
Minerals
Gases Carbohydrates
Water Lipids
Sugars Proteins
Amino acids Nucleic acids
1. Carbohydrates
• Class of organic compounds that play crucial role in biology and important source
of energy.
• Composed of C, H and O
• General formula Cn(H2O)n.
i. Monosaccharides
• Simplest form of carbs and include glucose and fructose.
• Monosaccharides are simple sugars in which there are one oxygen atom
and two hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom present in the molecule.
• They have general formula as (CH2O)n.
• Monosaccharides are reducing sugars.
• The test for reducing sugar is called Benedict’s test.
• They are sugars, which taste sweet, are soluble in water and are insoluble
in non-polar solvents.
• They are classified according to the number of carbon atoms in each
molecule as trioses (3C), tetroses (4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C),
heptoses (7) and so on.
• They are used as a source of energy in respiration.
• They are important building blocks for large molecules.
• The names of all sugars end with -ose.
Examples: Glyceraldehyde (triose), Erythrose (tetrose), Ribose (pentose),
Glucose (hexose), Fructose (hexose), Galactose (hexose), Sedoheptulose
(heptose), etc.
• They exist in straight chains or in the ring or cyclic forms.
ii. Disaccharides
• The condensation reaction is the joining of two molecules with the formation
of a new chemical bond and a water molecule is released when the bond is
formed.
• A glycosidic bond is formed between two monosaccharides. If carbon 1 on one
monosaccharide joins to carbon 4 on another monosaccharide, it is called a 1,4-
glycosidic bond.
Sucrose is the transport sugar and Lactose is the sugar found in milk
which an important constituent of the diet of young mammals.
iii. Polysaccharides
• These are polymers formed by combining many monosaccharide molecules
(more than two) by condensation reactions.
• Molecules with 3-10 sugar units are known as oligosaccharides while
molecules containing 11 or more monosaccharides are true polysaccharides.
• Polysaccharides do not taste sweet.
• Because their molecules are so enormous, the majority of polysaccharides do not
dissolve in water.
• Polysaccharides made solely from one kind of monosaccharides are
called homopolysaccharides (Starch) while those made of more than one monomer
are called heteropolysaccharides (Hyaluronic acid).
Functions of carbohydrates:
• Carbohydrates are helpful in performing many functions such as breakdown
of protein molecules, dehydration as well as eliminating ketosis.
• They serve as primary energy sources.
• They provide energy.
• They help in the regulation of blood glucose.
• They provide the carbon skeleton for the synthesis of some non-essential
amino acids.
2. Properties & Functions of Proteins
Amino Acids are the organic compounds that combine to form proteins, hence they
are referred to as the building components of proteins.
Nine essential amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—are not synthesized by mammals
and are therefore dietarily essential or indispensable nutrients.
Nonessential amino acids include: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine,
glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.
how a peptide bond is formed
Protein structure is defined as a polymer of amino acids joined by peptide bond
Classification of Proteins
Based on the molecular shape, proteins can be classified into two types.
1. Fibrous Proteins:
When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen
and disulfide bonds, then the fiber-like structure is formed. Such proteins are
generally insoluble in water. These are water-insoluble proteins.
Example – keratin (present in hair, wool, and silk) and myosin (present in
muscles), etc.
2. Globular Proteins:
This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a
spherical shape. These are usually soluble in water.
Example – Insulin and albumins are common examples of globular proteins.
Denaturation of Proteins
• Denaturation is the term used for any change in the three-dimensional
structure of a protein that renders it incapable of performing its assigned
function.
• A denatured protein cannot do its job.
Type I: Denaturation by change in pH.
Type II: Chemical Denaturation.
Type III: Denaturation by Heat and Radiation.
Functions of Proteins
1) Catalyzing chemical reactions
• Amylase: An enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars like glucose
and maltose. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice.
• Lipase: An enzyme that breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. It is
found in the pancreas and small intestine.
• Catalase: An enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
It is found in most cells of the body.
• Trypsin: An enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is
produced in the pancreas and released into the small intestine.
• ATP synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate. It is found
in the mitochondria of cells.
2) Transporting molecules
• Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that transports
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in the body.
• Albumin: Albumin is a protein found in blood plasma that helps transport
various substances such as hormones, fatty acids, and drugs throughout the
body.
• Transferrin: Transferrin is a protein that transports iron in the blood from the
site of absorption in the gut to the bone marrow, liver, and other tissues that
require it.
• Apolipoproteins: Apolipoproteins are a family of proteins that transport lipids
(fats) in the bloodstream. Examples include ApoA, ApoB, and ApoE.
• Ferritin: Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form in the liver,
spleen, and bone marrow.
3) Providing mechanical support
• Collagen: Collagen is the main structural protein in the body and provides
support to tissues such as skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and teeth.
• Elastin: Elastin is a protein that provides elasticity and stretchability to tissues
such as skin, lungs, arteries, and ligaments.
• Keratin: Keratin is a protein that forms the structural basis of hair, nails, and
the outer layer of skin.
• Actin and Myosin: Actin and myosin are proteins that are involved in muscle
contraction and provide the mechanical force required for movement.
• Tubulin: Tubulin is a protein that forms the structural basis of microtubules,
which provide support to cells and are involved in various cellular processes
such as cell division and intracellular transport.
4) Regulating cell behavior
• Receptor proteins: Receptor proteins are proteins that are located on the
surface of cells and bind to specific signaling molecules such as hormones,
growth factors, and neurotransmitters.
• Enzymes
• Cytoskeleton proteins: Cytoskeleton proteins, such as actin and tubulin, play a
critical role in regulating cell shape, movement, and division.
• Transcription factors: Transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA and
regulate gene expression.
• Adhesion proteins: Adhesion proteins are proteins that are involved in cell-to-
cell and cell to-matrix adhesion.
• Ion channels: Ion channels are proteins that allow ions to move across the cell
membrane.
Proteins are also involved in immune responses, hormone regulation, and muscle
contraction.
3. Properties & Functions of Lipids
A group of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and some
hormones.
Structure of a lipid molecule
Phospholipids are compound
lipids, consisting of phosphoric
acids, nitrogen base, alcohol and
fatty acids.
These are major components of
the cell membrane and also
provide a fluid character to the
membranes.
Triglycerides are a type of fat, called lipid, that circulate in your blood.
They are the most common type of fat in your body.
Triglycerides come from foods, especially butter, oils, and other fats you eat.
Functions of Lipids
• Energy storage: Lipids are a major source of stored energy in the body, and they can
be broken down to release energy when it is needed.
• Insulation: Lipids help to insulate the body, helping to regulate temperature and
protect against heat loss.
• Cell membrane structure: Lipids are a major component of cell membranes, helping to
maintain their fluidity and stability.
• Hormone synthesis: Some lipids, such as cholesterol, are precursors to hormones, and
are necessary for their production.
• Transport: Lipids are soluble in fat, but not in water. This makes them ideal for carrying
fat- soluble vitamins and other lipophilic compounds through the bloodstream.
Translation
4. Properties & Functions of Nucleic Acids DNA
Transcription
RNA Protein
Reverse
Transcription
Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a crucial role in
the storage and transfer of genetic information in all
living organisms. There are two types of nucleic acids:
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA is the genetic
material that carries the instructions for the
development, functioning, and reproduction of all
living organisms.
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is involved in the
expression of the genetic information stored in
DNA by carrying the message from the DNA to the
ribosome, where it is used to build proteins.
The Functions of Nucleic Acids:
• Nucleic acids are responsible for the transmission of inherent characters from
parent to offspring.
• They are responsible for the synthesis of protein in our body
• DNA fingerprinting is a method used by forensic experts to determine paternity. It
is also used for the identification of criminals. It has also played a major role in
studies regarding biological evolution and genetics.
• Loss of DNA content is linked to many diseases.
• All the information of a cell is stored in DNA.
Importance of Special Biomolecules
Importance of Special Biomolecules
Enzymes:
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biological reactions.
They speed up the rate of chemical reactions without being
consumed in the process. Enzymes are specific .
The six kinds of enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases,
transferases, ligases and isomerases.
EC 1, Oxidoreductases: catalyze oxidation/reduction reactions.
EC 2, Transferases: transfer a functional group (e.g. a methyl or phosphate
group).
EC 3, Hydrolases: catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds
EC 4, Lyases: cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and
oxidation.
EC 5, Isomerases: catalyze isomerization changes within a single molecule
EC 6, Ligases: join two molecules with covalent bonds.
Types of Enzyme Inhibition
Properties of Enzymes for Engineering Applications
Specificity: Enzymes have a high level of specificity for the substrates they bind and
the reactions they catalyze, making them highly efficient at performing specific tasks.
Reactivity: Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed
in the process, allowing them to perform multiple cycles of the same reaction.
Stability: Enzymes are generally stable at a wide range of temperatures and pH
values, making them useful in a variety of industrial processes.
Renewability: Enzymes are biodegradable and can be produced from renewable
resources, making them an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional chemical
catalysts.
Cost-effectiveness: Enzymes can be produced in large quantities through
fermentation, making them a cost-effective alternative to synthetic catalysts in many
applications
Functions of Enzymes:
The enzymes perform a number of functions in our bodies. These include:
1. Enzymes help in signal transduction.
2. They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily
absorbed by the body.
3. They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme
involved in the synthesis of energy.
4. Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma
membrane.
5. Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation,
reduction, hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the
body.
Properties & Functions of Vitamins
• Vitamins are organic molecules that serve as an essential nutrient for most
living organisms for the smooth functioning of their metabolism.
• Vitamins are essential to our body as they perform various activities that
promote a healthy life.
• Vitamins are the compounds that people need in less quantities. The body
does not produce vitamins on its own. Vitamins are to be obtained from the
food we eat.
• Vitamins are essential because they prevent various health issues. If the body
lacks any vitamin, it may develop a deficiency and a related disease.
• Vitamin requirements vary with different organisms. For example, dogs can
produce their vitamin C they need, but humans need to acquire that from
their diet.
Classification of Vitamins
Vitamins are generally classified as water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble
vitamins.
1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble. These are stored in adipose tissues and
hence are called fat-soluble vitamins.
2. Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins in B-group and vitamin C are water-soluble and cannot be stored in
our bodies as they pass with the water in urine. These vitamins must be
supplied to our bodies with regular diets.
The main functions of vitamins are
• Help the body maintain good health
• Regulating the tissues and help in repairing cells
• Fight against ageing
• Formation of new cells
• Keeping bones, teeth and nails healthy.
• Help the muscles and ligaments function smoothly.
HORMONES
Hormones are various chemicals released within the human
body that regulate and control the activities of multiple organs
Our body contains two different kinds of glands.
• Endocrine Glands: These glands, such as the pituitary and
adrenal glands, do not have ducts and deliver their secretions
through the blood straight to the site of action.
• Exocrine Glands: These glands have ducts by which their
secretions are transported. Example: sweat and liver,
• Endocrine glands secrete “Hormones”.
Properties of hormones are
1. Hormones are secreted from their source (an endocrine glad)
directly into the blood.
2. They regulate the physiological processes by chemical means.
They affect the enzyme systems of the body.
3. They act on target organs or cells usually away from the source.
4. Hormones produced in one species usually show similar influence
in other species.
5. They are produced in very small quantities and are biologically
very active.
6. Chemically, some hormones are peptides, amines or steroids.
7. Their excess (hypersecretion) or deficiency (hyposecretion), both
• Hormones are not stored in the body and are excreted from the
body.
• They have a low molecular weight; thus, they can easily pass
through capillaries.
• They are soluble in water so that they can be transported via blood.
• Hormones act as coenzymes of other enzymes in the human body.
• Hormones, in their first action, cause a limited number of reactions
and do not influence any metabolic activities of a cell directly.
• A significant characteristic of hormones is that, after their function is
over, they are readily destroyed, excreted or inactivated.
• Hormonal activities are not hereditary.
Examples of Hormones
• Insulin is a hormone that's made by the beta cells in the
pancreas. When it is released into the blood, insulin helps
regulate how the cells of the body use glucose (a type of
sugar) for energy.
• The thyroid gland secretes two main hormones, thyroxine
and triiodothyronine, into the bloodstream. These thyroid
hormones stimulate all the cells in the body and control
biological processes such as growth, reproduction,
development, and metabolism.
Functions of Hormones
The following are a few important functions that hormones
perform:
• Metabolism of food.
• Development and growth.
• Controlling hunger and thirst.
• Preserving one's body's temperature.
• Maintain Homeostasis
• Regulating sleep and wake cycle
• Regulating mental and emotional functions