Module 2
Q1: Explain Transmission Media
✔ Definition:
Transmission media refers to the physical path through which data travels from sender to
receiver.
✔ Types of Transmission Media:
1. Twisted Pair Cable
• Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together.
• Low cost and easy to install.
• Used in telephone lines and LANs.
• More susceptible to noise and interference.
✔ Diagram:
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
2. Coaxial Cable
• Has a central conductor surrounded by insulation and shielding.
• Better protection from noise than twisted pair.
• Used in cable TV and internet connections.
• Moderate cost and bandwidth.
✔ Diagram:
| Outer Shield |
| Insulation |
| Inner Wire |
3. Optical Fiber
• Uses light signals for data transmission.
• Provides very high speed and bandwidth.
• Immune to noise and electromagnetic interference.
• Expensive but highly efficient.
✔ Diagram:
| Cladding |
| Core |
✔ Conclusion:
Different transmission media are used based on cost, speed, and distance requirements.
Q2: Explain Multiplexing Techniques
✔ Definition:
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals and transmit them over a
single communication channel.
✔ Types of Multiplexing:
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• Divides bandwidth into different frequency ranges.
• Each signal is transmitted on a different frequency.
• Used in radio and TV broadcasting.
• Signals are sent simultaneously.
✔ Diagram:
|---Ch1---|---Ch2---|---Ch3---|
-------------------------------- → Frequency
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• Divides time into slots for each signal.
• Each user transmits in a specific time slot.
• Used in digital communication.
• Efficient use of bandwidth.
✔ Diagram:
|Ch1|Ch2|Ch3|Ch1|Ch2|Ch3|
------------------------ → Time
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• Used in optical fiber communication.
• Different wavelengths (colors) of light are used.
• Allows multiple signals simultaneously.
• Provides very high data capacity.
✔ Diagram:
λ1 λ2 λ3
\ | /
\ | /
\ | /
Fiber
✔ Conclusion:
Multiplexing improves efficiency by allowing multiple signals over a single channel.
Q3: Explain Switching Techniques
✔ Definition:
Switching is the process of transferring data from source to destination through a network.
✔ Types of Switching:
1. Circuit Switching
• Establishes a dedicated path before transmission.
• Path remains fixed during communication.
• No data loss but inefficient.
• Used in telephone networks.
2. Packet Switching
• Data is divided into small packets.
• Each packet travels independently.
• Efficient and flexible.
• Used in internet communication.
3. Message Switching
• Entire message is sent at once.
• No dedicated path is required.
• Uses store-and-forward technique.
• Causes delay.
✔ Comparison Table:
Feature Circuit Switching Packet Switching Message Switching
Path Fixed Dynamic No fixed
Efficiency Low High Medium
Delay Low after setup Low High
Example Telephone Internet Old systems
✔ Conclusion:
Packet switching is most widely used due to its efficiency and flexibility.
Q4: Explain Nyquist and Shannon Theorem
1. Nyquist Theorem
✔ Definition:
Nyquist theorem gives the maximum data rate of a noiseless channel.
✔ Formula:
C = 2B \log_2 M
✔ Explanation:
• Depends on bandwidth (B) and number of signal levels (M).
• Used when there is no noise in the channel.
• Higher bandwidth → higher data rate.
2. Shannon Theorem
✔ Definition:
Shannon theorem determines the maximum data rate in a noisy channel.
✔ Formula:
C = B \log_2 (1 + S/N)
✔ Explanation:
• Depends on bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio (S/N).
• Used in real-world communication systems.
• More noise → lower capacity.
✔ Conclusion:
• Nyquist → ideal (no noise)
• Shannon → practical (with noise)