Module 2

Applications of Carbohydrates

1. Cellulose Based Water filters

• Made from cellulose, a carbohydrate found in plant cell walls
• Used to remove impurities and contaminants in water
• High mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties- ideal
• Environment friendly as they are biodegradable-Natural sources
Properties of Cellulose Based Water filters
• High porosity
• Biodegradability
• Cost effective
• Renewable source
• Good mechanical strength
• Chemical resistance
• Large surface area
Importance of Cellulose Based Water filters
• Sustainability
• Versatility
• Affordability
• Alternative to synthetic filters

Limitations of Cellulose Based Water filters

• Low resistance to high temperature
• Low efficiency for certain contaminants
• Limited lifespan
• Difficult to sterilize
• May clog easily
• May affect water taste
Construction of cellulose based filters

• Cellulose material selection

• Cellulose preparation
• Cellulose layer formation
• Filter medium attachment
• Chemical treatment
• Housing assembly
• Filter testing Cellulose acetate
2. PHA as bioplastic
• Polyhydroxyalkanoates are a class of biodegradable and
biocompatible polyesters produced from bacteria and fungi.
• Environment friendly- bacterial fermentation of sugars or lipids and
alternate to petroleum based plastics

Properties of PHA
• Biodegradability
• Biocompatability
• Mechanical properties
• Processing
Engineering applications of PHA
• Packaging
• Medical devices
• Textiles
• Agricultural mulch films- reduce soil erosion
• Consumer goods
• Automotive parts
• Electronic devices
• Aerospace
3. PLA as Bioplastic
Polylactic acid is a biodegradable plastic made from corn starch
and other natural resources

Properties of PLA as bioplastic

• Biodegradable
• Renewable
• Transparent
• Heat resistant
• Biocompatible
• Stiffness and strength
• Printability-3D printing
Simplified view of the PLA production process
Engineering applications of PLA
• Electronic devices
• Aerospace
• Construction
• Sporting goods
• Automotive parts
• Agricultural equipment
• Medical equipment
Applications of Nucleic acids:
DNA/RNA Vaccines

• Virus- Infectious organism capable to give a disease

• DNA Virus- Contains DNA as genetic material and replicates in Nucleus

• RNA Virus- Contains RNA as genetic material and replicates in Cytoplasm

• Vaccine- Weakened/inactive form of virus/microorganism that stimulates

immunity against a specific disease.

• DNA Vaccine- A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of viral
or bacterial DNA to stimulate an immune response against the pathogen.

• RNA Vaccine- A RNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of viral
or bacterial RNA to stimulate an immune response against the pathogen.

• Produces Viral proteins in the body and displayed over the cell surface.
[Link] Vaccine for Rabies:
Importance of DNA vaccine

• Efficiency
• Long-lasting protection
• Ease of administration
• Cost-effective
• Reduced risk of side effects
2. RNA Vaccines for COVID:

Both the Pfizer-BioNTech and the Moderna COVID-19 vaccines use mRNA
Importance of RNA vaccine for Covid 19
• High efficiency: for example, have reported efficiency rates of around 95% in clinical
trials.
• Rapid development
• Easy to modify
• Safe

• Potential for broader use

3. DNA Fingerprinting Technique :

• DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a technique used in forensic science to

identify an individual based on their unique DNA profile.
• The process involves analyzing specific regions of an individual's DNA, called
markers, which can vary from person to person.

Working of DNA fingerprinting for forensic applications

1. Sample collection
2. Sample Amplification
3. DNA Analysis
4. DNA Comparison
Analysis of DNA bands/ markers on agarose gel electrophoresis
[Link] of Proteins:
1. Whey protein as food :
• Whey protein is a type of protein derived from the liquid that separates from milk during
the cheese-making process.
• It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all of the essential amino acids the body
needs to build and repair tissues.
• Whey protein is widely used as a dietary supplement, particularly by athletes,
bodybuilders, and people looking to increase their protein intake.
• It is commonly added to smoothies, shakes, and other beverages, and is also available in
powder form that can be mixed into other foods or beverages.
• Compared to other types of protein, whey protein is rapidly absorbed by the body and is
high in branched-chain amino acids, which are essential for muscle growth and repair.
• It is also a good source of essential nutrients, including calcium, potassium, and vitamins
B2 and B12.
Use of whey protein as food
• Sports nutrition: Whey protein is often used by athletes and fitness enthusiasts to
help build and repair muscle tissue, support recovery after intense exercise, and
increase overall muscle mass.
• Weight management: Whey protein can be used to help manage weight by
increasing satiety and reducing appetite. It can also help with weight loss by
preserving muscle mass while reducing body fat.
• Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential amino acids and has been shown
to have various health benefits, including improved immune function, lower blood
pressure, and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.
• Meal replacement: Whey protein can be used as a meal replacement, either as a
drink or in a variety of food products. It provides a quick and convenient source of
protein, making it a popular option for people with busy schedules or limited access
to fresh foods.
2. Meat analogs of protein
• Meat analogs, also known as meat substitutes or meat alternatives, are plant-based
foods designed to mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of meat.

• They are made from a variety of ingredients, including soy protein, wheat protein,
pea protein, and other plant-based ingredients, and are often fortified with vitamins
and minerals to provide a similar nutritional profile to meat.
Examples of meat analogs of protein as food

Tofu: Made from soybeans, tofu is a versatile meat analog that can be used in a variety
of dishes, including stir-fries, salads, and smoothies.

Tempeh: Another soy-based product, tempeh is made from fermented soybeans and
has a nutty flavor and firm texture. It can be sliced and used in sandwiches or salads,
or crumbled and used as a meat substitute in tacos or spaghetti sauces.

Seitan: Also known as wheat meat or wheat protein, seitan is made from wheat gluten
and has a chewy, meat-like texture.

Veggie burgers: Made from a variety of plant-based ingredients, including soy protein,
grains, and vegetables, veggie burgers are a popular meat analog that can be grilled or
baked and served on a bun.

Meatless meatballs: Made from plant-based ingredients such as soy protein, grains,
and vegetables, meatless meatballs are a tasty and protein-rich alternative to
traditional meatballs.

Plant-based sausages: Made from soy protein, pea protein, or other plant-based
ingredients, plant-based sausages are a convenient and protein-rich alternative to
traditional sausages.
3. Plant Based Proteins
Plant-based proteins are proteins derived from plant sources, such as legumes, grains,
nuts, and seeds. They are becoming increasingly popular as a alternative to animal-
based proteins, especially for those following a vegetarian or vegan diet. Here are some
benefits of plant-based proteins:

• Sustainable: Plant-based protein sources are more environmentally sustainable than

animal based sources, as they require fewer resources to produce and generate
fewer greenhouse gas emissions.

• Nutrient-rich: Many plant-based protein sources are also rich in other essential
nutrients, such as fiber, vitamins, and minerals.

• Versatile: Plant-based proteins can be used in a variety of ways, including as a

protein supplement, in smoothies, or as an ingredient in various recipes.
Hypoallergenic: Plant-based proteins are often better tolerated than animal-based
proteins, making them a good option for people with food allergies or sensitivities.

Cost-effective: Plant-based protein sources are often more affordable than animal-
based sources, making them a more accessible option for many people. Examples of
plant-based proteins include soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein, chickpea protein
etc.
Uses of plant based proteins
Plant-based proteins are commonly used in a variety of ways, including:
• Dietary supplements: Plant-based proteins are often sold as powders, bars, and other
supplements, making them a convenient way to add protein to a diet.
• Food products: Plant-based proteins are used as ingredients in a variety of food
products, including plant-based meat analogs, protein bars, and smoothies.
• Health and wellness: Plant-based proteins are often marketed as a healthier
alternative to animal-based proteins, due to their lower saturated fat and cholesterol
content.
• Vegetarian and vegan diets: Plant-based proteins are a popular source of protein for
people following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as they do not contain animal products.
• Fitness and sports nutrition: Plant-based proteins are also used by athletes and
fitness enthusiasts to support muscle recovery and growth.
Applications of Lipids:

1. Lipids as Biodiesel:
 Which is a renewable source of energy.

 Biodiesel is typically produced by transesterifying vegetable oils or animal fats with an

alcohol, such as methanol, to form methyl esters. The resulting biodiesel can be used as
a drop-in replacement for traditional diesel fuel in internal combustion engines.

Advantages
• Renewability
• Reduced emissions
• Improved performance
• Biodegradability

Limitation
• Higher production costs compared to traditional diesel fuel and the need for more
efficient and cost effective processing methods.
The Process of Obtaining Biodiesel from Lipids

• Raw material preparation: The lipids, such as vegetable oils or animal fats, are
collected and purified to remove impurities.

• Transesterification: The purified lipids are mixed with an alcohol, such as methanol,
and a catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide, to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME),
which are the main components of biodiesel. This process is known as
transesterification.

• Separation: The reaction mixture is then separated into two layers: the upper layer
contains the FAME (biodiesel) and the lower layer contains the glycerol (byproduct).

• Washing and drying: The biodiesel is washed with water to remove any residual
alcohol and soap that was formed during the transesterification reaction. The
biodiesel is then dried to remove any remaining moisture.

• Purification: The biodiesel is further purified to remove any impurities and improve its
quality.

• Final product: The purified biodiesel is then stored and distributed for use as a fuel.
2. Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergents:

• Personal care products: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are commonly
used as emulsifiers and surfactants in personal care products, such as shampoos,
soaps, and lotions.

• Industrial cleaning: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents in various industrial

applications, such as metal cleaning, degreasing, and stain removal.

• Laundry detergents: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are used as
ingredients in laundry detergents to improve their cleaning and performance.

• Cleaning agents for hard surfaces: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents for hard
surfaces, such as floors, countertops, and walls, to remove dirt and grime.
Examples of lipids used as cleaning agent

• Soap: Soap is a traditional cleaning agent made from the reaction of an alkali with a fat
or oil. Soaps are made from various types of lipids, including animal fats and vegetable
oils.

• Fatty acids: Fatty acids, such as stearic acid, can be used as cleaning agents in personal
care products, such as bar soaps and shampoos.

• Glycerol: Glycerol is a byproduct of soap production and can be used as a cleaning agent
in a variety of applications, including household cleaners and industrial cleaning
solutions.

• Fatty alcohols: Fatty alcohols, such as lauryl alcohol, can be used as cleaning agents in
personal care products and industrial cleaning solutions
Working principle of lipids as cleaning agent
 It is based on their ability to dissolve grease and oils.

 Lipids are composed of hydrophobic (water-fearing) and hydrophilic (water-loving)

regions, which allows them to surround grease and oils, effectively breaking them
down into smaller particles that can be more easily removed.

 When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to a surface, the hydrophobic regions of

the lipid molecule surround and dissolve grease and oils, while the hydrophilic
regions interact with water, allowing the mixture to be rinsed away.

 The combination of the lipid and water also forms an emulsion, which helps to
suspend and remove dirt and debris.

 In addition, some lipids have additional properties, such as foaming or lathering

capabilities, that can enhance their cleaning performance.

 For example, fatty alcohols can be used as foaming agents in shampoos, while soap is
known for its lathering properties.

 These additional properties can help to loosen and remove dirt and debris, making
the cleaning process more effective.
Advantages of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents

• Biodegradability: Lipids are derived from natural sources, such as plants and
animals, and are biodegradable, which makes them more environmentally friendly
than many synthetic cleaning agents.

• Renewable resources: Lipids can be obtained from renewable resources, such as

crops, and are not based on finite fossil fuels like some synthetic cleaning agents.

• Effectiveness: Lipids have excellent grease-cutting and emulsifying properties,

making them effective cleaning agents.

• Mildness: Lipids are typically mild and gentle, making them suitable for use in
personal care products, such as soaps and shampoos, and for cleaning delicate
materials, such as silk and wool.

• Cost-effective: Lipids can be less expensive than synthetic cleaning agents, especially
when obtained from low-cost feedstocks, such as vegetable oils.

• Customizability: Lipids can be modified and customized to improve their cleaning

performance and to meet specific application needs.
Limitations of lipids as cleaning agents/detergent

• Stability: Some lipids can be susceptible to oxidation and degradation, which can
reduce their effectiveness as cleaning agents over time.

• Compatibility: Some lipids may not be compatible with certain surfaces or materials,
and may cause staining or damage.

• Cost: Although lipids can be less expensive than synthetic cleaning agents, the cost
can vary depending on the source of the lipids and the processing methods used.

• Availability: The availability of lipids for use as cleaning agents may be limited by the
availability of feedstocks, such as crops and animal fats, and the need for processing
and refining.

• Performance: The cleaning performance of lipids can vary depending on the

specific properties of each lipid and the type of soil or stain being removed. Some
lipids may not perform as well as synthetic cleaning agents in certain applications.

• Regulation: The use of lipids as cleaning agents is regulated by government agencies,

and specific requirements may vary from country to country.
Applications of enzymes:

1. Enzymes in Biosensors

• Biosensors: Biosensors are analytical devices that combine a biological recognition

element with a transducer to detect and quantify target analytes.

• The biological recognition element can be an enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, or other
biological molecule that specifically interacts with the target analyte.

• The transducer converts the biological response into an electrical signal that can be
quantified and interpreted.

• Biosensors have a wide range of applications in the fields of medicine, environmental

monitoring, and food safety.
Applications of enzymes in Biosensors
1. Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors

Schematic representation of the working of different biosensors

Schematic representation of GOx

Enzymes Used in Biosensors

• Glucose oxidase (GOx): Used in blood glucose monitoring for people with diabetes.
The enzyme oxidizes glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which is then
detected by a transducer to quantify glucose levels in the blood.

• Lactate oxidase (LOx): Used in the determination of lactate levels in biological fluids,
such as blood and urine. LOx oxidizes lactate to pyruvate, which is then detected by a
transducer.

• Cholinesterase (ChE): Used in the detection of organophosphorus pesticides and

nerve agents. ChE hydrolyzes acetylcholine, and the decrease in acetylcholine levels is
detected by a transducer to quantify the presence of the toxic substances.

• Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): Used in the detection of inorganic phosphates, such as

those found in wastewater and fertilizers. ALP catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphates
to produce a signal that can be quantified.

• Urease: Used in the detection of urea levels in biological fluids, such as urine. Urease
catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to produce ammonium and carbon dioxide, which can
be quantified by a transducer.
Biosensors are employed in applications such as disease monitoring, drug discovery,
and detection of pollutants, disease-causing micro-organisms and markers that are
indicators of a disease in bodily fluids (blood, urine, saliva, sweat).

Advantages of Biosensors
• Sensitivity
• Specificity
• Rapid response time
• Portability
• Cost-effectiveness

Limitations of Biosensors
• Stability
• Interferences
• Calibration
• Limited shelf-life
• Complexity
2. Enzymes in Food Processing:

• Brewing/Beverages- Alpha-amylase: It is used to solubilize the carbohydrates

found in barley and other cereals used in brewing.

• Beverages- Beta-glucanase: Breakdown of glucans in malt and other materials.

• Dairy- Lipase: Used to shorten the time for cheese ripening. It is employed in the

production of enzyme-modified cheese/butter from cheese curd or butterfat.

• Meat Processing- Papain: It is widely used as a meat tenderizer.

• Dairy- Chymosin: Helps in the curdling of milk by breaking down kappa-caseins

in cheese making.
• Microbial proteases: Used in the production of fish meals, meat extracts,

texturized proteins, etc.

• Fruit/Vegetable Processing- Pectinase: Treatment of fruit pulp to facilitate

juice extraction. It also helps in the clarification and filtration of fruit juice.

• Dairy- Lactase: Additive for dairy products for individuals lacking lactase.

• Fruit/Vegetable Processing- Cellulase: Conversion of cellulose waste to

fermentable feedstock for ethanol or single-cell protein production.

3. Enzymes in Detergent formulation:

Detergent enzymes are biological enzymes that are used with detergents.

• They catalyze the reaction between stains and the water solution, thus aiding stain

removal and improving efficiency.

• Laundry detergent enzymes are the largest application of industrial enzymes.

• They can be a part of both liquid and powder detergents.

Ex: proteases (protein stains like blood), amylases (starch stains like pasta), lipases

(grease/oils), and cellulases (fabric care/brightening).

4. Enzyme in Textile Processing:

• Enzymatic Desizing
• Bio-Scouring
• Bleaching
• Garment Washing
• Dyeing
• Finishing

Advantages of Enzyme Application

•Sustainability: Reduced water, energy, and chemical consumption.
•Fabric Quality: Improved softness, color brightness, and strength.
•Mild Conditions: Enzymes operate at lower temperatures and neutral pH levels
5. Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching
• Lignolytic enzymes are specialized proteins produced mainly by white-rot fungi that
break down lignin, a tough polymer in plant cell walls.
Bio-Bleaching
• Bio-bleaching is a process that uses biological agents, such as enzymes, to remove
color and brighten fibers, paper, and textiles.
• It is a sustainable alternative to traditional chemical bleaching methods that use harsh
chemicals, such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine.

Advantages of Bio-Bleaching
• Sustainability
• Improved product quality
• Reduced energy consumption
• Elimination of hazardous chemicals
• Lower production of harmful by-products
Limitations of Bio-bleaching
• High cost of enzyme production
• Low efficiency compared to chemical bleaching
• Need for further research
• Lack of widespread implementation
 Ligninolytic enzymes play a key role in degradation and detoxification of lignocellulosic
waste in environment.
 The major ligninolytic enzymes are laccase, lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase,
and versatile peroxidase.