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CHAPTER 01: Introduction

Introduction : Definition of ocean and oceanography, scope, history and classification of
oceanography, origin of earth and ocean, theories of origin of ocean,
Q: define Oceanography.
Definition: According to H.A. Marmer, “Oceanography the science of the sea,
includes primarily the study of the form and nature of the oceans basins, the
characteristics of the water in these basins and the movement to which this water are
subject to.”
According to J. Proudman, “Oceanography studies the fundamental principles of
dynamics and thermo-dynamics in relation to the physical and biological properties of
the sea water.”

Q: Importance of Oceanography/ scope of oceanography

Oceanography also called marine science is the branch of Earth science that studies the
ocean. It is an interdisciplinary science that involves the study of the entire ocean. It
covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms; ecosystem dynamics (study
of aquatic life, planktons); ocean currents, waves and tides; geophysical fluid dynamics;
plate tectonics; the geology of the sea floor; fluxes of various chemical substances
(various chemical reactions); physical properties (temp, pressure, salinity, density of
ocean water) within the ocean and across its boundaries.

Oceanography is a broad field in which many sciences including geology, geography,

geophysics, physics, chemistry, geochemistry, mathematics, meteorology, botany, and
zoology focus on the common goal of understanding the oceans.

• Data derived from the work of Oceanographers is used in marine engineering, in the
design and building of oil platforms, ships, harbors, and other structures that allow us to
use the ocean safely.
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• Oceanographic data management is the discipline ensuring that oceanographic data

both past and present are available to researchers.

Importance of Oceanography
1. Throughout history humans have been directly or indirectly influenced by the
oceans. Ocean waters serve as a source of food and valuable minerals.

2. Increasingly, people are turning to the oceans for their food supply either by direct
consumption or indirectly by harvesting fish that is then processed for livestock
feed. It has been estimated that as much as 10% of human protein intake comes
from the oceans.

3. Other biological products of the oceans are also commercially used. For example,
pearls taken from oysters are used in jewellery, and shells and coral have been
widely used as a source of building material.

4. Ocean water is processed to extract commercially valuable minerals such as salt,

bromine, and magnesium.

5. Extensive deposits of petroleum-bearing sands.

6. On the deep ocean floor manganese nodules, formed by the precipitation of

manganese oxides and other metallic salts around a nucleus of rock or shell,
represent a potentially rich and extensive resource.

7. Ocean water itself could prove to be a limitless source of energy in the event that
nuclear fusion reactors are developed, since the oceans contain great quantities of
deuterium.

8. Ocean waters serve as vast highways for transport and commerce. The oceans
have become more important for the improvement of livelihood of people through
fishery or tourism. Fish are being cultured in ocean and coast are called
Mariculture and Coastal aquaculture respectively.

9. The oceans also have become more important for recreational use, as each year
more people are attracted to the sports of swimming, fishing, scuba diving,
boating, and water-skiing.
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Scope of Oceanography
 This branch of climatology is concerned with the scope of the oceanographical
knowledge to practical problems of the oceans.
 It analyses the relationship of oceanography to other sciences.
 Applied oceanography can be of great help for many problems related to coastal
industries, shore communities (settlements), military and naval establishments,
ports and harbours, and other ocean problems.
 The main purpose is to find out the ways and means to make use of our knowledge
for the betterment of human life and the life in the oceans.

A Geographical approach into Oceanography

Oceanography is a part of Physical Geography. Oceanography is significant to

geography because the fields have overlapped in terms of navigation, mapping and the
physical and biological study of Earth's environment.

A Geographical approach into Oceanography include the studies of:

 The interrelation between sea and atmosphere and the effect on weather. The
problems and prospects of ocean navigation.
 the possibilities of developing planktonic food resources.
 The development and conservation of world fisheries and exploration of other
food resources.
 The Geographical research with the aim of knowing the reflects of various forces
under the sea.
 The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation and precipitation as
well as thermal flux and solar insolation.
 Wind stress is a major driver of ocean currents while the ocean is a sink for
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
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Branches of Oceanography/classification of oceanography

1. Physical (marine physics) Oceanography- attributes including temp, salinity
structure, mixing, waves, internal waves, surface tides, internal tides, and currents.
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2. Chemical Oceanography- the study of the chemistry of the ocean and its chemical
interaction with the atmosphere.
3. Geological/ Geophysical Oceanography- is the study of the geology of the ocean
floor including plate tectonics and paleoceanography.
4. Biological Oceanography or marine biology- is the study of the plants, animals and
microbes of the oceans and their ecological interaction with the ocean.
Mostly deals with the organisms lives in oceanic environment and their relationship with
environment
i. The effect of ocean on the distribution and abundance of organisms
ii. The effect of metabolic processes on the physical and chemical parameters on the
oceans
5. Environmental/Space/Meteorological Oceanography- the study of the interactions
of the atmosphere and the ocean in the hydrosphere.
6. Marine resource management
7. Marine Engineering technology/ Applied Oceanography- the branch of
oceanography is concerned with the application of the oceanographic knowledge to
practical problems.
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Branches of Marine Biology

1. Marine ecology
2. Coastal/ Estuarine microbiology
3. Marine planktology
4. Marine Fisheries
i) Coastal/ Brackish water
ii) Open sea Fisheries
5. Mariculture
6. Coastal Environment and Development
7. Wildlife resources
8. Benthic flora and fauna
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Oceanography Pioneers/History of oceanography

Victor Hensen: plankton studies; coined the term “plankton” in 1887
Alexander Agassiz (1800s): made three expeditions aboard the Albatross in 1891,
1899-1900 and 1904-05 to collect specimens, explore the ocean depths, and study
coral islands and reefs.
Fridjtof Nansen (1800s): drifted in ice near the North Pole to understand the wind
direction; 1890's Proved polar ice flowed. Entered ice by Alaska, exited by
Greenland three years and over 1000 miles later. Determined that the North Pole is
landless
In 1893 the Norwegian researcher Fridtjof Nansen sailed his wooden schooner Fram towards the
Arctic. He let the vessel freeze into an ice floe and drift, hoping that the natural east–west currents
in the Arctic Ocean would carry Fram and her crew to the geographical North Pole. Nansen
determined that the Arctic sea ice moved 20° to 40° to the right of the wind blowing across its
surface.
Walfrid Ekman (1900s): Scandinavian who studied physical oceanography;
developed a circulation model that has been called the Ekman spiral.

Ekman spiral- Vagn Walfrid Ekman, was the first person to physically explain this
process.
The oceanic wind driven Ekman spiral is the result of a force balance created by a shear stress force,
Coriolis force and the water drag. This force balance gives a resulting current of the water different
from the winds. In ocean, it can be observed on the surface and in the bottom. At the surface of the
ocean, the shear stress force corresponds with the wind stress force. At the bottom of the ocean, the
shear stress force is created by friction with the ocean floor.
A theoretical consideration of the effect of a steady
wind blowing over an ocean of unlimited depth and
breadth and of uniform viscosity. The result is a
surface flow at 45° to the right of the wind in the
Northern Hemisphere. Water at increasing depth
will drift in directions increasingly to the right
until at about 100 m depth it is moving in a
direction opposite to that of the wind. The net water transport is 90° to the wind, and velocity
decreases with depth.

North pole discovered by- Robert Edwin Peary Sr.

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He is best known for, in April 1909, leading an expedition that claimed to be

the first to have reached the geographic North Pole.
South pole discovered by- Roald Amundsen
Roald Amundsen from Norway was the first person to reach the South Pole on
14th December 1911.
Alexander Behm: German inventor of Echo sounding in 1920
Charles Wyville Thompson and John Murray: The Challenger Expedition- 1st true
oceanographic expedition. In 1871, the Royal Society recommended that funds be
raised from the British government for an expedition to investigate the following
subjects:
1. Physical conditions of the deep sea in the great ocean basins
2. The chemical composition of seawater at all depths in the ocean
3. The physical and chemical characteristics of the deposits of the sea floor and the
nature of their origin
4. The distribution of organic life at all depths in the sea, as well as on the sea floor

The voyage of H.M.S. Challenger from 21 December 1872 through 24 May 1876
represented the first major full-scale oceanographic voyage. The achievements of the
Challenger expedition, which covered 127,500 km (79,178 mi), included 492 deep-sea
soundings (around 500), 133 bottom dredges, 151 open-water trawls, and 263 serial
water-temperature observations. The more outstanding aspects of the voyage were the
netting and classification of 4717 (5000 species) new species of marine life and the
measurement of a water depth of 8185 m in the Mariana Trench. The Challenger
expedition’s purpose was scientific research; during the voyage the crew took soundings
at 361 ocean stations, collected deep-sea water samples, investigated deep-water
motion, and made temperature measurements at all depths. Thousands of biological
and sea-bottom samples were collected. This first refined analysis of ocean water
contributed greatly to our understanding of ocean salinity.

Challenger Deep – Deepest point of Mariana Trench

Mid Oceanic ridge- সমুদ্রের মেরুদন্ড
They wrote the first book on oceanography.
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Origin of Earth
Our solar system, consisting of the sun and nine planets, belongs to the galaxy of stars
we call the Milky Way. All the stars we see with the unaided eye belong to this galaxy;
yet there are some 100 million galaxies thought to exist in the universe. Most seem to be
moving away from us as though all were set in motion by a single large explosion. The
farther away a galaxy is, the faster it seems to be moving away.

Galaxy: The galaxies are thought to be accumulations of the debris from this explosion
in large eddies, inside of which are smaller eddies where concentration of matter has
produced stars and their associated planets.

Stars: Stars result from accumulation of masses large enough to produce sufficient
internal temperatures and pressures to set off processes causing them to “shine” as they
give off energy at high rates.

Protoearth: Protoearth was the prior condition of Earth was a huge mass, perhaps 1000
times greater in diameter than Earth today and 500 times more massive. The heavier
constituents of the planet Earth, as with all the other protoplanets, were moving toward
the center to form the heavy core surrounded by lighter materials. During the
consolidation process, large primordial masses bombarded the accreting planet.
Late in the stage of planetary formation, a large planetesimal about the size of Mars
struck the forming Earth. Planetary scientists believe that the rocky outer layer of the
Mars-sized object was propelled into orbit around Earth as the moon, while its metallic
interior remained with Earth.

During this early formation of the protoplanets and their satellites, the sun eventually
began to “shine” as it condensed into such a large mass with such high temperature that
forces were set up within its interior, creating energy through a process known as
hydrogen burning, the first step in the fusion reaction. When temperatures reach tens of
millions of degrees, hydrogen atoms, in the presence of carbon, are converted to
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helium atoms, and huge amounts of energy are released. In addition to the fight that it so
obviously emitted by the sun, there is an intense emission of ionized, or electrically
charged, particles.

In the early stages of the development of our solar system, this emission of ionized
particles, called the solar wind, served to blow away the nebular gas that remained from
the formation of the four inner planets and their satellites. As the protoplanets were being
warmed by the solar radiation, their atmosphere of hydrogen and helium began to boil
away. The combination of emission of ionized solar particles and the internal warming
of the planets resulted in a drastic decrease in the size of the planets closer to the sun.
Because the gas envelope that surrounded most of these planets was possibly composed
mostly of hydrogen and helium (we may consider this to be the composition of Earth’s
first atmosphere), the energy that was available easily allowed atoms of small size to
escape from the gravitational fields of the planets. Much of the atmosphere lost by the
inner “terrestrial” planets was swept up by Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, the huge planets
beyond Mars.

As the protoplanets continued to contract, the heat produced within the planet as a
product of spontaneous disintegration of atoms (radioactivity) became more intense.
As a result of energy released by bombardment and internal radioactivity Earth may have
become molten, allowing the heavier components to concentrate in the core. The
lighter of the materials segregated according to their densities in concentric spheres
around this core. Surrounding the core, containing abundant iron and nickel, was a zone
of material composed of heavy iron and magnesium silicates—the mantle. Subsequently,
a thin crust formed at the surface.
K is available in ocean, so ocean water itself radioactive.
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Earth Composition

Earth has a solid inner core with a radius of approximately 1216 km composed of iron
and nickel and other heavy elements. The solid core gradually changes to a liquid outer
core with a thickness of approximately 2270 km. Surrounding the core is a 2885 km
thick mantle. The mantle is composed of silicates of iron and magnesium and is
overlain by a very thin crust made up of silicates of iron, magnesium, and aluminum.
The crust ranges in thickness from 4 to 60 km and is separated from the mantle by a
distinct density change called the Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho). (Viva-*)

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

The earth is made up of a series of layers: the crust, the mantle, the liquid outer core, and
the solid inner core. Crust is divided into two parts; Continental crust and oceanic
crust. Continental crust is formed from granite, which is less dense than oceanic crust
formed of basalt. The boundary that separates the crust and the mantle is the Moho.

The top of the mantle is fused to the crust to form the rigid lithosphere. The lithosphere
floats on the deformable upper mantle or asthenosphere. The lithosphere (rock sphere)
is a relatively cool, rigid shell that includes the crust and upper mantle. Underlying
the lithosphere is a high-temperature, plastic layer within the mantle. This layer, called
the asthenosphere (weak sphere), can flow slowly, allowing the rigid lithospheric
plates resting at its upper surface to move.
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ISOSTASY
The lithosphere is
the rigid outer shell
of Earth’s structure
that includes the
crust and cooler
upper mantle. It is
supported and
allowed to move
across Earth’s
surface by flow
within the warmer,
plastic underlying portion of the mantle called the asthenosphere. This weaker, possibly
partially molten layer is thought to extend to a depth of approximately 700 km. The three
major subdivisions of Earth-core, mantle, and crust-are shown to clarify the position of
the lithosphere and asthenosphere.

The present crust of Earth is composed of secondary and tertiary types of crustal rocks,
basalt and granite, respectively. Basalt is produced as the product of radioactive heat
generation melting small amounts of Earth’s rocky interior which is then released as
lavas at the surface. The ocean floors, lunar maria, and the surfaces of Mars and Venus
are covered by a basaltic secondary crust. The tertiary crustal material, granite, is
produced when the oceanic crust along with marine sediments is carried down into the
mantle by plate tectonic processes to be re-melted. It never reaches the surface, but
solidifies at depth. Within the solar system, Earth is the only planet on which plate
tectonic processes occur. Thus, our continents, which are composed of granite, are the
only example of tertiary crust development. Because the relative densities of Earth’s
crust and mantle contribute to the mechanism of global plate tectonics.

Basalt, is a dark-colored, fine-grained volcanic rock. The average density of this

basaltic oceanic crust is about 3.0 g/cm3. The continents are composed of a fighter
crustal material that is predominately granite, a light-colored, coarse grained rock. This
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granitic continental crust ranges in density from 2.67 g/ cm3 near the surface to 2.8 g/
cm3 deep beneath the continental mountain ranges. The continental crust averages about
35 km in thickness but may reach a maximum thickness of 70 km beneath the highest
mountain ranges.

 Average ocean water density 1.028 g/cm3

 Average density of continental (granitic) crust
2.7 g/cm3 [Range 2.67 g/cm3 to 2.8 g/cm3]
 Average density of oceanic (basaltic) crust 3.0
g/cm3
 Average density of upper mantle 3.3 g/cm3

Isostasy: The granitic continental blocks and basaltic oceanic crust “float” on the
denser mantle beneath. This concept of crustal flotation, which may be compared with
the flotation of ice on water, is called isostasy.
If we take a regularly shaped prism of ice with a density of 0.91 and float it on water
with a density of 1.0, the ice will sink into the water until it displaces water equal in mass
to the ice. When this displacement, called buoyancy, occurs, 91% of the ice mass will
be submerged. Therefore, 91% of the length of the prism of ice will be beneath the
surface of the water. Similarly, about 55% of the mass of the continents is found
submerged in the mantle. (Accurate density of ice 0.9168 g/cm3)

Actually, it would be expected about 91% of the continents to be submerged because

they are, on the average, about 91% of the density of the upper mantle. However, where
high heat (Asthenosphere), flow in the mantle heats and reduces the density of the
mantle beneath the continents, this low-density mantle provides isostatic
compensation. In such situations, the low-density mantle material provides the
buoyancy that would normally be provided by the deep root of continental crust.

Isostasy is a state of equilibrium reached by different components of Earth’s crust and

the mantle. So that the lithosphere (the rock sphere of Earth’s structure), which contains
the continental and oceanic crustal units as well as the upper mantle, may maintain a
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uniform average density, continental crustal units that extend up to 14 km above the floor
of ocean basins must send deep roots into the mantle.

Formation of Earth’s Oceans

Widespread volcanic activity because of internal temperature and pressure released
water vapor (H2O) and smaller quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) chlorine gas (Cl2),
and hydrogen (H2). These produced a water vapor atmosphere that also contained
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and ammonia (NH3). As Earth cooled, the water
vapor (1) condensed and (2) fell to Earth’s surface. There it accumulated to (3) form the
oceans.

An Alternate Theory—Ocean Water from Space

Louis Frank- believes the oceans’ water may have come to Earth as comet like balls of
ice about 9 m in diameter. Frank believes they enter Earth’s atmosphere at a rate of 20
ball per minute. The theory evolved from the need to explain some features on images
of Earth’s atmosphere produced from data obtained from an ultraviolet photometer
aboard the Dynamic Explorer I, a polar-orbiting satellite that reaches an altitude of
23,350 km. The image is of dayglow created by the absorption and reradiation of solar
energy by atomic oxygen 290 km (almost 300km) above sea level. The dayglow, which
makes Earth look like a yellow ball, had a number of short-lived dark spots. These dark
“holes” in the atmosphere were 48 km across and existed for up to 3 minutes. Because
of the absorption spectra of these dark spots, they can be explained only by the comet
like balls of ice breaking up and vaporizing 1600-3200 km above Earth’s surface. At the
observed rate of occurrence, Earth would receive 0.0025 mm of water per year. Four
billion years of such bombardment would give us enough water to fill the oceans to their
present volume.
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Q:Theories of Ocean Basin Development

Ocean Basin- A great topographic depression on the earth’s surface associated with
simatic crust occupied by the ocean.
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Simatic crust- Silicates of different Ocean Floor- two parts;

kinds of substances (Mg, Si) i. ocean basin &
ii. continental margin

Ocean Basin- Developed along with the ocean. It’s a dynamic (not fixed) structure.
Salinity of primitive ocean was lower than current ocean salinity.

[Link] drift theory-

Alfred Wegener is considered by to be the pioneer of the modern continental drift

theory. The theory was published in 1912. Wegener considered that about 200 million
years ago all of Earths continental mass was one large continent, Pangaea. About 180
million years ago, just before the formation and possibly also after the breakup of
Pangaea, two large continents appear to have existed, Laurasia in the north and
Gondwanaland to the south.

Laurasia and Gondwanaland Modern reef-

building corals are known to exist in an
environment where the water is clear and
shallow and its temperature does not fall below
18°C.

Other evidence indicates that from 350 to 250 million years ago a major ocean, the
Tethys Sea, separated the large continent Laurasia, composed of North America,
Europe, and Asia, to the north, from the large continent Gondwanaland, composed of
South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica, to the south. The record also
indicates that the two supercontinents periodically came into direct or close contact
across the Tethys Sea. Both continents were joined in forming one landmass, Pangaea,
about 200 million years ago. Pangaea was surrounded by the ocean Panthalassa, the
ancient precursor of the Pacific Ocean.
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Pangaea- A hypothetical supercontinent of the geologic past that contained all the
continental crust of Earth.
Panthalassa- A hypothetical proto-ocean surrounding Pangaea.

2. Sea-Floor Spreading Theory-

In 1960, Harry Hess developed the theory of sea-floor spreading. (Ocean floor
spread laterally)

The theory of sea-floor spreading suggests that new rock is added to large, rigid plates
beneath the ocean. This happens through the intrusion and extrusion of molten material
along underwater mountain ranges called oceanic ridges. These plates are mostly made
of dense mantle rocks with a thin layer of basaltic lava beneath the ocean. Continents,
which are made of less dense granite, sit on these plates and are carried along passively
as the plates move.

As new material is added at the oceanic

ridges, older rock moves away from the
ridges, creating a cycle of formation and
movement. This process is driven by the
movement of the lithospheric plates, which
is made possible by a plastic region of
mantle material called the asthenosphere beneath them. As the plates move away from
the oceanic ridges, they cool and thicken. The age and depth of the ocean floor increase
with distance from the ridges. New ocean floor forms at the ridges, and volcanic activity
fills the void with younger rock.
Overall, this process of sea-floor spreading contributes to the development of ocean
basins and is a fundamental mechanism in the movement of Earth's tectonic plates.

[Link] Tectonics theory-

by Wilson j Morgan, 1965
Global Plate Tectonics- When the concept of continental drift was joined with the idea
of seafloor spreading, it led to the formation of a single concept of crustal movement:
plate tectonics. The earth’s lithosphere is seen as a series of rigid plates outlined by the
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major earthquake belts of the world. Each ocean is connected with another, but separated
with plate on ocean basin. Seven major lithospheric plates are recognized—the
Pacific, Eurasian, African, Australian, North American, South American, and Antarctic
—as well as smaller plates off South and Central America, in the Mediterranean area,
and along the northwest United States, for a total of twelve plates. These are
continuously moving, their movement is related to earth’s movement; moves with
rotational axis.

Ocean to ocean plate

Continent to Continent plate

Continent to ocean plate

Categorization of plate boundaries is

based off of how two plates move
relative to each other. There are
essentially three types of plate
boundaries, which are divergent, convergent, and transform.
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Divergent: In the case of divergent plate boundaries, two of earth’s plates move away
from each other. Spreading centers and areas where new ocean floor are generally
located at divergent plate boundaries. An example of a divergent plate boundary is the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Depending on what type of lithospheric crust each diverging plate
is, whether oceanic or continental, varying geographic features are formed. For example,
when two continental plates diverge from each other, an ocean basin is created due to the
separation of land. On the other hand, if two oceanic plates diverged, a mid ocean ridge
would form, which is also known as a spreading center. Divergent plate boundaries are
commonly associated with shallow earthquakes. Constructive movement as ocean
floor is spreading.
Divergent plate boundary- A lithospheric plate boundary where adjacent plates
diverge, producing an oceanic ridge or rise (spreading center). Also called constructive
boundary.

Convergent: When two plates move towards each other, the boundary is known as a
convergent boundary. When two continental crusted plates converge, they eventually
collide and end up producing mountains; this was how the Himalayan Mountains
were created. Convergent boundaries are commonly associated with larger earthquakes
and higher volcanic activity. An example of a subduction zone formed from a
convergent boundary is the Chile-Peru trench.
Convergent plate boundary- A lithospheric plate boundary where adjacent plates
converge, producing ocean trench island arc systems, ocean trench continental volcanic
arcs, or folded mountain ranges. Also called destructive boundary.

Transform: The last type of plate boundary is the transform boundary, which is where
two plates slide past one another. Unlike the other two types of plate boundaries in which
new seafloor is created at divergent boundaries and where old seafloor is subducted at
convergent boundaries, transform plate boundaries neither create nor destroy the
seafloor. The rubbing caused by the sliding is what causes earthquakes along the
transform faults; one example would be the San Andreas fault. Rate of movement can
be same. Neither destructive nor constructive.
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Transform plate boundary- The shear boundary between two lithospheric plates
formed by a transform fault. Also called shear boundary.

The Pacific Plate (for this, earthquake occurs) is the fastest at over 10 cm/y.
The American Plate is one of the slowest, around 1.5 cm/y.

Ocean has no fixed structure. It has a life cycle. The stages are, growth, maturation
and decline. Indian ocean (young growing ocean) is in its developing stage, Pacific
Ocean is declining. Mediterranean Sea is in declining state.
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CHAPTER 02: Ocean Topography

Continental shelf, slope, rise and abyssal plain, different
topographical structures of ocean

Topography- Configuration of any surface

Ocean topography- Configuration of ocean bottom surface.
Ocean basin- Depression in the ocean floor which is more or less equidimensional
Ocean floor- is the bottom of the ocean.

Q: describe different topographical structure of ocean

[Link] Shelf- The continental shelf is defined as a shelf like zone extending from
the shore to a point at which a marked increase in slope occurs. This point where an
increase in the rate of slope occurs is referred to as the shelf break, and the steeper slope
beyond the break is known as the continental slope. The average width of the continental
shelf is about 70 km, and the average depth at which the break occurs is about 135 m
(*confusion). The mean slope of the continental shelf is 1.9 m/km. Sediment is
transported across the continental shelf by current flow and mass wasting (submarine
sediment slides), which are often generated by earthquakes. Geographically it is a part
of the continent and related with the topography of coastal………zone.

Continental/granitic crust- CS

Causes of formation of the continental shelf-

1. Earthquake
2. Continental glaciation
3. Sea level fluctuation
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4. Energy from wave and current (Where water waves are low, CS is smooth
because of sediment deposition; Where water waves are high, CS is hard)
5. Faulting (happens when the Earth's crust completely breaks and slides past
each other)
6. Volcanism
7. Reef building
8. Global plate tectonics

Continental shelf itself a dynamic structure. This phenomena is controlled by 3

controlling factors. Those are-
The flux of sediment material that moves through continent from land to
Continental Shelf or vice versa
The rate at which energy is available
Construction and destruction history of that area

2. Continental Slope- The continental slopes beyond the shelf break are features similar
in relief to mountain ranges on the continent. The break at the top of the slope may be
from 1 to 5 km above the deep-ocean basin at its base. Continental slopes vary in
steepness from 1° to 25° and average about 4°. At the edge of continental shelf suddenly
slope increase. It is narrow region comparatively with a width of less than 200 km.

Continental terrace- Continental shelf and Continental slope together known as

Continental terrace.

3. Continental Rise- The

provinces between
Continental slope and deep
ocean basin known as
Continental rise; It is a region
of sediment deposition by
turbidity currents, underwater
landslides, and any other processes that carry sand, mud, and silt down the continental
slope. Usually 100-1000 km wide and several km thick. The continental rise is a
conspicuous feature in the Atlantic (well-developed Continental rise) and Indian Oceans
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and around the Antarctic continent. Few continental rises occur in the Pacific (sediment
deposition less due to lack of flat area, river system not great; so, Continental rise is not
well developed) Ocean; here great seafloor trenches are often at the base of the
continental slope, where material from the active margin is being subducted.

Average depth of ocean is about 4000 m.

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[Link] canyon:
(thickness >1 km)
The most outstanding
features found on the
continental slopes are
submarine canyons. These
canyons sometimes extend
up, into, and across the continental shelf. A submarine canyon is steep-sided and has a
V-shaped cross section, with tributaries similar to those of river-cut canyons on land.

There is also a correlation between the spacing of canyons and the continental slope
gradient. No canyons are present where the slope is less than 3°. Canyons are from 2 to
10 km apart where the slope is between 3° and 5° and they are 1.5-4 km apart where the
slope gradient exceeds 6°.
Canyons confined to the continental slope are straighter and have steeper canyon
floor gradients than those that extend into the continental shelf. This condition
suggests that the canyons are initiated on the continental slope by some marine process
and cut their way headward into the continental shelf as they age. They mostly act as
channels for the transportation of sediments from the landmass.

Origin of submarine canyons:

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Turbidity Currents, Probably the most widely supported theory concerning the origin
of submarine canyons, is erosion by turbidity currents, flows of sediment-laden water
that periodically move down the canyon.

Turbidity currents are fast-moving avalanches of mud, sand, and water caused by
earthquakes or the overloading of sediments on steep slopes. They flow down the slope,
eroding and picking up sediment as they gain speed, and over time they erode the slope
and excavate the submarine canyon.

Turbidity current is a gravity current resulting from a density increase brought about
by increased water turbidity. Possibly initiated by some sudden force such as an
earthquake, the turbid mass continues under the force of gravity down a submarine
slope.
 22

5.A deep-sea fan is a fan or delta-shaped sedimentary deposit found along the base of
the continental slopes (between continental ridges and continental rise), commonly at
the mouth of submarine canyons. Deep sea fans form sediments carried by turbidity
flows (density currents) that pour into the deep ocean basin from the continental shelf
and slope regions and then gradually settle to form graded beds of sediment on the sea
floor.

The origin of the canyons may be caused in part by periodic flows that are a mixture of
sediment and water called turbidity currents (flow can be continuous or periodical, but
periodic one makes the Submarine canyon). Turbidity currents deposit their sediment
loads at the base of the continental slope to produce deep-sea fans or cones through a
series of meandering distributary channels, which branch out from the mouth of the
submarine canyon. The merging of these fans produces a gently sloping continental rise
at the bases of some continental slopes. Deep-sea fans accumulate as deposits at the
mouths of submarine canyons.

Deep ocean basin floor is composed of

3 parts-

1. Abyssal floor
2. Oceanic ridges and oceanic rise
3. Seamount/ Seamount grooves

Abyssal floor- The ocean floor of abyssal region is known as abyssal floor.

Abyssal Plain Abyssal Hill

Provinces
The flat surface Volcanic features
found in the deep on the ocean
ocean basin. bottom that are
Abyssal plains are less than 1 km
among the flattest above the ocean
 23

portion of earth. floor are called abyssal hills. Composed of many

abyssal hills/ occur in groups

slopes of less than 1 in 1000, equivalent to 1 meter Small, sharply defined hill not higher than 1000 m;
per kilometer. slope 1°-15°
Found at the continental rise up to the mid oceanic Hill mostly originates from volcanic origin and
ridge base are connected to underground lithosphere and
asthenosphere
Found at a depth of 3000-3500 m. Horizontally A chain of volcanoes surrounds the Pacific Ocean.
spreads up to 200-2000 km Because the volcanoes frequently erupt in fiery
explosions, the region is known as the Ring of Fire.
Many earthquakes occur in the region as well.
Although it is flat, but can have irregularities in
some places.
the abyssal plain development is typical in the The abyssal hill province shown in is generally
Atlantic Ocean while the Abyssal hill province absent in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, but it is
covers much of the deep Pacific Ocean floor. This widely present in the Pacific Ocean (85% of
may be because sediment can more easily reach the abyssal region of Pacific Ocean occupied by hills).
deep-ocean basins of the smaller Atlantic Ocean to This is likely because sediment from the continents
cover the small volcanic peaks. These peaks are can more readily reach the deep-sea in the smaller
exposed in the Pacific Ocean because its large size Atlantic and Indian oceans to bury the small
and bordering trenches prevent large quantities of volcanoes that make up the abyssal hill province of
sediment from reaching deep-ocean floor. the Pacific Ocean. These peaks are not covered
with sediment in the Pacific Ocean because it is so
large that sediment from the continents can less
readily be transported to cover the Pacific Ocean
abyssal depths.
Lec-10

Oceanic ridges – vertebrae of ocean

 Long elevations of sea floor with relatively steep side situated in deep ocean
 Steep sided and irregular topography
 Locates in all over the ocean floor
 Total length >8000 km long
 Average depth 2500 m
 24

 Found in all ocean except northern pacific

 Exist as underwater mountains
 Average height (from ocean floor to peak) 1000-3000 m

Oceanic rises

 Low elevations of ocean floor with gentle slope

 Locates near the Oceanic ridges and form by
sediment deposition
 Smoother sided
 Slope 1000-7000 m/ 1 km
 Length generally 100 km but it can be as high as
1000 km

Sea mounts

 Volcanoes that rise more than 1000m above the ocean floor called seamount also
called seamount grooves
 Volcanic peaks that extend more than 1 km above the abyssal floor are termed
seamounts
 Usually conical shaped and steep sided
 Slope 5°-15°
 Although volcanic features are abundant in all oceans, the evidence of volcanic
activity on the bottom of the Pacific Ocean is particularly widespread—more than
20,000 volcanic features are found there
 These are more like abyssal hill found in abyssal plain region and their base is
connected to asthenosphere
 Sometimes they can rise up to the water surface, those are called island or volcanic
island.
Guyots
 When volcanoes form on the seafloor, they build up over time as they erupt volcanic
lava that cools to become basalt. If a volcano does not reach the surface of the ocean,
 25

it is called a seamount. If a volcano grows in height and volume enough to reach the
ocean’s surface, it becomes a volcanic island.
 But as soon as a volcano breaches the sea surface, waves and other sub-aerial
processes (wind, rainfall, weathering) will cause erosion of the volcano. Over time,
these processes will erode the flanks and top of the seamount/island, eventually
forming a flat shelf to form a guyot. Compared to the peaked shape of seamounts,
guyots have a flat top like a table. All guyots will have been a seamount in the past,
but not all seamounts will become guyots.
 Table mounts are less common than seamounts and are found in linear trends in the
Pacific Ocean.
Trench
 Trenches are long, narrow, steep-sided, deep depressions in the ocean floor (very
close to Continental margin or parallel of the continental margin and positioned after
continental slope) that are associated with volcanic island arcs and are found mainly
in the Pacific Ocean.
 The Challenger Deep, a portion of the Mariana Trench, has a depth of 11,020 m,
making it the deepest known spot in all the oceans (fundamental oceanography)
 The longest of the trenches is the Peru-Chile Trench, stretching 5900 km along the
west side of South America.
 Elevation up to the 200-2000 m
 Usually <100km wide
 Bottom of the trenches are flat and smooth due to sediment deposition; very fine
particles are deposited here and takes a very long time to settle down; irregular
topography
 Density of particles increases due to addition of something, mixing, addition of faeces

Fracture zone
 Fractures can be seen in different places of
ocean floor (mostly in oceanic ridge) whose
width is up to 10-100 km
 26

 Form a pattern of semi-parallel steeps cutting across the mid-ocean ridge

 Sometimes displays crest, a magnetic band of the earth, run parallel the mid
oceanic ridge
 Length 3500 km of each fracture
Fracture Zones Continuing along the alignment of the transform fault beyond the offset axes are fracture
zones. The transform faults represent active displacements of the axes; the fracture zones are evidence
of past transform-fault activity. On opposite sides of the transform fault, the lithospheric plates are
moving in opposite directions, whereas there is no relative plate motion occurring along a fracture zone.
In other words, the transform faults serve as plate boundaries, while the fracture zones are ancient
fault scars embedded in a single plate. Earthquakes above a depth of 10 km are common along the
transform faults, whereas the fracture zones are aseismic. Because the age of the ocean floor on one side
of a fracture zone is greater than that of the ocean floor on the opposite side, the older ocean floor will
have subsided more from thermal contraction. This results in a vertical escarpment that faces the older
ocean floor and increases in height with increased difference in the age of ocean floor on opposite sides
of the fracture zone.
Lec-11
Of the major ocean basins, the Pacific is the largest (almost as large as all of the others
combined), and is the deepest.

Pacific Ocean occupies about 46% of the total

world ocean area, the Atlantic Ocean about 23%, the
Indian Ocean about 20%, and the rest, combined,
about 11% (pickard).
Maximum depth in the oceans is 11,034 m in the
Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific. (Pickard)
Importance of studying ocean topography
1. To know about trends of ocean
2. To know the fishing grounds, resources of fisheries
3. For mining
4. War
5. Coastal development activities
6. Mariculture
Pacific ocean
 27

 Area: 181.344×106 km2

 Occupy 1/3 of the world’s total area
 Longest and deepest ocean
 Average depth 4282 m (7 km avg depth)
 More than 50% area 3.5 km deep.
 It occupies-
I. Earth's surface area: 35.5%
II. Ocean surface area: 50.0% (1/2)
 Continental margin not well developed; Continental Shelf totally absent
 Abundant of volcanic islands, guyots, hills, plateau (Albatross plateau, South
eastern plateau) Plateau- flat topped mountain
 oceanic ridge well developed; Pacific Antarctic ridge
 2500 Island present, e.g., Japan, New Zealand, Philippine
 Trench- Japan, Mariana trench
 Marginal sea (average depth 2500km): Japan sea, Bering sea, China sea, Gulf of
Alaska; usually without any bay
Atlantic ocean
 Area: 107×106km2; Almost half of the pacific
 Average depth 3000-3500 m
 Continental margin well developed
 Continental shelf well developed, as a result, it has bay e.g., Baltic Bay, Hudson Bay
 Mid oceanic ridge well developed with irregular topography; Dolphin ridge (The
northern part of the Dolphin rise …….form a plain area known as telegraph
plateau)
 Plateau – telegraph plateau, Rockall, Iceland
 No of Island less than pacific – Bermuda island, Bahama island, West indies
island
 Have some trenches but not as frequent as pacific- Sandwich, Puerto Rico Trench,
Romanche Trench, and Laurentian Abyss
 Marginal sea more than pacific; Baltic sea, Caribbean sea, Mediterranean Sea,
North Sea
 28

Indian ocean
 Area: 74×106km2
 Average depth nearly 4000 m
 Continental shelf comparatively narrow
 Have ridges but not much prominent; Amsterdam ridge
 Plateau- Lakkha, Saint Paul
 Island – Maldives, Sri Lanka, Andaman, Madagascar
 Trenches – Sunda
 Sea – Arabian Sea, Mozambique Sea
Arctic ocean
 continental shelf is 1/3 of the full area
 Area: 15×106km2
 Almost full area is covered with ice
 Average depth is 2000m
 Ridge- Alpha
 Island- Green island
Antarctic ocean
 Area 40×106km2
 Almost full area is covered with ice
 Average depth is 1500m
Lec-12

CHAPTER 03 : Marine sediment

Sediment texture, development of sediments (sediment

transportation, preservation, lithification), types of sediments and
sedimentary
deposits, sedimentary rocks

Soil vs Sediment- sediments are always submerged under water

Sediment deposition is important-
 29

- To determine the age of the area

- To know about island formation pattern, Sediment deposition pattern
- Nutrient composition of water, light penetration, photosynthesis, oxygen
deposition etc. is related to it
- To know about fishing grounds which is related to nutrient composition
Sources of marine sediment- 2 main sources;
1. Erosion of continent through river system and
2. Volcanic eruption
The margins of the continents and the ocean basin floors receive a continuous supply of
particles from many sources. Whether these particles have their origin in living
organisms, the land, the atmosphere, or the sea itself, they are called sediment when they
accumulate on the sea floor. The thickest deposits of sediment are found near the
margins of continents, while the deep-sea floor receives a constant but slow buildup of
sediment.

Sediment classifications based on their origin- 4 types

1. Lithogenous: Sediments formed from rock
2. Hydrogenous: Sediments formed from compounds dissolved in seawater
3. Biogenous: Sediments formed from living organisms, organic material
4. Cosmogenous: Sediments formed from outside the earth’s atmosphere, outer
space
 30

Type Source Areas of significant deposit Examples

Lithogenous Eroded rock Terrigenous Boulder-sand
Volcanoes Neritic Sand-silt
Airborne dust Pelagic Silt-red clay
Hydrogenous Chemical Neritic Phosphates
Precipitation from seawater Pelagic Manganese nodules
Cosmogenous Outer space Pelagic Meteorites
Biogenous Living organisms Terrigenous Plant matter
Neritic Coral, shell
Pelagic Hard bony remains
Oozes: Siliceous
Calcareous
 31

[Link] sediments

Sediments derived from rock, either from the breakdown of continental masses or from
volcanic activity in the open ocean. Usually the Inorganic substances that make up the
rocks are called minerals. There are roughly 2 types of minerals-

1. Ferromagnesian minerals
2. Non- ferromagnesian minerals

Ferromagnesian minerals: Those minerals composed of silicate tetrahedra and ions of

iron and magnesium are called ferromagnesian minerals. They are dark or black and
have higher densities than other rock-forming minerals. The most important
ferromagnesian minerals are olivine, augite, hornblende, and biotite. Because of
different crystalline structures of these minerals, they have different physical
appearances. The density of these iron and magnesium-containing minerals ranges from
2.8 to 3.4 g/cm3.
 32

Non-ferromagnesian minerals: Three other common rock-forming minerals, which do

not contain iron and magnesium and are therefore known as non-ferromagnesian
minerals, are varieties of feldspar, muscovite, and quartz. All the varieties of feldspar
are aluminum silicates that contain varying amounts of K, Na, or Ca. Muscovite is
similar to biotite in composition, except that iron and magnesium are excluded, and
quartz is composed exclusively of the silicate tetrahedra without metallic ions. The
density of these light-colored non-ferromagnesian minerals ranges from 2.6 to 3.1
g/cm3.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks, those that solidify from a molten mass, are classified on the basis of
texture and mineral composition. The texture of igneous rocks is determined by how
rapidly they cool.

Extrusive rocks Intrusive rocks (formed of Non- ferromagnesian

(formed of Ferromagnesian minerals) minerals)
1. Rocks extruded at Earth’s surface 1. rocks form as a result of slow cooling at
during volcanic activity cool rather great depth. They are intruded masses that
rapidly do not reach the surface of Earth’s crust
before they solidify and therefore cool more
slowly because of the layer of insulating
rock between them and Earth’s atmosphere.
2. Have a fine-grained or even glassy 3. Coarse-grained igneous rocks
texture if the cooling occurs so rapidly
that crystals do not have a chance to
form
3. A typical example of fine-grained 4. The most common such rock is granite
igneous rock is basalt, which is which is the rock type characteristic of the
characteristic of the oceanic crust and continents
is the most common igneous rock in
volcanic islands rising above the deep-
ocean basins.
 33

[Link] sediments
Sediments formed from the remains of living organisms are called biogenous sediments
and may include shell and coral fragments as well as the hard-skeletal parts of single
celled plantlike organisms and animals that live in the surface waters.

The chemical composition of organically produced particles in marine sediment will

usually be either calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or silica (SiO2). These are the compounds
most used by organisms to secrete protective external coverings. Contributing most of
the silica component of biogenous particles, which rarely exceed 100 µm in diameter, are
microscopic algae, diatoms, and animals, radiolarians. Foraminifers, close relatives
of radiolarians, are responsible for most of the CaCO3 component, but other
significant calcareous contributors are the larger pteropods and microscopic algae,
coccolithophores. Coral reef material is also in the biogenous classification. Composed
of the calcareous (CaCO3) skeletal structure secreted by corals and algae, coral reefs are
massive sedimentary' rock structures.

Over geological time, more than 99% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere by
respiration and volcanic activity has been removed by the biological pump action and
deposited in marine sediments as biogenous CaCO3 and fossil fuels.

The biological pump is the process by which carbon dioxide is incorporated into organic
carbon through photosynthesis and the secretion of carbonate shells by organisms.
Marl is a sediment or sedimentary rock that is a mixture of clay and calcite (CaCO3). It
is formed in marine or freshwater environments, often through the activities of algae.
These typically contain 35–65% clay and 65–35% carbonate.

[Link] sediments
Hydrogenous deposits form very slowly—molecule by molecule—as a result of
chemical reactions that take place in ocean water or between chemical substances
dissolved in ocean water and those on the ocean floor. These are called hydrogenous
sediments and include Carbonates (limestone-type deposits), Phosphorites
(phosphorus in phosphate form in crusts and nodules), Glauconite and manganese
nodules.
Lec-13
 34

Manganese nodules: Potentially of economic importance are the manganese nodules

(polymetallic nodules) found on the deep-ocean floor. They consist mainly of
Manganese dioxide (MnO2) and Iron oxide (Fe2O3), with the average manganese
dioxide content ranging around 30% and the average iron oxide content around 20% by
weight. Also occurring in economically significant concentrations in the nodules are
copper, cobalt, and nickel. Although these concentrations are usually less than 1%, they
can exceed 2% by weight.

Three possible sources for the hydrogenous manganese and iron. It is thought that
they are derived from-

1. the weathering of volcanic material produced by volcanic activity on the ocean

floor
2. concentration in hydrothermal spring water found at the axes of oceanic ridges and
rises, and
3. runoff that carries the minerals as soluble compounds from the continents

Phosphorite: Phosphorus is an important component of fertilizer. It is found in the form

of P205 as a precipitate in nodules and in the form of a thin crust on the continental shelf
and banks at depths of 800-1000 m. The deposits seem to be associated with areas of
upwelling water rich in nutrients, oxygen and phosphorus.

Glauconite: This generally greenish hydrous silicate has a complex and variable
composition that includes ions of K, Mg, and Fe. Glauconite, which is found to depths of
2500m but more commonly on topographically high areas near the coastline, is
considered to form only in the marine environment. Deposits in which the glauconite is
sufficiently abundant are frequently referred to as green sands or green muds owing to
the coloration that results from the presence of glauconite.

Carbonates: The two most important carbonates in marine sediment are aragonite
(CaCO3) and calcite (CaCO3). Aragonite (least stable form of CaCO3), and calcite have
the same chemical composition but different crystalline structures. During the
geologic past, deposits of limestone (CaCO 3) in the marine environment appear to have
been widespread.
 35

Most contain fossil evidence indicative of a biogenous origin, while others contain no
fossils or characteristics that give any indication they formed organically. There appear
to be very few places where non-biogenous carbonates are presently forming.
The Bahama Banks is the largest region where significant carbonate precipitation is
presently occurring, although deposits are also forming on the Great Barrier Reef, in the
Persian Gulf, and in other local areas in the low latitudes.

Other minerals found on the ocean bottom are secondary zeolites and clays commonly
associated with deposits of the deep-ocean basin. The most likely process by which
these minerals— zeolite (phillipsite) and montmorillonite (clay)—form is through the
chemical alteration of volcanic material on the ocean bottom. Zeolites are hydrated
silicates of Al, Ca, Na, and K. Phillipsite is a white to reddish mineral that helps give
the abyssal red clay deposits, particularly in the Pacific Ocean, their color.

[Link] sediments
Particles from space constantly bombard the earth’s surface; most of the particles are
very small and stay in suspension for a very long time, and most are thought to dissolve
as they slowly sink to the sea floor. Marine sediment as either nickel-iron spherules that
are magnetic or as silicate chondrules.

Iron spherules are generally about 30 μm in diameter, while silicate chondrules group
in diameters of 30 μm or 125 μm. The overall size range of these cosmic particles falls
between 10 and 640 μm.

The sediment contains three types of particles thought to represent meteoric material.
The particles are a non-terrestrial basalt that shows signs of impact stress, glass
particles that formed from melted meteoric material, and a few pieces of metal.

The basaltic particles and glass particles have similar compositions. Commonly, the
basaltic particles are embedded in or are in contact with glass material. This indicates
that glass material, while in a plastic state, collided with the solid basaltic particles in the
atmosphere during impact. The metallic element iridium (Ir) is found in greater
concentrations in meteoric material than on Earth, so layers of sediment that contain
unusually high concentrations of iridium are usually accepted as evidence of meteoric
 36

impact if there is no evidence that certain types of volcanic events might have produced
them.

Types of sediment based on topography-

I. Littoral sediment- fine particles, clay particles found on littoral region
II. Shelf sediment- organic substances deposited on continental shelf;
sometimes found as fossils;
III. Bathyal sediment- deposited after 100m depth
IV. Volcanic sediment
On the basis of basic constituents,
sediments are 2 types-
1. Organic and
2. Inorganic

On the basis of water depth/ zonation,

sediments are 2 types-
1. Sediments of shallow water and
2. Sediments of deep water

Sediments of shallow water Sediments of deep water

Deposited on continental margin as part of the Deposition starts after fishing line
continental shelf, continental slope
Erratic deposition from continent; mostly Volcanic and Inorganic particles
inorganic sediments
Sediments found near shore are termed as neritic Covering most of the deep-ocean floor are two
sediment types of oceanic sediment deposits—Abyssal
clay and Oozes.

Q: Types of sediment deposition

Oozes-
If sediment contains 30% or more skeletal material by weight, that deposit is called an
ooze. It consists primarily of the minute shells of microscopic algae and animals that
 37

accumulate on the ocean floor. Oozes can form only where the deposition of material
other than the remains of algae and animals occurs at a very low rate.

Oozes may be classified as calcareous (CaCO3) or siliceous (SiO2), depending on the

chemical composition of the dominant type of skeletal material making up the deposit.
More specific names may be given to oozes to indicate the types of organic remains most
abundant in the deposits. A diatom ooze is a siliceous ooze that contains mostly the
remains of diatoms. Other descriptive names commonly used on this same basis are

Radiolarian ooze (siliceous),

Foraminiferan ooze (calcareous), and
Pteropod ooze (calcareous).

Pteropods are snails with thin shells and a foot modified for swimming.
The predominant type of ooze is Globigerina ooze, which is especially widespread in
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Globigerina is an abundant and widespread genus of
foraminifer.
Radiolarian ooze- absent in Atlantic
Calcareous ooze- found at 3000m depth; available in Pacific

Red clay- Some of the open seas do not support enough life to produce ooze on the floor.
They are covered with a type of sediment called red clay which is of volcanic origin or
made up of tiny particles brought by wind or river. They are commonly red-brown or
buff in color owing to phillipsite and oxidized iron. Deposited below 3500m. half of the
pacific covered by red clay.
Lec-14

Sediment texture, which is

determined primarily by grain
size, is indicative of the
energy condition under which
a deposit is laid down.
 38

The Wentworth scale presented in the table classifies particles in categories ranging from
boulders to colloids. Between these extremes are cobbles, pebbles, granules, sand, silt,
and clay-sized particles.

Deposits that are laid down in areas where wave action is

strong (areas of high energy) may be composed primarily
of the larger particles, cobbles, and boulders. The
deposition of clay-sized particles occurs in areas where
the energy level is low and the current speed is minimal.

Largest 256 mm boulders

Smallest colloidal clay

Sediments composed of particles primarily in the same size classification are well sorted.
A beach sand is usually a well-sorted deposit. Glacial deposits sometimes found on the
continental shelf are an example of a poorly sorted deposit because they contain
particles ranging in size from colloids to boulders that have been carried by glaciers and
dropped out as the glaciers melted.

As sediment is carried from the source, it

increases in maturity. This change results from
the association with moving water, which has
the capacity to carry particles of a certain size
away from a deposit and leave behind other
larger particles.

With continued reworking by wave and current

action, clay content of the sediment is reduced.
As the duration of transport increases, particles of sand size or larger become more
rounded through chemical weathering and abrasion.
 39

Increasing sediment maturity is indicated by (1) decreasing clay content, (2)

increasing degree of size sorting, and (3) increasing rounding of the grains within
the deposit

The poorly sorted glacial till, which contains relatively large quantities of clay-sized and
larger particles that have not been well rounded, is an example of an immature
sedimentary deposit. The beach sand we used as an example of a well-sorted sediment
contains no clay-sized material and is usually composed of well-rounded particles that
have undergone considerable transportation. The beach sand is an example of a mature
sedimentary deposit.

The sediment carried to the margins of the ocean by the rivers and glaciers flowing from
the continents either settles out to fill estuaries, becomes a part of a delta, or is
spread across the continental shelf by currents and mass wasting (submarine sediment
slides). Some sediment is carried beyond the shelf to the deep-ocean basin. The greatest
volume of sediment transport in the ocean is achieved by the long shore currents caused
by breaking waves at the margins of the continent. Lower-energy currents distribute the
finer components of the sediment along the margin of the continental shelf and even into
the deep-ocean basin. Glacial transport and iceberg rafting of sediment is important in
subpolar oceans.

Sediment deposited in 4 region- estuarine, deltaic, continental margin, mid oceanic

region
Lec-15
Hjulstrom's Curve in Oceanography:
Decoding Sediment Movement

Hjulstrom's Curve is a fundamental tool in

oceanography for understanding how water
currents interact with and move sediment
particles on the ocean floor. It's essentially a
graph that depicts the relationship between
three key processes:
 40

 Erosion: The process by which water current detaches sediment particles from the
seabed.

 Transportation: The movement of these particles by the current.

 Deposition: The settling of the particles out of the current and accumulating on
the seabed.

The curve typically has two main axes:

 Sediment Size: This is usually represented on the x-axis, ranging from large
boulders (cobbles) to tiny clay particles.
 Water Velocity: This is on the y-axis and indicates the speed of the current.
The Three Zones:
The curve is divided into three zones: erosion, transportation, and deposition.
Erosion Zone: Strong currents (high y-axis values) are needed to rip loose particles from
the seabed. Larger particles generally require stronger currents to erode compared to
smaller ones (except for the reasons below).
Transportation Zone: This is the sweet spot for medium-sized particles like sand. Even
if the current isn't strong enough to erode them initially, once moving, a weaker current
can still carry them along.
Deposition Zone: Weaker currents (low y-axis values) allow particles to settle out and
accumulate on the seabed. Here, even small particles can fall out of suspension.

Hjulstrom's Curve reveals some interesting dynamics:

1. Erosion vs. Grain Size: The curve shows that generally, stronger currents are needed
to erode larger particles (gravel, sand) compared to finer ones (silt, clay). This might
seem counterintuitive, but clay particles tend to clump together due to cohesive
forces, requiring a higher current to break them loose.
2. Critical Velocities: The curve is divided into three zones: erosion, transportation, and
deposition. Each zone is defined by critical velocities – specific current speeds
required for each process. For a particular sediment size, if the current velocity is
above the erosion threshold, the particles will be eroded. Conversely, if the velocity
falls below the deposition threshold, the particles will settle out.
 41

3. The Transportation Sweet Spot: The curve shows a zone between erosion and
deposition where a certain range of current velocities allows for particle
transportation. Even if the current isn't strong enough to erode a particle initially, once
it's been set in motion, a weaker current can still carry it along.

Explain why the small and big particles need more energy for erosion?
Ans- Small Particles (Clay & Silt): They clump together due to electrostatic forces,
making them more resistant to erosion (like wet sand sticking). It takes a stronger current
to break them apart. Surface area gets larger than per unit mass.
Large Particles (Boulders & Gravel): Drag from the water and their inertia (resistance
to movement) require a powerful current to overcome and get them moving.

Both small and large particles require a higher velocity of water current compared to
medium-sized particles according to Hjulstrom's Curve. There are two main reasons for
this:
1. Cohesion for Small Particles: Clay and silt particles, which are very small, tend to
stick together due to electrostatic forces between their charged surfaces. This creates a
cohesive force that resists erosion by water currents thus requiring a stronger current to
break them apart and set them in motion.
2. Drag and Inertia for Large Particles: Larger particles, like boulders and gravel,
experience a different challenge. Their size creates a significant drag force against the
water current. Additionally, these large particles have a higher inertia, meaning they
resist changes in their state of motion (rest or movement). A weak current simply won't
have enough force to overcome this inertia and get them moving.
Medium-Sized Sweet Spot: Medium-sized particles, like sand are large enough to
overcome some cohesive forces but small enough to experience less drag from the water
current. Their inertia is also manageable for currents of moderate strength. This allows
them to be more easily eroded, transported, and deposited by a wider range of current
velocities.

Particle size less than 20 μm can be blown by winds up to several thousand kms;
forms sand dunes; In ocean, these precipitates as snow flex. Dust particles deposits.
 42

Sand Dune: A dune is a mound of sand formed by the wind, usually along the beach or
in a desert. Dunes form when wind blows sand into a sheltered area behind an obstacle.
Dunes grow as grains of sand accumulate. Every dune has a windward side and a slip
face.

Types of sediment deposition

1. Neritic deposits, found near the continents, and
2. Oceanic deposits, characteristic of the deep-ocean basins.

Neritic sediment deposits-

 display a wide range of particles sizes and are composed primarily of lithogenous
particles derived from the continents.
 Neritic sediment also contains biogenous, hydrogenous, and cosmogenous
particles. These constitute only a minor percentage of the total sediment mass
because of the rapid deposition rate of lithogenous particles near the continents.
 For the most part, such material enters the ocean at or near the shore. It accumulates
rapidly on the continental margin. most neritic sediment is deposited on the
continental margin as part of the continental shelf, continental slope, or
continental rise.
 Neritic sediment is distributed along the continental shelf by waves, currents, and
mass wasting. It is transported down the continental slope to be deposited on the
continental rise by sediment slumps and turbidity currents. Here the sediment is
further distributed by deep boundary currents.

Oceanic sediment deposits-

 consist of the very fine-grained accumulations that form at a slower rate on the deep-
ocean basin floor.
 It is possible for a variety of oceanic sediment types to accumulate because the rate
of deposition of lithogenous particles is greatly reduced from that observed on the
continental margins. Although the lithogenous component dominates the sediment
 43

found in most of the deeper basins of the ocean floor, biogenous and hydrogenous
components are abundant in many areas of the ocean bottom.
 Of the 20 billion metric tons (MT) of sediment carried to Earth’s continental margins
by rivers each year, almost 80% is provided by runoff from Asia.

Turbidites: Although it seems unlikely that wave action

and ocean current systems could carry coarse material
beyond the continental shelf into the deep-ocean basin,
there is evidence that much neritic sediment has been
deposited at the base of the continental slope forming the
continental rise. These accumulations thin gradually toward the abyssal plains. Such
deposits are called turbidites and are thought to have been deposited by turbidity currents
that periodically move down the continental slopes through the submarine canyons,
carrying loads of neritic material that spread out across the continental rise.

Turbidites are characterized by graded bedding. This means that each deposit that is
laid down has coarser material at its base and decreasing particle size toward the
top of the layer. This pattern results from particles of different sizes settling out of a
moving water mass as the velocity' decreases. The coarser material settles out first; the
finer material stays in suspension longer. During the millions of years that sediments
accumulated at the margins of continents, the continental shelf, slope, and rise developed
into a sedimentary wedge more than 10 km thick that contains more than 75% of the
sediment to be found on the ocean floor. Less than 25% of marine sediment will be
found in the deep-ocean basins that cover in excess of 80% of the ocean floor.

Glacial Deposits: Poorly sorted deposits containing particles of all sizes, from boulders
to clay, may be found in the high-latitude portions of the continental shelf. Glacial
deposits in a process by which rock particles trapped in glaciers are carried out to sea by
icebergs that break away from glaciers as they push into the coastal ocean. As the
icebergs melt, the lithogenous particles are released and settle to the ocean floor.
 44

Stromatolites: Stromatolites are interesting

calcareous sedimentary structures that are often
dome-shaped. To produce these deposits, algal mat
mucous secretions trap fine oolitic calcium
carbonate sediment. Other forms of algae produce
long filaments that are responsible for binding the
carbonate particles together. When the filamentous
algae die, the filaments become calcified and cement the oolitic particles into the
stromatolite structure. Commonly observed in rocks derived from sediments deposited in
ancient oceans.

Stromatolites are dome-shaped, CaCO3-depositional structures that result from the

entrapment of CaCO3 particles in algal mats in environments that inhibit the
development of algae-grazing gastropods.

Stromatolites are fascinating structures formed by the layered growth of cyanobacteria,

also known as blue-green algae, in shallow aquatic environments such as tidal flats,
lagoons, or shallow seas. These microbial mats trap and bind sediment particles, creating
layers of sediment that gradually build up over time. As the cyanobacteria
photosynthesize, they produce oxygen, which can precipitate calcium carbonate from the
surrounding water, further contributing to the cementation of sediment layers. The
trapped sediment and minerals eventually solidify into distinct layers, forming the
characteristic dome-shaped or columnar structures of stromatolites. Over millions of
years, successive layers of microbial growth and sedimentation can create towering
structures.

Oolite: A deposit formed of small spheres from 0.25 to 2 mm in diameter. They are
usually composed of concentric layers of calcite.

Stromatolite: A calcium carbonate sedimentary structure in which algal assemblages

trap sediment and bind it into forms that are often dome shaped. They are known to form
only in shallow-water environments.
 45

Blake Plateau: The floor of the Blake Plateau lies at the base of the Florida-Hatteras
Slope at a depth of about 700- 1000m. It is free of the influence of major rivers and is too
far north for coral reef development. Extensive accumulations of manganese nodules are
found on the outer Blake Plateau, and phosphorite nodules occur in a belt along its inner
margin.

Oceanic sediment deposition- 2 types

1. Abyssal Clay: Accumulating at a rate of approximately 1 mm/1000 yr, abyssal clays

cover most of the deeper ocean floor. They are commonly red-brown or buff in
color owing to phillipsite and oxidized iron.
Abyssal clay consists predominantly of clay-sized particles derived from the
continents. The particles are carried by winds or ocean currents to the open-ocean
regions and, along with some cosmic and volcanic dust, settle slowly to the ocean
floor. Significant components of abyssal clay are the minerals montmorillonite and
phillipsite, which are thought to form from the interaction of ocean water with
volcanic and other lithogenous particles.

2. Oozes: At somewhat shallower depths, biogenous material makes up a significant

portion of the sediment that reaches the ocean bottom. It consists primarily of the
minute shells of microscopic algae and animals that accumulate on the ocean floor. If
sediment contains 30% or more skeletal material by weight, that deposit is called an
ooze. Oozes may be classified as calcareous (CaCO 3) or siliceous (SiO2), depending
on the chemical composition of the dominant type of skeletal material making up the
deposit. Oozes can form only where the deposition of material other than the remains
of algae and animals occurs at a very low rate.
Lec-16
Carbonate Compensation Depth
The depth at which calcium carbonate is dissolved at the same rate it is arriving from
above is the carbonate compensation depth (CCD). It may be as deep as 6000 m in
parts of the Atlantic Ocean, but above 3500 m in regions of low biological productivity
in the Pacific Ocean. About 50% of the total calcium carbonate reaching the deep-ocean
floor is dissolved into the ocean water before it is protected by being covered with
 46

sediment. Essentially all of this dissolving of deposited calcium carbonate occurs below
a depth of 3500 m. Therefore, even though calcium carbonate particles may reach the
deep-ocean floor, they may not survive to be incorporated into the sediment.

Below CCD- CaCO3 do not

deposit; so calcareous ooze also
cannot be found
CaCO3 is saturate in warm
shallow waters and can form
sediments. At deeper cooler
waters CaCO3 is not saturated so
does not form deposits after a
certain depth- CCD. Below CCD,
calcareous ooze not usually found unless it was made at a higher depth and then covered
before it’s present depth.
What type of sediment will accumulate on the ocean floor depends on-
The rate of accumulation of biogenous material on the ocean floor depends upon three
fundamental processes:
1. Production, 2. Destruction, and 3. Dilution

Upwelling- movement of deep water to surface; raise cold, nutrient rich water to
surface; produces high productivities and abundant marine life
Downwelling- movement of surface to down; moves warm, nutrient depleted surface
water down; not associated with high productivities and abundant marine life
 47

Production of the planktonic forms that contribute most of the biogenous material in
oceanic sediments is greater in the areas of upwelling along the margins of continents
and associated with the diverging water masses in equatorial regions.

Destruction of skeletal remains occurs primarily through solution. The ocean is

undersaturated with silica at all depths. So, for siliceous shells to last until they are
incorporated in the sediment, they must be thick, as thin fragments will be dissolved in
the ocean water before they can settle out and be covered by the sediment. About 80% of
the silica reaching the ocean floor is thought to be dissolved back into the water before it
is protected by being covered.

The solubility of calcium carbonate increases with increased CO 2 content of the

water and increased pressure. Near the surface, where temperatures are high, there is
little CO2 in the water and the water does not dissolve much CaCO 3. The pH rises and
CaCO3 is precipitated. At greater depths, the temperature decreases and pressure
increases. This lower temperature and higher pressure increase the capacity of the water
for dissolving carbon dioxide; this, in turn, decreases the pH and increases the water’s
ability to dissolve calcium carbonate.

Below 4500 m calcium carbonate dissolves quite readily. Carbonate oozes are generally
rare below a depth of 5000 m. The depth at which calcium carbonate is dissolved at the
same rate it is arriving from above is the carbonate compensation depth (CCD). It may be
as deep as 6000 m in parts of the Atlantic Ocean, but above 3500 m in regions of low
biological productivity in the Pacific Ocean.
 48

About 50% of the total calcium carbonate reaching the deep-ocean floor is dissolved into
the ocean water before it is protected by being covered with sediment. Essentially all of
this dissolving of deposited calcium carbonate occurs below a depth of 3500 m.
Therefore, even though calcium carbonate particles may reach the deep-ocean floor, they
may not survive to be incorporated into the sediment.

Dilution is illustrated by the fact that calcareous oozes are not found on the continental
margins, where rapid rates of deposition of lithogenous sediment prevail. Even in areas
of upwelling where biological productivity is high, oozes do not occur on the continental
shelf because the concentration of biologically derived silica or calcium carbonate
remains below 30% by weight as a result of the high rate of deposition for lithogenous
materials. The rates of deposition for biogenous sediment range from 1 to 15 mm/1000
yr, depending on the net effect of productivity and destruction. Since only abyssal
clay has a lower deposition rate, it is not found in any area where there is high
biological productivity and/or a low rate of destruction.
Lec-17
Manganese Nodules- Another type of sedimentary deposition
Manganese nodules are the hydrogenous pelagic deposits found scattered across the
world’s deep ocean floors. The mineral content varies from place to place, but the
nodules in some areas contain 30% manganese, 1% copper, 1.25% nickel, and 0.25%
cobalt. They are found only in deep-ocean environments where other sediments
accumulate at rates of less than 7 mm/1000 yr. The nodules grow very slowly, adding
layers from 1 to 200 mm thick every million years.

There appears to be a correlation between the biological productivity of overlying

waters and the metallic composition and growth rates of manganese nodules.

Beneath unproductive areas near the center of the subtropical oceans, the nodules are
rich in iron and cobalt extracted from the bottom waters, and they grow slowly, less
than 5 mm/million yr.

Beneath waters of moderate levels of biological productivity, such as those north and
south of the equatorial Pacific Ocean, nodules have increased concentrations of copper,
nickel, and manganese. It is believed that these metals are transported to the bottom in
 49

the remains of algae and animals that settle from above. They are transferred to the
nodules through a process that is not yet fully understood. In this environment, nodules
grow at rates of from 5 to 10 mm/million yr.

Beneath very productive water, another process that is not fully understood produces
nodules so rich in manganese that the economically important copper, nickel, and cobalt
are diluted to very low levels of concentration. These nodules grow very rapidly. From
10 to 200 mm/million yr may be added.

Distribution of oceanic sediments

Fecal Pellets-
Oceanic sediment is that sediments on the deep-ocean floor very closely reflect the
particle composition of the surface water directly above. This was difficult to understand
because it would typically take these very tiny particles from 10 to 50 years to sink
from the ocean surface to abyssal depths. During this interval, a horizontal ocean
current of only 1 cm/s would carry them from 3000 to 15,000 km laterally before they
reached the deep-ocean floor. To further complicate the picture, the particle assemblage
at mid-depth is not similar to that found in the surface water and sediment below. Such
findings could be understood only if there was some mechanism by which the small
surface particles could be aggregated into larger particles to sink faster. Continued study
revealed such a mechanism—fecal pellets. Most particles in the surface water, organic
and inorganic, are eaten at least once. Fecal pellets among the flux of material falling
from the ocean’s surface to the ocean floor. The highest concentrations of particulate
matter in the water column at high latitudes are found at the surface and near the
bottom. The surface concentration results from high biological productivity of
microscopic algae and animals, and the deep increase results from the resuspension of
bottom sediment into the benthic nepheloid layer. Further study of these samples shows
that 99% of particles that fall to the ocean floor do so as a part of fecal pellets produced
by small animals and fish. These pellets, though still small (50-100 μm in their smallest
dimension), are large enough to allow the particulate matter to reach the abyssal ocean
floor in 10 to 15 days. If this process is important in transporting particles from surface
 50

water to abyssal depths, it could readily explain the similarity between particle
composition of surface waters and bottom sediments immediately beneath them.

Another process that may contribute significantly to increasing the settling rates of
particles is the aggregation that results from particles being trapped in mucous networks
produced by organisms such as salps and coccolithophores. There also appears to be a
seasonal pattern of flux of material from the surface zone to the deep sea. The highest
levels of flux have been observed to follow periods of high biological productivity in the
surface waters of tropical to temperate oceans.
(This passage describes the mechanism by which particles from the surface of the ocean, including both organic
and inorganic material, are transported to the deep-sea floor. Initially, scientists found it challenging to
understand how particles could sink from the ocean surface to the deep-sea floor because it would take them a
long time, during which they could be carried vast distances horizontally by ocean currents.

The key discovery was the role of fecal pellets in this process. Most particles in the surface water are either
organic or inorganic and are eventually eaten by organisms. These particles are then excreted as fecal pellets by
small animals and fish. These pellets are larger and denser than individual particles, allowing them to sink much
faster, reaching the abyssal depths in a matter of days rather than years. This process helps explain why the
composition of particles found on the deep-sea floor closely resembles that of surface waters.

Additionally, other factors contribute to increasing the settling rates of particles, such as aggregation, where
particles are trapped in mucous networks produced by organisms like salps and coccolithophores.

Furthermore, there's a seasonal pattern observed in the flux of material from the surface zone to the deep sea,
with higher levels of flux following periods of high biological productivity in surface waters, particularly in
tropical to temperate oceans. This indicates that biological activity plays a significant role in the transport of
particles to the deep-sea floor.)

Calcareous Ooze deposition-

the percentage of calcareous ooze covering the deep-ocean floor of the three ocean
basins decreases with increasing average depth of the basins. The shallowest ocean, the
Atlantic Ocean, has 68% of its floor covered with calcareous ooze; in the slightly
deeper Indian Ocean the coverage is 54.3%, and the deepest ocean, the Pacific Ocean,
has a 36.2% coverage of calcareous ooze.

Siliceous Ooze deposition-

 Atlantic Ocean- 6.7%  Indian Ocean- 20.4%
 51

 Pacific Ocean- 14.7% Abyssal Clay deposition-

 Atlantic Ocean- 25.3%
 Indian Ocean- 25.3%
 Pacific Ocean- 49.1%

World ocean on
average deposition-
 Calcareous
Ooze- 47.7%
 Siliceous Ooze-
14.2%
 Abyssal Clay-
38.1%
Lec-18

Physical Properties of Ocean Water

Salinity- Salinity is the total amount of solid materials in grams contained in one
kilogram of seawater when all the carbonate has been converted to oxide, the bromine
and iodine replaced by chlorine, and all organic matter completely oxidized. (Forch,
Knudsen, and Sorensen, 1800s)

Six ions make up more than 99% of the salts dissolved in seawater: sodium (Na +),
magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), and sulfate (SO42-).
They are known as major elements or constituents responsible for salinity. Each of
them has a concentration of over 100 ppm in the seawater.

While the total concentration of dissolved matter varies from place to place, the ratios of
the more abundant components remain almost constant. This “law” of constant
proportions was first proposed by Dittmar (1884), based on 77 samples of seawater
collected from around the world during the Challenger Expedition

Sodium and chloride ions together account for 86% of the salt ions present in seawater.
 52

Ocean Salinities: In the major ocean basins, a typical kilogram of seawater is made up
of 965 grams of water and 35 grams of salt. The average ocean salinity is approximately
35‰. The percentage of the major dissolved ion in 1kg of ocean water are given below:
Average salinity- 34.7 ppt

Major elements Percentage Rest 0.72% constitutes the minor constituents responsible
Cloride, Cl- 55.04 for salinity. Each of them has a concentration in between
+
Sodium, Na 30.61
1-100ppm in the seawater. These includes Br (65%), C
Sulfate, SO42- 7.68
(28%), Sr, B, Si, F.
Magnesium, Mg2+ 3.69
Calcium, Ca2+ 1.16 All the other elements dissolved in seawater are present in
Potassium, k+ 1.10 concentrations of less than 1 part per million and are
99.28
called trace elements. N, Li, P, Fe, Zn, Rb, Iodine,
Molybdenum
Principle of constant proportions:
Seawater is a well-mixed solution; currents at the surface and at depth, vertical mixing
processes, and wave and tidal action have all helped to stir the ocean over geologic time.
Because of this thorough mixing, the ionic composition of the major ions of open-ocean
seawater is the same from place to place and from depth to depth. That is to say, the ratio
of one major ion or seawater constituent to another remains the same. The total salinity
may change as fresh water is removed or gained, but the major ions exist in the same
proportions.

This principle of constant proportions may not apply along the shores, where rivers may
bring in large quantities of dissolved substances or reduce the salinity to very low values.
The major ions are also called conservative ions, because they do not change their
ratios to each other with changes in salinity, and because they are not generally
removed or added by living organisms.

Certain ions present in much smaller quantities, some dissolved gases, and assorted
organic molecules do change their concentrations with biological and chemical
processes; these are called nonconservative ions.
 53

Chlorinity: The amount of Cl- in g in 1 kg of sea water when Br and I are converted to
Cl-
The constituent that occurs in the greatest abundance and is the easiest to measure
accurately is the chloride ion, Cl-.

The mass of this ion plus ions of other halogens (fluorine, bromine, and iodine) in a
water sample is called chlorinity, and it usually is expressed as grams of chloride per
kilogram of ocean water (g/kg). It also is expressed as parts per thousand.

Salinity = 1.80655×Chlorinity

Determining Salinity: The great advantage of most of the major ions being in constant
proportion is that it allows one to determine salinity by measuring the concentration of
one type of ion. Historically, the quantity of chloride ions has been measured to establish
a sample’s salinity.

To do so, silver nitrate is added to the sample so that the silver combines with the
chloride ion, and when the amount of silver required to react with all of the chloride ion
is known, the amount of chloride is known. However, the silver also combines with
bromine, iodine, and some other trace elements; the chloride concentration measured in
this way has the special name chlorinity.
Chlorinity (Cl ‰) and salinity (S ‰) in parts per thousand are related by the following
equation:
Salinity ‰= 1.80655 × Chlorinity (math) Or, S‰= 1.80655 x Cl ‰
Because of the ions it contains, seawater conducts electricity; the more ions there are, the
greater the conductivity. This relationship makes it possible to determine salinity by
using an electrical conductivity instrument called a salinometer. The great advantage of
the salinometer is that the measurements are made quickly and directly on the water
sample with an electrical probe. Salinity can be determined to better than 0.003 parts
per thousand using this method.
Variation in salinity occurs due to- Lec-19

1. Evaporation: When water evaporates (turns into vapor), it leaves the salt behind.
This makes the remaining water saltier.
 54

2. Precipitation: Rain or snow adds fresh water, diluting the salt and lowering
salinity.

3. Precipitate Formation: Sometimes, certain conditions cause minerals to settle out

of the water, which can affect salinity.

4. Mixing of Ocean Water: Currents and tides mix different bodies of ocean water,
which can change salinity.

5. Diffusion of Dissolved Substances: Some substances spread out in water, which

can impact the salt content.

6. Movement of Water Masses: Water can move and carry salt with it.

7. Freezing and Thawing: When water freezes into ice, the salt stays behind,
increasing the salinity of the surrounding water. When the ice melts, it adds fresh
water, reducing salinity.

Salinity fluctuates in 3 areas-

- Air-sea interface- This is the surface of the ocean where it meets the air. In polar
regions, sea ice forms in winter, leaving salt behind in the water beneath. When the
ice melts in summer, it adds fresh water to the ocean, lowering the salinity.
- Boundaries of ocean current- At these boundaries, different currents with different
salinity levels mix, changing the overall salinity.
- Coastal area- In coastal areas of high precipitation and river inflow, surface salinities
fall below the average. For example, during periods of high flow, the water of the
Columbia River lowers the Pacific Ocean’s surface salinity to less than 24‰ as far as
30 km out to sea. In sub-tropic regions of high evaporation and low freshwater input,
the surface salinities of nearly landlocked seas are well above the average: 40 to 42‰
in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and 38 to 39‰ in the Mediterranean Sea.

SALINITY OF OCEAN WATER

Density is affected by temperature, salinity, and pressure. Most substances get denser
when they cool. This happens because the molecules have less energy and move less,
allowing them to pack more tightly together. This "thermal contraction" means that a
 55

substance's volume decreases as it cools, making it denser. This condition, thermal

contraction also occurs in water. As water cools, it gets denser—as long as the
temperature decrease occurs above 4°C. Temperature of maximum density of
freshwater is 4°C. This is very important, for water at this temperature is denser than
either warmer or colder water, and thus will sink, creating vertical currents. Conversely,
water at higher or lower temperature, whether liquid or frozen, will float, also creating
vertical currents.

Water has an unusual behavior between 4°C and 0°C. Here's why:

 Above 4°C: Water behaves like most substances—it gets denser as it cools.

 Below 4°C: This is where water acts differently. Instead of getting denser, it starts to
expand. Its density decreases. This is because ice crystals begin to form, and they are
bigger and take up more space than liquid water. Ice has an open, six-sided structure
due to the hydrogen bonds between water molecules.

When water completely freezes at 0°C, it takes up more space than it did at 4°C. This is
why ice floats on water—it's less dense. The density of ice is only about 90% of that of
water at 4°C.

The temperature of maximum density for freshwater, 4°C, can be lowered by two
means. Increasing the pressure on water will lower the temperature of maximum
density. Also, adding solid particles, such as salt, lowers the temperature of maximum
density. The reason is that both inhibit the formation of bulky ice clusters. Thus, to
produce crystals equal in volume to those that could be produced at 4°C in freshwater,
more energy must be removed, causing a reduction in the temperature of maximum
density. This interference with the formation of ice crystals also produces a progressively
 56

lower freezing point for water as more solids are added. This is why most seawater never
freezes, except near Earth's frigid poles, and why people in mid-latitudes spread salt on
roads and sidewalks during winter (to lower the freezing point).

Salt changes how water behaves:

 Lowers Freezing Point: Salt disrupts the formation of ice crystals, so water needs to
be colder to freeze. This is why salt is used on roads in winter to prevent ice.

 Lowers the Maximum Density Temperature: With enough salt (24.7 parts per
thousand), the temperature at which water is densest drops to about -1.33°C. This
means seawater doesn’t have the same density anomaly at 4°C like freshwater.

No Density Anomaly: The freezing point and temperature of maximum density

converge as they drop. They coincide when the salinity reaches 24.7 parts per thousand,
at a temperature of -1.33°C. When salinity is greater than 24.7 ppt, the density of water
increases as temperature drops, until the water freezes. Thus, unlike freshwater with its
density anomaly at 4°C, average seawater (34.7ppt) has no such maximum density
anomaly. When salinity is greater than 24.7 ppt, the density of water increases as
temperature drops, until the water freezes. Thus, cooling surface water will become
increasingly dense and tend to sink up to the point where it freezes on the surface.
Because the components of salt (sodium and chlorine) have a density greater than that of
water, increasing water salinity also increases its density. This affects how water moves
in the ocean and is important for understanding ocean currents and circulation.

(Freshwater floats on top of ocean water)

If salinity increases,
 Temperature of maximum density decreases
 Temperature of initial freezing point decreases
 Vapour pressure decreases
 Osmotic pressure increases

Viscosity is a fluid's resistance to flow, affecting

substances from water to molten lava. It's like the fluid's
thickness, with higher viscosity meaning it's thicker.
 57

The viscosity of ocean water is affected by two variables—temperature and salinity.

Greater salinity increases viscosity.

Ocean water's viscosity is influenced by temperature, with colder temperatures making it

thicker. This benefits floating organisms in colder waters, reducing their need for
extensions to stay afloat. However, as organisms grow larger and more mobile, viscosity
becomes a hindrance, and streamlined shapes like those of fish and marine mammals
help them move efficiently through water while minimizing energy expenditure.

Structure breakers are substances that disrupt water's molecular arrangement, reducing
its viscosity. For example, KCl is known to lower water viscosity.
Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) can disturb water's equilibrium condition and impact
viscosity.
On the other hand, MgSO4 increases water viscosity.
Strong electrolytes dissolve completely but have minimal effect on water's equilibrium
condition.
Buffering nature of seawater
Carbon dioxide plays an additional and extremely important role in the ocean; in water it
acts as a buffer. A buffer prevents sudden changes in the acidity or alkalinity, or pH, of a
solution. The buffering capacity of seawater is important to organisms requiring a steady
pH for their life processes and to the chemistry of seawater, which is controlled, in part,
by pH.

The pH scale indicates acidity and alkalinity by measuring the concentration of hydrogen
ions in a solution. A pH of 7 indicates neutrality, neither acid nor alkaline. Values
between 1 and 6 are acidic while the pH values between 8 and 14 are alkaline, or basic.
The pH range of seawater is between pH 7.5 and 8.5; an average pH value for the
world’s oceans is approximately 7.8

Residence time- The average time that a substance remains in solution in the oceans is
called its residence time. Aluminum, iron, and chromium ions react with other
substances quickly and form insoluble mineral solids in the sediments. They have short
residence times, in the hundreds of years. Sodium, potassium, and magnesium are very
 58

soluble, combine with other substances slowly, and so have residence times in the
millions of years.

Residence time: The residence time

is the average length of time that an
atom of an element resides in the
ocean. It can be calculated:

Amount of element∈the oceans

Residence time = Rate at which element is added ¿ ∨removed ¿the oceans ¿

Oceans are well mixed and in a steady state because of the constancy of composition.
This implies that the rate at which an element is removed from the oceans must equal the
rate at which it is being added.
The residence time of an element in the ocean depends on how reactive it is with the
marine environment. More reactive elements have a shorter residence time. For
example, the reactive elements aluminum and iron have residence times of 100 and 140
yr, respectively, whereas less reactive sodium has a residence time of 260,000,000 yr.

Water itself has a residence time in the ocean. Each year, the upper 1 m of the ocean’s
surface evaporates. This water is returned directly by precipitation over the ocean, or
indirectly by precipitation over the continents, which runs off into rivers and returns to
the ocean. The ocean has an average depth of 4000 m. Thus, if the ocean had a
completely uniform depth of 4000 m, it would completely evaporate in 4000 yr. Because
the water cycles through the atmosphere and is returned, 4000 yr would be the time
 59

required to completely recirculate all ocean water. Thus, the residence time of water in
the oceans would be 4000 years.

In actuality, because ocean depth varies widely, residence time varies widely from place
to place. The process by which water is recycled among the ocean, atmosphere, and
continents is called the water cycle or the hydrological cycle. Of the total yearly
evaporation of water from Earth’s surface, 83% evaporates from the oceans and 17%
evaporates from the surface of the continents. It returns to Earth by precipitation from
the atmosphere: 76% falls directly back into the oceans, and 24% falls onto the
continents.
The residence time of water in the atmosphere is about 10 days.
Water evaporation rate in ocean- 10cm/day

Explain the impact of dissolved solid substances on the viscosity of water.

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow. When solid substances are dissolved in
water, they can have a noticeable impact on the fluid's viscosity. Here are some key points to understand
the impact of dissolved solids on the viscosity of water:

1. Definition of Viscosity: Viscosity refers to a fluid's internal friction, affecting its ability to flow.
A higher viscosity means the fluid flows less freely, while lower viscosity means it flows more
easily.

2. Role of Dissolved Solids: Dissolved solids are substances that are not in a solid state but have
been mixed and dissolved in water. In oceanography, the primary dissolved solids in seawater
are salts, mainly sodium chloride (NaCl), but also other salts like magnesium sulfate, calcium
carbonate, etc.

3. Increase in Viscosity with Dissolved Solids: Adding dissolved solids to water generally
increases its viscosity. This occurs because the dissolved ions (such as Na ⁺ and Cl ⁻) interact
with water molecules, forming structures that enhance the fluid's resistance to flow.

4. Impact of Salinity: Salinity is the measure of dissolved salts in water, usually expressed in parts
per thousand (ppt). In oceanography, seawater has a typical salinity of about 35 ppt. As salinity
increases, so does viscosity. This relationship is due to the additional ionic interactions and
structural changes in the water resulting from the presence of salts.

5. Temperature Effects: Temperature has an inverse relationship with viscosity; as temperature

increases, viscosity decreases. This trend also applies to saline solutions. Higher temperatures
 60

disrupt the structured arrangements of water molecules and dissolved solids, reducing resistance
to flow.

6. Oceanographic Implications: In oceanography, changes in viscosity can affect the dynamics of

ocean currents, water stratification, mixing, and heat transport. Areas with higher salinity may
experience slower fluid movement due to increased viscosity. Understanding viscosity is crucial
for climate modeling, ocean circulation studies, and predicting the behavior of oceanic
processes. Viscosity influences how nutrients and heat are distributed, impacting marine life and
climate patterns

Electrical conductivity: Conductivity, in general, refers to the ability of a material to

conduct or transmit electrical current. It is a fundamental property of materials that
determines how easily electric charges can flow through them. Seawater itself a highly
dissociated electrolyte. Conductivity increases with increasing salinity, temperature and
pressure.

Conductivity is typically measured in units of milli-siemens per centimeter (ms/cm) or

milli-mhos/m (mho is the reverse of ohm)
Conductivity is influnced by pH and CO2

Conductivity of water is controlled by ion movement through the water. The more
abundant the ions, the greater the transmission of electricity and the higher the
conductivity. (Seawater has higher conductivity than that of air)
In seawater, the relative abundance of the major ions is nearly invariant, and the
conductivity provides a precise means of determining salinity. The major ions
conducting the electrical charge are:
Cl- 64% (largest contribution in conductivity), Na+ 29%, Mg2 + 3%, SO32- and others- 2%
Lec-20

Global Salinity Distribution

Distribution of Salinity
The salinity of the surface waters is
basically zonal in distribution. The
average surface salinity distribution is
 61

different from that for temperature in that it has a minimum just north of the equator
and maximum values in the sub-tropics at about 25°N and S of the equator. Values
decrease toward high latitudes. Observations make it clear that surface salinity is
determined by the opposing effects of evaporation increasing it and precipitation
decreasing it. The salinity maxima are in the trade wind regions where the annual
evaporation (E) exceeds precipitation (P), so that (E-P) is positive, while the
temperature maximum is near the equator because the balance of energy into the sea
has a single maximum there.

The range of surface salinity values in the open ocean is from 33 to 37. Lower values
occur locally near coasts where large rivers empty and in the polar regions where the ice
melts. Higher values occur in regions of high evaporation such as the eastern
Mediterranean (39) and the Red Sea (41), On the average the North Atlantic is the
most saline ocean at the surface (35.5), the South Atlantic and South Pacific less so
(about 35.2) and the North Pacific the least saline (34.2).

-Total salinity in the open ocean averages 34 ppt, but it can vary significantly in different
locations.
Horizontal Distribution of Salinity
The salinity distribution at the ocean’s surface is relatively zonal; not uniformly
distributed. Salinity has a double-lobed structure, with maxima in the subtropics in both
hemispheres and minima in the tropics and subpolar regions.

Salinity is lowest near the equator. On an average, the minimum amount of salinity
found at just north of the equator. Then it increases towards both northern and southern
hemisphere. Maximum amount is found at the subtropical region around 25° N and
25° S; because this zone is characterized by high temperature, high evaporation but
relatively low rainfall.

Salinity decreases from equator towards the poles. The zone between 40°-60° latitudes
in both the hemispheres records low salinity where it is 31‰ and 33‰ in the northern
and the southern hemispheres respectively. Salinity further decreases in the polar zones
 62

because of influx of Glacial melt-water. On an average, the northern and the southern
hemispheres record average salinity of 35‰ and 34‰ respectively.

Reasons for low salinity

Polar region- snowfall (year-round winter)
Equatorial region- rainfall (year-round summer)

Reasons for high salinity

Temperate zone- 4 seasons (25°-40°)
Subtropical region- evaporation, sunlight, wind direction, evaporation > precipitation
Trade wind- does evaporation, dry wind that absorbs surface water
 The meridional salinity maxima are in the trade wind regions and subtropical high-
pressure regions where the annual evaporation (E) exceeds precipitation (P), so that
(E-P) is positive.
 The salinity of surface seawater is controlled primarily by the balance between
evaporation and precipitation. As a result, the highest salinities are found in the so-
called sub-tropical regions, where evaporation is extensive but rainfall is minimal.

Density-Driven Circulation-
Variations in temperature, salinity, and pressure combine to control the density of seawater.
Many combinations of different salinities and temperatures produce the same density. In many places,
the oceans have a well-mixed surface layer approximately 100m deep. In this layer, the increasing
pressure with depth causes the density to increase very slightly. Below this surface layer, density
changes rapidly between 100 m and about 1000 m because the temperature decreases rapidly. Also, in
this layer, the salinity may increase, decrease, or remain unchanged; it has a smaller influence on the
density over this depth. Below 1000 m, both temperature and salinity change slowly with depth,
and the density increases slightly down to the sea floor because of the increasing pressure.
At the ocean surface, density is controlled by the earth’s uneven heating and evaporation-precipitation
patterns. Variations in surface densities control the vertical movement of the water.

The warm, low-salinity surface water at the equator is less dense than the surface water at
latitudes 30°N and 30°S, which is slightly cooler and has a higher salinity because of evaporation
and diminished rainfall. Therefore, surface water produced at 30° latitudes is denser than that
produced at the equator, and it sinks below the equatorial water.
 63

The combined salinity and temperature of surface water at 50° to 60°N or S produce water that is denser
than either the equatorial or the 30° latitude surface water, and so this water sinks below the equatorial
and 30° waters. Winter conditions in the polar regions lower the surface water temperature and, if sea
ice forms, increase the surface salinity. This results in dense surface water that sinks toward the ocean
floor at polar latitudes. The cold, dense water of the Arctic is confined by the seafloor topography to
these high northern latitudes; similar water formed around Antarctica moves northward into the
Southern Hemisphere oceans. The thickness and horizontal extent of each density layer is related to the
rate at which the water is formed and the size of the surface region over which it is formed.

Thermohaline Circulation-
Vertical circulation driven by surface changes in temperature and salinity is known as
thermohaline circulation. If a surface process forms more-dense water on top of less-dense water, the
water column is unstable, and as the denser water sinks or down-wells, the less-dense water rises or
upwells. This vertical displacement is called overturn.
If the water column has the same density over depth, it has neutral stability, and the water is easily
mixed by wind, waves, and currents. If the water column has an increasing density with depth, it does
not overturn; it is stable, and is more difficult to mix vertically. Large-scale thermohaline circulation
ensures an eventual top-to-bottom exchange of water throughout the oceans. In the middle latitudes,
the surface water temperature changes with the seasons.

During the summer, the surface water warms and the water column is stable, but in the fall the surface
water cools, increases its density, and begins to overturn.
Winter storms and winter cooling continue the mixing process. The shallow, warm, low-density surface
water formed during the previous summer cools and sinks, and the upper portion of the water column
becomes neutrally stable to greater depths.
Spring brings surface warming, and the water column becomes stable and remains so through the
summer.
 64

Seasonal changes in temperature are more important than seasonal changes in salinity in altering density
in the open ocean. For example, in the Atlantic Ocean the surface water at 30°N and S has a high
salinity, but it is warm year-round so that there is no water sinking to great depths.

On the other hand, the surface water from 50° to 60° in the North Atlantic has a lower salinity but is
cold, especially during the winter. This cold water down-wells and flows below the saltier but warmer
surface water. Close to shore, however, the salinity of seawater may outweigh the temperature in
controlling the density. This is particularly true along coasts that receive large amounts of fresh runoff.
Here even cold (0°—2°C), fresh river water does not down-well when it meets the salt water but
remains at the surface as a freshwater lid.

In polar regions, when the sea ice melts, a layer of fresh water forms at the surface and slowly dilutes
the surface seawater. When sea ice forms, the extraction of the water increases the salinity of the surface
water and this denser water down-wells. The extremely dense surface water produced by winter cooling
and freezing in the Weddell Sea of Antarctica sinks all the way to the deep-sea floor.
In regions of high evaporation, the salinity of water in marginal seas, rises, increasing the density of
the water. In the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea such water flows into the adjacent ocean and sinks
to mid depths. Upwellings and down-welling are measured at rates of 0.1 to 1.5 m per day, compared to
fast-flowing ocean surface currents that reach speeds of 1.5 meters per second. Horizontal movement at
depth due to thermohaline circulation is about 0.01 cm per second. Water caught in this slow but
relentlessly moving cycle may spend 100 years or more at depth before it again rises to the surface.

Vertical Distribution of Salinity-

Upper-layer salinity: In the

upper water the reason for this
is that density, which is the
factor responsible for
determining the stable position
of a water body in the vertical
direction, is determined chiefly
by temperature in the open
ocean (except in the polar
seas). Therefore, water of higher temperature (lower density) is generally found in the
upper layers and water of lower temperature (higher density) in the deeper layers. The
 65

variations in salinity which occur in open ocean waters are usually not sufficient in their
effect upon density to override the effect of temperature. Therefore, it is possible to have
either high or low salinity in the warmer surface and upper layers. As a consequence of
this less important role in dictating the density structure, salinity acts as a “passive
tracer” indicating the flow directions of water masses by their salinity signatures (minima
or maxima)

In the vertical distribution in the equatorial, tropical and subtropical regions there is a
marked salinity minimum at 600 to 1000 m with the salinity then increasing to 2000 m.
In the Atlantic it decreases slightly below this. In the tropics there is often a sharp
salinity maximum at 100 to 200 m depth close to the top of the thermocline. This results
from water sinking at the tropic salinity maxima and flowing equatorward. In high
latitudes, where the surface value is low, the salinity generally increases with depth to
about 2000 m, with no subsurface minimum. In coastal regions, where there is much
river runoff, there is generally a zone of rapid increase of salinity, the halocline, between
the upper, low-salinity water and the deeper more saline water. Here the
pycnocline(density) is determined by the salinity distribution rather than by temperature.

Deep-water salinity: In the deep waters, 4000 m or deeper, the salinity is relatively
uniform at 34.6 to 34.9 throughout the world ocean. Remembering that the deep-water
temperature also has a small range (-0.9° to 2°C) this means that the deep water
environment is very uniform in character.

*Salinity at the surface of the sea is decreased by the input of fresh waters or increased by the loss of water to ice
or evaporation. Thus, both the trends of increase and decrease of salinity with increasing depths have been
observed.

Salinity increases with increasing depth from 300 meters to 1000 meters in high latitudes i.e. there is positive
relationship between the amount of salinity and depth because of denser water below but salinity becomes more
or less constant beyond 1000 m depth.
Salinity decreases between the depth zone of 300 meters to 1000 meters in the low latitudes but it becomes more
or less constant beyond 1000 m depth.
It appears from the above-mentioned trends of vertical distribution of salinity that there is rapid rate of change of
salinity (both increase and decrease) in the depth zone of 300m-
1000m. This zone of steep gradient of salinity is called
halocline. (pycnocline- density)
 66

Maximum salinity is found in the upper layer of the oceanic water. Salinity decreases with increasing depth.
Thus, the upper zone of maximum salinity and the lower zone of minimum salinity is separated by a transition
zone which is called as halocline, on an average above which high salinity is found in the low latitudes while
low salinity is found in the high latitudes.

In the subtropics, salinity is high near the sea surface due to subtropical net evaporation. Salinity decreases
downward to a minimum in the vertical at 600-1000 m. Below this, salinity increases to a maximum, with the
exact depths of the vertical minimum and maximum depending on the ocean. In the Atlantic and Indian Oceans,
the salinity maximum is at depths of 1500-2000 m. In the Pacific, the maximum salinity is at the bottom. -
confusion

In the tropics and southernmost part of the subtropical gyres, salinity is often slightly lower at the sea surface
than in the main part of the subtropics. Salinity increases to a sharp subsurface maximum at depths of 100-200 m,
close to the top of the thermocline. This maximum arises from the high salinity surface water in each subtropical
gyre. This high salinity water subducts and flows equatorward and downward beneath the fresher, warmer
tropical surface water, thus forming a salinity maximum layer. This shallow salinity maximum is found in the
equatorward part of every subtropical gyre, merging into the tropics. Because it has an identifiable characteristic
(salinity maximum) and common formation history (subduction from the high salinity surface water at mid-
latitudes), it has acquired status as a water mass.

Most dominant controlling factors of density are temperature and salinity. From
both of them, who will be the dominating factor, it depends on latitude.
 If temperature is not dominant, then salinity will control the density. Then
Salinity increases, density increases
 Where temperature is dominant- With Temp increasing, density decreases

Salinity is the controlling factor at higher latitudes and temperature at lower

latitude.

For ocean water with a salinity of 35‰ at 0°C, the density is 1.028 g/cm3

-The vertical salinity distribution is more complicated than the temperature distribution.

In the upper ocean, in the tropics, and subtropics and parts of the subpolar regions,
temperature dominates the vertical stability (density profile).

In the deep ocean, beneath the pycnocline, temperature also dominates over salinity.
Therefore, warmer water (lower density) is generally found in the upper layers and
cooler water (higher density) in the deeper layers.
 67

Salinity can have much more vertical structure,

ranging from low to high, without creating
vertical overturn. (In subpolar and high latitudes,
where surface waters are quite fresh and also cold,
salinity does dominate the vertical stability.) As a
consequence of its less important role in dictating
the density structure, salinity is a more passive
tracer than temperature. Thus, salinity can often
be used as a marker of the flow directions of
water masses (minima or maxima).

The low surface salinities in the cool and rainy

belts at 40-50°N and S latitude, high evaporation
rates, and high surface salinities in the desert belts
of the world centered on 25°N and S, and low surface salinities again in the warm, rainy
tropics centered at 5°N. In coastal areas of high precipitation and river inflow, surface
salinities fall below the average.

Regional distribution of water salinity across the oceans

 Indian Ocean: The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 ppt. The low salinity is observed in
the Bay of Bengal due to the influx of river water by the river Ganga. On the other hand, the
Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and a low influx of freshwater.
 Pacific Ocean: The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger areal
extent.
 Atlantic Ocean: The salinity in the Atlantic Ocean varies between 20 to 37 ppt according to the
location. For example, Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative humidity, cloudiness
and calm air of the doldrums. Whereas, the polar areas experience very little evaporation and
receive large amounts of freshwater from the melting of ice. This leads to low levels of salinity,
ranging between 20 and 32 parts per thousand
 North Sea: In spite of its location in higher latitudes, it records higher salinity due to more saline
water brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
 The Mediterranean Sea: The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high
evaporation. Surface waters average about 39 parts per thousand in this sea
 68

 The Baltic Sea: Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity,
averaging around 35 parts per thousand
 The Black Sea: Salinity in the Black Sea is very low due to the enormous freshwater influx by
rivers, averaging around 13–23 parts per thousand
Factors determining ocean water salinity-

Evaporation: The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on
evaporation. Where the evaporation is greater, the salinity is higher, for example,
Mediterranean Sea.
Freshwater flow influx: Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by
the freshwater flow from rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and
thawing of ice. Where the freshwater flow into the oceans is greater, the salinity is
lower. For instance, at the mouths of rivers such as Amazon, Congo, Ganga etc., the
ocean surface salinity is found to be lower than the average surface salinity.
Temperature and density: Salinity, temperature and density of water are
interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or density influences the salinity of
an area. In general, regions with high temperatures are also, regions with high
salinity.
Ocean Currents: They play an important role in the spatial distribution of dissolved
salts in ocean waters. The warm currents near the equatorial region push away the
salts from the eastern margins of the oceans and accumulate them near the western
margins. Similarly, ocean currents in the temperate regions increase the salinity of
ocean waters near the eastern margins. For instance, Gulf Stream in the North
Atlantic Ocean increases the salinity of ocean waters along the western margins of the
Atlantic Ocean.
Precipitation: Precipitation and salinity share an inverse relationship. In general,
regions with higher levels of precipitation have lower levels of salinity. This is the
reason why though the equatorial region is as hot as the sub-tropics, it records
lower salinity than the sub-tropics since the former receives heavy precipitation
in a day.
Atmospheric pressure and Wind direction: anti-cyclonic conditions with stable air
and high temperature increase salinity of the surface water of oceans. Winds help is
 69

redistribution of salinity, as they drive away saline waters to less saline areas resulting
into decrease of salinity in the former and increase in the latter.
The mean salinity of the world ocean is 34.6 ‰
Temporal variations of salinity
Annual variations of surface salinity in the open ocean are probably less than 0.5. In
regions of marked annual variation in precipitation, such as the eastern North Pacific and
the Bay of Bengal and near ice, there are large annual variations. These variations are
confined to the surface layers because in such regions the effect of reduced salinity may
override the effect of temperature in reducing the sea-water density. This keeps the low
salinity water in the surface layer. Diurnal variations of salinity appear to be very
small. Temporal salinity variations may be large at water mass boundaries where
advective and diffusive changes occur. These water mass boundaries can be found both
at the surface and at depth. Again, these boundaries are usually marked by fluctuations in
salinity maxima or minima.
Lec-21
Light
Reflection- rebounding of light, heat, sound, waves, and so on, after striking a surface.
Refraction- change in direction or bending of a wave due to change in speed.
Diffraction- process that transmits energy laterally along a wave crest.

Attenuation- decrease in the energy of a wave or beam of particles occurring as the

distance from the source increases; caused by absorption, scattering, and divergence
from a point source. (light attenuation- decrease in the intensity of light over
distance)

Secchi disk- white disk used to measure the transparency of the water by observing the
depth at which the disk disappears from view. This is a white disk about 30 cm in
diameter, which is lowered to the depth at which it just disappears from view. The
measure of this depth can be used to determine the average attenuation of light. In waters
rich with living organisms or suspended silt, the Secchi disk may disappear from view at
depths of 1 to 3 m while in the open ocean it may be visible down to 20 to 30 m.

Transmission of Light-
 70

Seawater transmits only the visible wavelengths of sunlight. Visible light 380-760nm

Depth 1m- only 45% remains of

energy incident on the surface
Depth 10m- only 16% remains of
energy incident on the surface
Depth 100m- only 1% remains of
energy incident on the surface-

About 60% of the entering light

energy is absorbed in the first
meter, and about 80% is gone
after 10 m. Only 1% of the total
light available at the surface is left in the clearest water below 150 m, and no sunlight
penetrates below 1000 m.
Not all wavelengths of visible light are transmitted equally. The long wavelengths at
the red end of the spectrum are absorbed rapidly, while the short wavelengths of blue-
green light are transmitted to the greater depths.

The light undergoes absorption and scattering by suspended particles, including silt,
single-celled organisms, and the water and salt molecules. This decrease in the intensity
of light over distance is known as attenuation. The clearer the water, the greater the light
penetration and the smaller the attenuation.

Reasons behind the blue-green color of ocean

Color perception is due to the reflection back to our eyes of wavelengths of a particular
color. The oceans usually appear blue-green because wavelengths of this color, being
absorbed the least, are most available to be reflected and scattered.
Coastal waters appear green or even brown or red, because this water usually contains silt from rivers as
well as large numbers of microscopic organisms that add their color.
Open-ocean water is often clear and blue, which indicates that it is nearly empty of both living and
nonliving suspended materials. The clearer the water, the less suspended material matter present and the
deeper the light penetrates. When light passes from the air into the water, it is bent by refraction because
its speed is faster in air than in water. Because the light rays bend as they enter the water from the air,
 71

objects seen through the water’s surface are not where they appear to be. Refraction is affected slightly
by changes in salinity, temperature, and pressure.

Ocean water ranges from a deep indigo blue to a yellow-green. The indigo blue is typical of tropical
and equatorial regions, where there is little primary biological productivity (algal growth that provides
food for animals). The yellow-green occurs in the coastal waters of high-latitude areas, where primary
biological productivity occurs seasonally at a very high rate. The lack of particulate matter in tropical
waters maximizes the molecular scattering of short wave (violet and blue) solar radiation, resulting in
the water looking blue. Greater concentrations of particulate matter, especially where phytoplankton is
abundant, result in greater scattering of green and yellow wavelengths of fight. This produces the
greenish color characteristic of such waters.

Two factors contribute to the blue color of open ocean waters at low latitudes.
Because water molecules scatter the short-wave (blue) light much more than the long-
wave (red) light, the color seen is selectively blue. In addition, because the red and
yellow components of sunlight are rapidly absorbed in the upper few meters, the only
light remaining to be scattered by the bulk of the water is blue. Looking at the sea from
above, sky light reflected from the surface is added to the blue light scattered from the
body of the water. If the sky is blue, the sea will still appear deep blue, but if there are
clouds, the white light reflected from the sea surface dilutes the blue scattered light from
the water and the sea appears less intensely blue.

Parameter affecting light penetration-

 Angle of Incidence of Light- The angle of incidence refers to the angle at which
sunlight strikes the surface of the ocean. When the sun is overhead (near the equator),
the angle is smaller, allowing light to penetrate deeper into the water. Conversely,
when the sun is at a lower angle (near the poles or during early morning/late
afternoon), light is scattered more, reducing penetration depth. A smaller angle means
less reflection and greater penetration, while a larger angle leads to more reflection
and less penetration.
 Condition of Ocean Surface- The condition of the ocean surface, such as whether it
is calm or rough, greatly affects light penetration. A calm, smooth surface allows
more light to enter the water, as there is less scattering and reflection. Rough or
turbulent waters (due to wind, waves, or storms) cause more scattering and reflection,
 72

reducing the depth to which light can penetrate. Additionally, the presence of foam,
bubbles, or floating debris can further limit light penetration by causing additional
scattering and absorption.
Light scattered in 3 ways-
 By diffraction at the particles
 By refraction/ reflection in the interior of particles
 Reflection at the interfaces of the particles
Factors responsible for light penetration

1. Optical Properties of Seawater: Seawater contains various substances, such as dissolved

organic matter, particulate matter, and phytoplankton, which can absorb and scatter light. These
factors determine the clarity of the water and affect how much light can penetrate.

2. Spectral Composition of Sunlight: Sunlight consists of different wavelengths, including

ultraviolet, visible light, and infrared. The ability of each wavelength to penetrate water varies,
with shorter wavelengths (like blue and violet) penetrating deeper than longer wavelengths (like
red and orange).

3. State of the Sea Surface: Atmospheric conditions like cloud cover, fog, and dust can affect the
amount of sunlight reaching the sea surface. More cloud cover, fog, or dust reduces light
penetration by scattering or blocking sunlight.

4. Time of the Day: Sunlight intensity varies throughout the day. At noon, when the sun is
overhead, the light is more intense, allowing greater penetration. As the day progresses and the
sun sets, light intensity decreases, leading to reduced penetration.

5. Angle of Incidence of Sunlight: The angle at which sunlight strikes the sea surface determines
how much light is reflected or penetrates. When the sun is at a low angle (like early morning or
late afternoon), more light is reflected, reducing penetration. When the sun is directly overhead,
more light penetrates the water.

6. Formation of Foam: Foam on the sea surface reflects and scatters sunlight, reducing light
penetration. Foam can form from breaking waves, wind, or other disturbances on the sea
surface.

7. Wave Action: Waves can have a positive or negative impact on light penetration. When the sun
is directly overhead, waves can reflect light, reducing penetration. However, when the sun is at
an angle, waves can help direct more light into the water, enhancing penetration. Additionally,
the presence of ice at polar latitudes contributes to higher reflectivity and lower absorption of
 73

sunlight, while regions between 35°N and 40°S tend to absorb more energy due to the
higher angle of sunlight.

8. Salt Content (Salinity): Higher salinity levels can increase the scattering and absorption of light
due to the presence of salt and other dissolved minerals. This leads to reduced light penetration
in saltier waters compared to less salty or fresher waters.

Salinity and light penetration have an inverse relationship.

Sunlight with a range of wavelengths enters the sea after passing through the atmosphere.
Within the upper layer of the ocean, up to 100 m depth or more, the visible light interacts
with the water molecules and the substances that are dissolved or suspended in the water.
The light provides energy for photosynthesis and also heats the upper layer. Processes of
back-scattering, absorption, and re-emission result in the visible light (ocean color)
that emerges back from the ocean surface into the atmosphere.

Temperature
Main source- Sunlight; Solar energy higher in equator or tropical region than anywhere.
Max ocean temp. occur at (25-28°C) just 5°N of the equator. Ocean temperature gets
modified by ocean current, wind, situation of landmass.
Surface temperature
The distribution of temperature at the surface of the open ocean is approximately zonal,
the lines of constant temperature (isotherms) running roughly east-west. The open
ocean surface temperature decreases from as high as 28°C just north of the equator to
nearly -2°C near ice at high latitudes. This distribution with highest values at low
latitudes and decreasing at higher latitudes corresponds closely with the input of short-
wave radiation.
The temperature distribution at the
surface of the open ocean is
approximately zonal. The open
ocean SST, averaged over all
longitudes and displayed as a
function of latitude, decreases
from as high as 28°C just 5°N of
 74

the equator to nearly -1.8°C near sea ice at high latitudes. This distribution
corresponds closely with the input of short-wave radiation (mainly from the sun), which
is highest in the tropics and lowest at high latitudes.

The Northern Hemisphere is called 'Land Hemisphere' because the greater part of the
land masses of the Earth lie in the Northern Hemisphere.

In open ocean temperature variation in warmest month and coldest month is less than
3°C; It can be as high as 5°C in low latitude. Temperature variation in polar region is
also very low. Temperature variation is high where there is seasonal variation. The
maximum seasonal change in sea surface temperature, about 8 to 9°C, occurs at
temperate latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. At higher and lower latitudes, sea
surface temperatures change less over the annual cycle.

Instantaneous solar radiation per unit surface area of the earth has its greatest intensity at
the equator, moderate intensity in the middle latitudes, and least intensity at the poles.
Radiation intensity is greatest between 23.5°N (Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5°S
(Tropic of Capricorn), because only between these latitudes does sunlight strike the
earth at a right angle. All other latitudes receive less instantaneous solar energy because
of the decreasing angle at which the sun’s rays strike the earth. The intensity of solar
radiation is also reduced because radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere on its way to
the earth’s surface. The greater the latitude, the longer the distance through the
atmosphere the sun’s rays must travel.

The high heat capacity (dominant factor) of the oceans allows them to absorb and
release large amounts of heat with little change in temperature.
Where evaporation at the sea surface is high at tropic and sub-tropic latitudes, there is a
large net transfer of heat to the atmosphere at low latitudes; the heat is carried to higher
latitudes by the moving air. Evaporation, conduction, and reradiation from the earth’s
surface all add heat to the atmosphere at the lower latitudes, which is transferred by
winds and currents to the higher cooler latitudes.
Water currents mostly follow wind.
 75

The polar regions always are considerably colder than the equatorial zone, but the
temperature difference is not increasing. Clearly, excess heat at equatorial latitudes is
being transferred toward the poles by some mechanism. This mechanism involves both
the oceans and the atmosphere.

The greater heating of the atmosphere over the equator causes air to expand, decrease in
density, and therefore to rise. As it rises, it cools by expansion, and the water vapor
contained in the rising air mass condenses and falls as rain in the equatorial zone. After
losing its moisture, this dry air mass travels some distance north and south of the equator.
It then descends in the subtropical regions, around 30° latitude in both the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres. As the descending air approaches Earth’s surface, it is
warmed by compression. Upon reaching the surface it spreads away from the subtropics,
moving both toward the equator and toward higher latitudes. This descending, denser air
creates a high-pressure belt in the subtropics, as shown. Conversely, over the equator, the
low density of the rising air creates a ring of low pressure that girdles the globe. The
masses of air that move across Earth’s surface from the subtropical high-pressure belts
toward the equatorial low-pressure belt constitute the trade winds. Some of the air that
descends in the subtropical regions moves along Earth’s surface to higher latitudes as the
westerly wind belts. These masses rise over the dense, cold air moving away from the
polar high-pressure caps at the subpolar low-pressure belts located near 60°N and 60°S
 76

latitude. The air moving away from the poles produces the polar easterly wind belts. The
air that rises at the 60° latitudes cools, releases precipitation in these regions, and
ultimately descends in the polar regions or in the subtropics.

In the equatorial region, the major air movement is vertical as the heated air rises, so
surface winds are weak. Surface waters are warm, and the air is saturated with water
vapor. Heavy precipitation keeps salinity relatively low.

Tropical regions, those near the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of Capricorn, are
characterized by strong north easterly trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and
southeasterly trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. These winds push the equatorial
currents and create moderately rough seas. Relatively little precipitation falls at higher
subtropical latitudes (about 30°), but precipitation increases toward the equator. They
carry large quantities of heat into higher latitudes.

The belts of high pressure previously described are centered in the subtropical regions.
The dry air descending on the subtropics results in little precipitation and a high rate of
evaporation, producing the highest surface salinities in the open ocean. Winds are weak
in the open ocean, as are currents. However, strong boundary currents (along the
boundaries of continents) flow north and south, particularly along the western margins of
the subtropical oceans.

The temperate regions are characterized by strong westerly winds blowing from the
southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern
Hemisphere. Precipitation is heavy.

The subpolar ocean is covered in winter by sea ice. It melts away, for the most part, in
summer. Icebergs are common, and the surface temperature seldom exceeds 5°C in the
summer months.

Surface temperatures remain at or near freezing in the polar areas, which are covered
with ice throughout most of the year. In these areas, which include the Arctic Ocean and
the ocean adjacent to Antarctica, there is no sunlight during the winter, and no night
during the summer.

(Explanation-
 77

Heat Redistribution

Ocean and Atmosphere: Heat from the equatorial regions is redistributed towards the poles through
both atmospheric circulation (trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies) and ocean currents. This
redistribution helps maintain a relatively stable temperature gradient across the planet, preventing
excessive heat buildup in equatorial zones and severe cold in polar regions.

Equatorial Region

 Heat and Humidity: The equator receives direct sunlight, leading to high temperatures. This causes
the air to expand, become less dense, and rise.

 Rainfall and Low Pressure: As the warm, moist air rises, it cools and condenses, resulting in heavy
rainfall and creating a low-pressure zone.

 Trade Winds: The movement of air from the subtropics toward the equatorial low-pressure zone
creates trade winds (northeasterly in the Northern Hemisphere, southeasterly in the Southern
Hemisphere).

 Ocean Currents: The trade winds push warm equatorial currents westward, contributing to heat
distribution across the globe.

 Salinity and Winds: Heavy rain leads to lower salinity in surface waters, and weak surface winds
prevail because of the vertical air movement.

Subtropical Regions

 High Pressure and Dry Air: Around 30° latitude, dry air descends, creating high-pressure belts.
This results in little precipitation, high evaporation, and the highest salinities in the open ocean.

 Climate Characteristics: The descending air leads to arid conditions, explaining why many of the
world's deserts are in these regions. Surface winds are generally weak.

 Ocean Currents and Boundary Currents: Although winds are weak in open ocean areas, strong
boundary currents develop along the continental margins, moving warm waters north and south.

Temperate Regions

 Westerly Winds and Precipitation: These regions experience strong westerly winds, blowing from
the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere.
Precipitation is generally high.

 Climate Characteristics: This leads to moderate temperatures and significant rainfall.

Polar Regions
 78

 Cold and Ice: At the poles, temperatures remain low throughout the year, with surface temperatures
often at or near freezing. Sea ice is common, and the winter months are dark with no sunlight.

 Seasonal Variations: In summer, the sea ice largely melts, but temperatures remain cool, seldom
exceeding 5°C. There is continuous sunlight during the summer, with no night.

 Polar Easterly Winds: Winds in these regions tend to move away from the poles, creating easterly
wind belts.)

Polar easterlies winds blowing from the poles toward approximately 60°N and S; winds
are northeasterly in the Northern Hemisphere and southeasterly in the Southern
Hemisphere
Describe the temperature distribution in relation to latitude.
Isotherm- A line connecting points of equal temperature. Lines of the constant
temperature. Isotherms are parallel to each other.
Ocean can be stratified vertically into 3 zone based on temperature:
 Upper zone
 Thermocline
 Deeper zone
Upper zone-
 Depth: 50 to 200m
 Temperature: similar as surface
 Also called as mixed layer
 More mixing occurs due to air water interface than any other zone
 Gaseous exchange occurs
 Can be greater than 200 m in winter
Thermocline-
 Very difficult to determine in ocean.
 Temperature gradient high
 If it is possible to determine the upper limit, lower one can’t be determined; hence
it is called as Thermocline zone (200-1000 m).
 Occurs in tropical, subtropical and mid latitude
 2 types- permanent thermocline (main, strong thermocline, found in low latitude
area where throughout the whole year summer season and mid latitude where there
 79

is little seasonal fluctuation) present all the time at depth between 200 & 1000 m
and seasonal thermocline
 Almost no thermocline in polar region
 There is secondary thermocline in mid latitude/ temperate region
 secondary thermocline- thermocline with greater width where there is a great
temperature difference between upper limit and lower limit and in the middle
region, another temperature gradient has been created
 thermocline very stable
 temperature below thermocline can be as low as 1°C or -1°C
Deep zone-
 from thermocline to the bottom
 if surface temperature is 25/26/27°C, temperature in 500m depth may be 7-8°C
and below 1000 m, rarely 5°C; 2°C in 4000m
 diurnal variation rarely more than 0.3°C; in some cases, it can be 2 or 3°C
Lec-23
Vertical temperature distribution-
After 1000m, there is no major variations in those temperature profiles

Low latitude
 Mixed layer- Depth around 200m; surface and subsurface gets mixed
 Thermocline present throughout the year
 Temperature below thermocline decreases up to 10°C or even less than that
 Normally no seasonal variation

Mid latitude
 Seasonal variation occurs; both summer and winter season
 Temperature difference in winter (10°C) is very low between the upper and lower
zone, no thermocline in winter but present in summer (seasonal thermocline)
 80

High latitude
Polar region-
 Upper layer 0°C
 Dicothermal layer: -1.6°C
 Lower layer 4°C

The dicothermal layer: A vertical ocean layer sometimes found in high northern
latitudes. It is a cold (as low as -1.6°C) layer (at 50-100 m) sandwiched/trapped between
a warm surface (0°C) and a warm deeper layer (4°C).

Upper layers and the thermocline

Below the surface the water can usually be divided into three zones in terms of its
temperature structure. There is an upper zone of 50 to 200 m depth with temperatures
similar to those at the surface, a zone below this extending from 200 to 1000 m in which
the temperature decreases rapidly, and a deep zone in which the temperature changes
slowly.
Typical temperatures at low latitudes would be 20°C at the surface, 8°C at 500 m, 5°C at
1000 m and 2°C at 4000 m.
The depth at which the temperature gradient (rate of decrease of temperature with
increase of depth) is a maximum is called the thermocline. With actual observations of
temperature in the sea it is often difficult to determine this depth precisely because of
minor irregularities in the temperature/depth profile and it is easier to pick out a
“thermocline zone” as a range of depth over which the temperature gradient is large
compared with that above and below. Even for this zone, it is often hard to define
precisely the depth limits, particularly the lower limit, and one must accept some degree
 81

of approximation in stating the depth limits of the thermocline zone. However, in low
and middle latitudes it is clear that there is a thermocline present all the time at
depths between 200 and 1000 m. This is referred to as the “main” or “permanent”
thermocline. In polar waters there is no permanent thermocline. The continued
existence of the thermocline requires explanation. One might expect that as the upper
waters are warmest, heat would be transferred downward, despite the inhibiting effect of
the stability in the pycnocline and that the temperature difference between the upper and
lower layers would eventually disappear. thermocline between the warm upper layer and
the deeper cooler water not only continues to exist but that the depth of the thermocline
in any locality appears to be substantially constant. Another factor limiting the increase
of upper-layer temperature in the tropic regions, where the heat input is maximal, is
that the waters there turn poleward after transiting the oceans and so carry heat away
from the tropic regions.

Temporal variations of temperature in the upper layer

The temperature in the upper zone shows seasonal variations, particularly in middle
latitudes. The layer between the surface and a depth of 25 to 200 m is usually at much
the same temperature as the surface water because of mixing due to wind waves. For this
reason, it is referred to as the mixed layer. In winter the surface temperature is low,
waves are large, and the mixed layer is deep and may extend to the main thermocline. In
summer the surface temperature rises, the water becomes more stable, and a
“seasonal” thermocline often develops in the upper zone. The thermocline zones are of
high stability (they are essentially the pycnocline zones), and for this reason they
separate the water of the upper from those of the deep zones.
At high latitudes, the surface temperature is much lower than at lower latitudes, while
the deep-water temperatures are little different. In consequence the main thermocline
may not be present and only a seasonal thermocline may occur. In high northern
latitudes, there is often a dicothermal layer at 50 to 100 m. This is a layer of cold
water, down to - 1.6°C, sandwiched between the warmer surface and deeper layers.
(Stability is maintained by an increase of salinity with depth through the layer.)
 82

Daily input of solar radiation is utilized in two ways- some of the solar radiation
increase water temperature and some portion gets evaporated.
Near equator- mostly evaporation occurs, so temperature of water does not increase
much.
 Maximum temp of ocean surface water found in the Aug-Sep
 Minimum temp of ocean surface water found in the Feb-Mar

Heat capacity of water is high, so water heat up slowly and min and max temp of water
can be found after 2 months of atmospheric min or max temp because of slow mixing.

Adiabatic effect: Adiabatic refers to the increase in temperature that results from
compression of water at increasing depths because of increasing pressure.

In situ temp: In place, i.e., in situ temperature of a sample of water is its temp at its
original depth

Potential temperature: is the temperature which a water parcel has when moved
adiabatically to another pressure.

Pressure in the ocean increases greatly downward. A parcel of water moving from one
pressure to another will be compressed or expanded. When a parcel of water is
compressed adiabatically, that is, without exchange of heat, its temperature increases.
When a parcel is expanded adiabatically, its temperature decreases.

In the ocean, we commonly use the sea surface as our "reference" pressure for potential
temperature - we compare the temperatures of parcels as if they have been moved,
without mixing or diffusion, to the sea surface. Since pressure is lowest at the sea
surface, potential temperature (atmospheric pressure and hydrostatic pressure) is
always lower than the actual temperature unless the water is lying at the sea
surface.
Potential density is always less than in situ density except at the surface, where the
adiabatic heating of water is zero.

If we have a water sample with an in-situ density (a) of 1.02567 g/cm3. We would
convert this value to the simplified form by first converting it to specific gravity.
 83

density of ocean water

Specific gravity = density of pure water
1.02567 g /cm3
= 1.00000 g /cm3

= 1.02567

This eliminates the density units, g/cm 3. The specific gravity of ocean water is then
inserted into the following equation to convert in situ density to the simpler form.
In situ density = (Specific gravity - 1) x 1000
= (1.02567 - 1) x 1000
= 25.67

Explain which factor is more effective in controlling the density in relation to

latitude. (salinity or temp)

When overturn occurs and surface water goes down, the internal temperature rises due to
compression of pressure.

Reflection and Absorption of Solar Energy Resulting from Different Angles of Incidence on a Flat
Sea

Elevation of Sun above Horizon 90° 60 30° 15° 5°

°
Percent of radiation reflected 2 3 6 20 40
Percent of radiation absorbed 98 97 94 80 60

Because of the low angle at which solar radiation strikes Earth’s surface toward the
poles, and the very reflective ice cover in polar latitudes, more energy is reflected back
into space than is absorbed. In contrast, because of the high angle at which sunlight
strikes Earth between 35°N and 40°S, more energy is absorbed than is radiated back
into space.

Horse latitude: either of two subtropical atmospheric high-pressure belts that encircle
Earth around latitudes 30° N and 30° S and that generate light winds and very little
precipitation and principle movement of (vertical descending) air mass.

The area of rising air at the equator is known as the doldrums intertropical convergence,
and the high-pressure areas at 30°N and S are known as the horse latitudes.
 84

The equatorial low-pressure belt lies along the equator and between 5°N and 5°s
latitudes.

The ITCZ is characterized by low atmospheric pressures (low intertropical pressures), as

a consequence of the upward movement induced by the trade winds convergence.
Intertropical Convergence Zone: A zone where N-E trade wind and S-E trade wind
converge. Usually, located at 5°N on the Pacific/ Atlantic; 7°S in Indian Ocean

Trade wind: The moving air mass in the subtropical region moves from subtropical
zone to equator. NE Trade winds moves out of the N-E in the northern hemisphere and
SE Trade winds moves out of the S-E in the southern hemisphere. (exam direction) The
trade winds can be found about 30° N and 30° S of the equator. Right at the equator
there is almost no wind at all—an area sometimes called the doldrums.

Westerlies: The air mass moving away from subtropical high-pressure belt toward
polar region in higher latitude. They blow in the middle latitudes between 35° and 65°
latitude.
They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards sub-polar low-pressure belts.
The winds blow from the S-W in the Northern Hemisphere and from the N-W in the
Southern Hemisphere. The westerlies of the Southern hemisphere are more robust and
constant than the westerlies of the Northern hemisphere. They play an important role in
carrying the warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents.
(direction of trade wind, easterlies, westerlies)

Seasonal wind pattern

During the Northern Hemisphere's summer, the cool air in the high-pressure cells
over the central part of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans descends and
flows outward toward the low-pressure areas. As the descending air moves outward
from the center of a high-pressure system, it is de-fleeted to the right, producing
winds that spiral in a clockwise direction around the high. On the northern side of
these high-pressure cells are the westerlies, and on the southern side are the north
 85

easterlies; the eastern side of the cell has northerly winds, and the western side has
southerly ones.
In the winter, the air circulates counterclockwise about the low-pressure cell over
the northern oceans, and the prevailing wind directions are those of the polar
easterlies and the westerlies.

Equatorial Currents, Boundary Currents, and Gyres-

Trade winds blowing from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere and from the
northeast in the Northern Hemisphere are the principal drivers of the system of ocean
surface currents. The trade winds thus set in motion the water masses between the
tropics. They develop the equatorial currents that travel along the equator worldwide.
They are called “north” and “south” equatorial currents, depending on their position
north or south of the equator. These currents move westward parallel to the equator.
Deflection by the Coriolis effect and deflection along continental margins partially
directs these currents away from the equator, as warm western boundary currents. The
name means that they are currents traveling along the western boundary of their ocean
basin. The Gulf Stream is an example.

At the same time, between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres, westerly winds
blow surface water in an easterly direction. These winds blow from the northwest in the
Southern Hemisphere and the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere. The Coriolis
effect and continental barriers turn this water toward the equator as a cold eastern
boundary current (eastern boundary of the ocean basin). The Peru Current is an example.

The combination of western boundary currents and eastern boundary currents produces
the dominant feature of ocean basin surface circulation, the subtropical gyre. It
rotates in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in a
counterclockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. (Gyres: These are large-scale
circular ocean current systems that dominate ocean surface circulation. Subtropical gyres, influenced by
both the trade winds and the westerlies, rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.)

At subpolar latitudes, the polar easterlies drive the surface currents in a westerly
direction and, in combination with the Coriolis effect, produce subpolar gyres that rotate
 86

in a pattern opposite that of the adjacent subtropical gyres. These subpolar gyres are best
developed in the Atlantic waters between Greenland and Europe and the Weddell Sea off
Antarctica.

(The friction between the water and the earth’s surface is small, the moving water is
deflected by the Coriolis effect, to the right of the wind direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. In the open sea, the deflection of
the surface current is at a 45° angle to the wind direction.)- Ekman transport
Lec-24
Langley is a unit of solar radiation equivalent to 1g calorie per square centimeter of
irradiated surface. (1 gram-calorie/cm2)

Loss and gain of heat depend on

latitude.
Equatorial region has cloud cover.
Therefore, as much sunlight does not
enter as it should. Rather it penetrates
more at 30-35° latitude. So, there is
more evaporation there. Evaporation is
less at 90° latitude. Conduction is
greater at 60° latitude. Back radiation is equal at all latitudes.

Temperature in equatorial low-pressure belt is high, wind is light, so the wind will rise
upwards, but slightly inclined, due to the Coriolis effect. This light wind rises and at
some point, cools and condenses and precipitation will occur in the subtropical region.
After precipitation, the wind becomes dry and light. That wind vertically descends. After
going down, this process will be repeated again. These events will occur at 30° latitude
where due to the Coriolis effect some wind will return towards the equator, and some
wind will try to move towards the pole. Wind will go to the pole and release heat and
will return to the equator. At 60° and 90°, the above phenomena of 0° and 30° will run
alternatively.
 87

The heat budget is expressed as:

Rate of heat gain - Rate of heat loss = Net rate of heat loss or gain.
In greater detail (Q is heat):
(Qsun + Qcurrent) – (Qradiation + Qevaporation + Qconduction) = Qnet
gain gain/loss loss loss loss gain/loss

If Qnet is positive, it means the temperature of the ocean in that locality is rising. If it is
negative, local temperature is falling. If it is zero, the temperature of the mass of water is
not changing.
Qcurrent and Qnet should be zero if we consider the world ocean over a long period of time.
Seasonal increases and decreases in temperature should average, so that Q net becomes
zero. Therefore, the rate at which heat is gained in the world ocean through solar
radiation should equal the rate at which heat is lost through radiation, evaporation, and
conduction into the atmosphere.

FIGURE: Avenues of Heat Flow between the Ocean

and the Atmosphere. Solar radiation (Qsolar) provides
heat to the oceans. It is circulated within the ocean by
currents (Qcurrent). Heat is lost from the ocean through
evaporation (Qevaporation), radiation (Qradiation), and
conduction (Qconduction). Note that the heat loss totals
100%, equaling the heat gain from the sun.

The heat budget for the entire world ocean

is expressed with these average values:
Qsun = Qradiation + Qevaporation + Qconduction
100%= 41% + 53% + 6%

The amount of heat lost by radiation, primarily of infrared wavelengths, is greatest

near the equator, where the greatest amount of solar energy is absorbed. The
greatest heat loss by evaporation is in dry subtropics. The heat lost through
conduction reaches a maximum along the western margins of ocean basins where warm
 88

water currents carry water into regions where the atmosphere is much colder than the
water.

Coriolis effect: An effect resulting from Earth’s rotation that causes particles in motion
to be deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere.

An air mass is rotating with Earth at 30°

latitude, which means it is traveling along
with Earth’s surface at 1400 km/h

at 0° latitude – 1600 km/h

at 30° latitude – 1400 km/h
at 60° latitude – 800 km/h
at 90° latitude – 0 km/h

Introductory Oceanography
Harold V. Thurman (1994)
United States of America (USA)
Macmillan Publishing Company
866 Third Avenue
New York, New York 10022

Lec- 25
 89

Physical properties of seawater

Scientists assign to pure water a density of 1.0000 grams per cubic centimeter
(g/cm3).

Seawater is, of course, not pure water, for it has various salts dissolved in it. Thus,
seawater density ranges from 1.02200 to 1.03000 g/cm3 in the open ocean, which
means it is 2-3% heavier than pure water.

Density is an important property of ocean water because density differences make water
masses sink or float, thus determining the vertical position and movement of ocean water
masses. For example, if saltwater (say of density 1.0270) is added to freshwater (density
1.0000), the denser saltwater would sink to the bottom. Density ranges from 1.02200 to
1.03000 g/cm3 in the open ocean. It is an important property of ocean water because it
determines the positions and motions of water masses in the ocean.

In a stable system, low-density water rests at the top of a column of water in which the
density increases with increasing depth.

The in-situ density (σ) of ocean water is its density in place, that is, at whatever depth it
is in the ocean. In situ density in the deeper trenches is about 5% greater than at the
ocean surface because of the effect of pressure.

For many oceanographic applications, it is useful to remove the adiabatic effects of

pressure on water temperature.

Adiabatic refers to the increase in temperature that results from compression of water at
increasing depths because of increasing pressure. The density value that has the adiabatic
temperature effect removed is called the potential density. Potential density is always
less than in situ density except at the surface, where the adiabatic heating of water
 90

is zero. Oceanographers consider potential density a useful property of ocean water

because subsurface currents flow along lines of equal potential density.

Salinity, freezing point, and temperature of maximum density

Density is affected by temperature, salinity, and pressure. With most substances, we
observe that “colder is denser.” As water cools, it gets denser—as long as the
temperature decrease occurs above 4°C. However, as the temperature of water is lowered
from 4° to 0°C, we observe that its density decreases.

In fig. 6-12, the freezing point and temperature of maximum density converge as they
drop. They coincide when the salinity reaches 24.7 ppt, at a temperature of -1.33°C. In
35 ppt salinity temperature at maximum density is -3.52 C and initial freezing point
is -1.91 C. IQ
When salinity is greater than 24.7%o, the density of water increases as temperature
drops, until the water freezes. Thus, unlike freshwater with its density anomaly at 4°C,
average seawater (34.7%o) has no such maximum density anomaly. Thus, cooling
surface water will become increasingly dense and tend to sink up to the point where it
 91

freezes on the surface. Because the components of salt (sodium and chlorine) have a
density greater than that of water, increasing water salinity also increases its density.

Lower latitude- temperature controlled

Higher latitude- salinity controlled IQ

It can be determined by observing the temperature-salinity-density relationships in figs.

7-1 and 7-2 that temperature change can be expected to have a much greater effect on
density in high-temperature, low-latitude areas than in polar regions. It can be noted
that the sigma isopleths (lines of constant density) are more nearly parallel to the
temperature axis for low temperatures than for high temperatures, showing a greater
density change per unit of temperature change in the high-temperature range.

Sigma and the variables that most affect it, temperature and salinity, are important
water characteristics, defined as conservative properties, used in the identification of
water masses. A conservative property of water is one not significantly altered by any
processes other than mixing and diffusion once the water sinks beneath the surface. A
nonconservative property of water is changed by some process other than mixing and
diffusion after ocean water sinks beneath the surface. An example is dissolved oxygen,
which is changed by biological processes.
 92

Figure 7-3 shows the change with depth of density, temperature, and salinity. In ocean
water, most properties change more rapidly vertically than horizontally. This is certainly
true of density (fig. 7-3A). Surface water density in the open ocean is affected primarily
by temperature changes (fig. 7-3B). The gain or loss of heat energy at the ocean surface
is important in controlling water density. However, in the extreme polar areas of the
ocean, where temperatures remain relatively constant, salinity changes can significantly
affect density (fig. 7—3C). Figure 7-3 shows the vertical distribution of density in
various regions of the ocean.

In the equatorial region, there is a shallow zone of low-density water near the surface.
Below this lies a zone where density increases very rapidly, called the pycnocline
(density slope). The pycnocline is a very stable barrier to mixing between low-density
water above and high-density water below. The pycnocline has a high gravitational
stability because it would require greater energy to move a mass of water up or down
 93

within the pycnocline, than it would to move an equal mass the same distance where
density changes very slowly with increasing depth.

The pycnocline results from the combined effect of rapid vertical temperature change
(the thermocline or temperature slope), and salinity change (the halocline or salinity
slope). The interrelation of these three zones determines the degree of separation
between the upper-water and deep-water masses (fig. 7-3). Blue lines in fig. 7-3A show
that the pycnocline is lacking in high latitudes. You can see that little difference exists
between surface water density and bottom water density in these polar areas. Thus, these
water columns are more inclined to mix than water columns possessing a pycnocline.
Deep-water zone- dense cool water; almost 80% water of whole; nutrient rich,
oxygenated water.

Lec-26

Abundance of Gases in Air and Seawater

Percentage by Volume Percentage by Volume in Percentage by Volume
Gas Symbol
in Atmosphere Surface Seawater in Total Oceans
Nitrogen N2 78.08 48 11
Oxygen O2 20.99 36 6
Carbon
CO2 0.03 15 83
dioxide
Argon, Ar, He,
0.90 1
Helium, neon Ne
Total 100 100 100

The most abundant gases in the atmosphere and in the oceans are N 2, O2, and CO2.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide play important roles in the ocean because they are necessary
to life, and biological activities modify their concentrations at various depths. Nitrogen is
not used directly by living organisms except for certain bacteria. Gases such as Ar, He,
and Ne are present in small amounts, but they neither interact with the ocean water nor
are used by its inhabitants.
 94

The amount of any gas that can be held in solution without causing the solution either to
gain or to lose gas is the saturation value. The saturation value changes because it
depends on the temperature, salinity, and pressure of the water. IQ

Colder water holds more dissolved gas than warmer water; less salty water holds more
gas than more salty water, and water under more pressure holds more gas than water
under less pressure.

In the process known as photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide to form organic
molecules and produce oxygen as a by-product. Since plants require sunlight for
photosynthesis, plantlike marine organisms are confined, on the average, to the top 100
m of the sea, where sufficient light is available. Therefore, oxygen is produced in surface
water, and carbon dioxide is consumed there.
By contrast, respiration, which breaks down organic
substances to provide energy, requires oxygen and
produces carbon dioxide and energy. All living organisms
respire in order to produce energy in living cells, and
respiration occurs at all depths in the oceans.

Decomposition, the bacterial breakdown of nonliving

organic material, also requires oxygen and releases carbon
dioxide.

Oxygen can be added to the oceans only at the surface, from

exchange with the atmosphere or as a waste product of
photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide also enters from the
atmosphere at the sea surface, but it is available at all depths from respiration and
decomposition.

If the water is quiet, the nutrients and sunlight abundant, and a large population of plants
is present, oxygen values at the surface can rise above the saturation value to 150% or
 95

more. This water is supersaturated. Wave action tends to liberate oxygen to the
atmosphere and return the condition to the saturated state.

Below the surface, the oxygen minimum occurs at about 800 m depth. At depths greater
than this, the rates of removal of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide both fall
because the population density of animals and the abundance of decaying organic matter
have decreased. The slow supply of oxygen to depth by water sinking from the surface
gradually increases the oxygen concentration above that found at the oxygen minimum
depth.

Very low or zero concentrations of oxygen occur in the bottom waters of isolated deep
basins, which have little or no exchange or replacement of water. These include the
bottoms of trenches, deep basins behind a shallow entrance sill (the Black Sea, for
example), and the bottoms of deep fjords. The water is trapped and becomes stagnant;
respiration and decomposition use up the oxygen faster than the slow circulation of water
to this depth can replace it. The bottom water becomes anoxic, or stripped of dissolved
oxygen. The average overall concentration of carbon dioxide throughout the oceans is
not substantially affected by biological processes, but tends to remain almost constant,
controlled by temperature, salinity, and pressure.

The saturation value of gases dissolved in seawater varies with salinity,

temperature, and pressure. Carbon dioxide is added to seawater from the atmosphere
at the sea surface and by respiration and decay processes at all depths; it is removed at
the surface by photosynthesis. Oxygen is added only at the surface from the atmosphere
and the photosynthetic process; it is depleted at all depths by respiration and decay.
Seawater may be supersaturated with oxygen or it may become anoxic. Carbon dioxide
levels tend to remain constant over depth. Carbon dioxide is the seawater’s buffer,
keeping the pH range of ocean water between 7.5 and 8.5.

Nutrients and Organics

 96

Ions required for plant growth are known as nutrients; these are the fertilizers of the
oceans. As on land, plants require nitrogen and phosphorus in the forms of nitrate
(NO3-) and phosphate (PO43- ) ions. A third nutrient required in the oceans is the silicate
ion (SiO4-), which is needed to form the hard-outer wall of the single-celled plantlike
organisms called diatoms and the skeletal parts of some protozoans. These three nutrients
are among the dissolved substances brought to the sea by the rivers and land runoff.
Nitrates and phosphates are continually recycled from decomposing organic matter.
Despite their importance, nitrates, phosphates, and silicates are present in very low
concentrations.

Nutrients in seawater:
Element Concentration (µg/kg)
Nitrogen (N) 500

Phosphorous (P) 70
Silicon (Si) 3000

The concentration ratios of some nutrient ions vary, because some of these ions are
closely related to the life cycles of living organisms. Populations of organisms remove
nutrients during periods of growth and reproduction, temporarily reducing the amounts in
solution. Later, when the population declines, decay processes and animal wastes return
the ions to the seawater. Therefore, nutrients are nonconservative for they do not
maintain constant ratios in the way that most major salt ions do. A wide variety of
organic substances is present in seawater. Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids (or fats),
vitamins, hormones, and their breakdown products are all present. Some are eventually
reduced to their inorganic components; others are used directly by organisms and are
incorporated into their systems. Another portion of the organic matter accumulates in the
sediments, where over geologic time it slowly forms deposits of oil and gas.

Biogeochemical Cycling
 97

In biogeochemical cycles, elements will follow a pattern where an inorganic form is

taken in by an autotrophic organism that synthesizes it into organic molecules. The food
is passed through a food web that usually ends in bacterial decomposition of the
organically produced compounds into the inorganic forms that may again be used in
autotrophic production.

A New Role for Bacteria Although it has been widely accepted that zooplankton are the
primary grazers of phytoplankton, new evidence indicates that free-living bacteria may
consume up to 50% of the production of phytoplankton. The bacteria are thought to
consume the dissolved organic matter that is lost from the conventional food web by
three processes:
1. Phytoplankton exudate. As phytoplankton age, they lose some of their cytoplasm
directly into the ocean.
2. Phytoplankton “ munchates ” As phytoplankton are eaten by zooplankton,
cytoplasm is “spilled” into the ocean.
3. Zooplankton excretions. The liquid excretions of zooplankton are dissolved into
ocean water.

Free-living heterotrophic bacteria absorb this dissolved organic matter and reenter the
conventional food web primarily through the grazing of microscopic flagellates. Other
larger zooplankton may be important in this process locally.

The details of the process by which free-living bacteria participate in the marine food
web are still under investigation, but microbial ecologists studying the problem are
convinced the evidence indicates bacteria have an important role in the transfer of energy
through the marine ecosystem. Thus, bacteria may have more varied roles in the
biogeochemical cycling of matter in the oceans than had previously been known.

Free-living bacteria may compete very effectively with zooplankton for the
photosynthetic production of phytoplankton. Although some investigators disagree,
evidence suggests that the organic matter consumed by bacteria may not reenter the basic
 98

food web that supports the ocean’s fish populations. It appears that most of the organic
matter consumed by free-living bacteria may be confined to a microbial loop and lost
forever to the world fish populations because larger zooplankton may not be efficient
grazers of the protozoans that are thought to be the main bacteriovores.
Bacteria are eaten by flagellates and ciliates, which may then be eaten by zooplankton.
However, these bacteria and the tiniest protists may well escape the filtration nets of
most grazers, so that much of this bacterial production is lost from the larger cycle and
remains trapped in a microbial loop.

Carbon Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Cycles

The element carbon is the basic component of all organic compounds (including
carbohydrates, protein, and fats). There is no scarcity of carbon for photosynthetic
productivity: only about 1% of the total carbon in the sea is involved in photosynthetic
productivity. (The remainder is in seawater as bicarbonate ions, or is bound into calcium
carbonate shells.)

Comparatively, nitrogen compounds involved in photosynthetic productivity may be ten

times the total nitrogen compound concentration that can be measured as a yearly
average. This level implies that the soluble nitrogen compounds must be cycled
completely up to ten times per year. Available phosphates may be turned over up to four
times per year.

Comparing the ratio of carbon to nitrogen to phosphorus in dry weights of diatoms, we

find that the proportions are 41:7:1. This ratio is also observed in tire zooplankton that
feed on the diatoms, and in ocean water samples taken worldwide. Thus, phytoplankton
take up nutrients in the ratio in which they are available in the ocean water and pass them
on to zooplankton in the same ratio. When these plankton and animals die, carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorus are restored to the water in this ratio.

Biogeochemical Cycling
 99

The chemical components of organic matter enter the biological system through plant
photosynthesis (or bacterial chemosynthesis). They are passed on to animal populations
through feeding patterns. When the plants and animals die, their organic remains are
converted to inorganic form by bacterial or other decomposition processes. In this form,
they are again available for uptake by plants. A, carbon cycle. There is a large supply of
inorganic carbon in the oceans, and it is not a limiting factor in biological productivity.
Only about 1% of the carbon dissolved in the ocean is involved in plant productivity. B,
nitrogen cycle. The total amount of nitrogen fixed into organic molecules at any given
time may be 10 times as great as the yearly average of soluble nitrogen compounds
dissolved in ocean water. Therefore, each nitrogen atom must be recycled
biogeochemically about 10 times per year. Also, the decomposition of organic nitrogen
compounds back into the preferred inorganic form of nitrogen, nitrate (NO 3), requires
three steps of bacterial decomposition. As a result, some of this process may not be
completed until the molecules sink beneath the euphotic zone, where they are
unavailable to algae. Nitrogen is considered to be the nutrient that is most likely to
limit biological productivity as a result of its depletion. C, phosphorus cycle.
Although each phosphorus atom may need to be recycled up to 4 times per year to
maintain biological productivity in the oceans, it is seldom depleted to the point of
limiting biological productivity. Two factors that help get organic phosphorus back into a
form usable as nutrients by plants rather quickly are autolytic breakdown and the single
step of bacterial decomposition required. The possible “microbial loop” is indicated by
the dashed red line in B and C.

The Carbon Cycle

 100

This cycle involves the uptake of carbon dioxide by algae and plants for their use in the
photosynthetic process. Carbon dioxide is returned to the ocean water primarily through
the respiration of algae, animals, and bacteria and secondarily by the breakdown of
dissolved organic materials. The oceans are believed to remove about 25 to 50 billion
tonnes of carbon from the atmosphere each year. We refer to the “biological pump” that
is believed to photosynthesize this atmospheric CO 2 into organic matter, and then
transport it to ocean sediments, where it may be held for millions of years. The
magnitude of this “biological pump” is poorly understood. With the threat of an
increased greenhouse effect resulting in part from increasing CO 2 concentration in the
atmosphere, the marine carbon cycle has become an important research focus.

The Nitrogen Cycle

 101

Nitrogen is essential in producing amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. These
photosynthetic products are consumed by animals and free-living bacteria. They are then
passed on to the decomposing bacteria, along with dead algae, dead animal tissue, and
excrement.
The decomposing bacteria gain energy from breaking down these compounds. This
breakdown liberates inorganic compounds, such as nitrates, that are the basic nutrients
used by algae.

Different bacteria involved in the nitrogen cycle make it somewhat complicated.

Although some bacteria consume dissolved organic matter or convert organic
compounds into inorganic substances, others can bind nitrogen (N 2) into useful nutrients
(NO3). These are called nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Another special group is denitrifying
bacteria, whose metabolism depends upon the breakdown of nitrates and the liberation of
molecular nitrogen.
 102

Studies of nutrients cycles clearly indicate that nitrogen availability is a limiting factor in
productivity during summer. One reason is that the process of converting organic
substances to useful nitrate through bacterial action may require up to 3 months. The
conversion begins in the lower portion of the photosynthetic zone as particulate matter
sinks toward the ocean bottom. By the time this conversion is completed, the nitrogen
compounds usually are below the euphotic zone and thus are unavailable for
photosynthesis. They cannot readily be returned to the light zone during summer due to
strong thermostratification throughout much of the ocean surface. For nitrates to again
become available to phytoplankton, the thermostratification must disappear, allowing
upwelling and mixing during winter.

The Phosphorus Cycle

The phosphorus cycle is simpler than the nitrogen cycle. It is simpler primarily because
there is a single step of bacterial action involved in breaking down organic phosphorus
compounds. The rate at which the organic phosphate compounds can be decomposed
into useful nutrients is much faster than for nitrogen. Consequently, much of it can be
completed above the oxygen compensation depth. Thus, phosphorus is made available
for photosynthesis within the photosynthetic zone. Lack of phosphorus is rarely a
 103

limiting factor of algae productivity throughout most of the ocean. However, there is
evidence it may limit production in some tropical ecosystems.

The Silicon Cycle

A fourth cycle, for silicon, is also important. Silicon is not a nutrient, the shells of
diatoms are composed of silica (SiO2). Availability of silica can be a limiting factor in
the productivity of diatoms, but it is rarely a limiting factor of total primary productivity,
because not all phytoplankton require silica as a protective covering. Silicon probably
never will be a limiting nutrient in total productivity because it is so abundant.

Silicon concentrations range from unmeasurable up to 400 mg/m 3. Fluctuations in

concentration roughly coincide with those observed in nitrogen and phosphorus.
However, the fluctuation displays a much greater amplitude than those for nitrogen and
phosphorus. This condition is probably due to the fact that silica does not undergo
bacterial decay and is taken directly into solution.

Generally, individual members of a feeding population are larger—but not too much
larger—than the individuals in the population they eat, although there are outstanding
exceptions to this condition. The blue whale, possibly the largest animal known to have
existed on Earth, feeds upon krill, which attain maximum lengths of only 6 cm.
Remember that the transfer of energy from one population to another represents a
continuous flow of energy. This flow is interrupted by small-scale recycling and storage
of this energy, which slows the process of converting potential (chemical) energy to
kinetic energy, then to heat energy, and finally to entropy. However, despite this small-
scale cycling of energy, all energy that enters the organic community ultimately is lost to
entropy.

Lec- 27
Nutrients
Factors affecting nutrient distribution.
 104

Light and Primary Production

Phytoplankton growth is controlled in part by
the light at the ocean surface.

At polar latitudes, the summer days of nearly

continuous but low-intensity daylight and the
little sunlight available during the rest of the
year result in a short period of rapid growth
during the midsummer.

At the middle latitudes, the sunlight’s intensity

and duration vary with the seasons. The spring
increase in solar radiation warms the surface
and increases the density stability of the water
column, helping the phytoplankton to remain at the surface.

Figures 10.7b and 10.8 show an initial increase in phytoplankton biomass with the
lengthening of daylight hours in the spring. This is followed by a decrease in
phytoplankton biomass due to animal grazing. A second increase in the population may
occur in the late summer or early fall; this is caused by other phytoplankton species that
reproduce later in the year.

Compare figures 10.7a and 10.7b with figure 10.7c, showing the lower level but
extended growth of phytoplankton in the tropics. The population increase associated with
the seasonal change in tropic-latitude sunlight is slight; the year-round sunlight provides
abundant high-intensity solar energy at all times.

The phytoplankton must remain in the ocean’s surface layers to take advantage of the
available sunlight. The warm surface layer of low-density water in the tropics exists all
year long, and the phytoplankton are not displaced easily into the underlying more dense
 105

water. At midlatitudes a low-density, warm surface layer is found only in summer; if the
warm weather is late or broken by cool periods, both the formation of the low-density
layer and the active growth of the phytoplankton are delayed. During the winter, surface
cooling and storms mix the surface layers into deeper water. At polar latitudes the
growing season is short; the low level of sunlight warms the sea surface to form only a
weakly stable density layer. The addition of low-salinity water from melting sea ice helps
to maintain a stable water column at high latitudes.

If light were the sole factor influencing phytoplankton growth, the level of this growth in
the tropics would be expected to maintain year-round levels similar to the summer values
shown for the polar and middle latitudes. But nutrients as well as light are required if the
phytoplankton population is to increase.

Nutrients and Primary Production

At polar latitudes, winter overturn resupplies the surface waters with nutrients. The
growing season is short, and the nutrients are more than sufficient. In polar latitudes,
the availability of light controls phytoplankton growth.

In middle latitudes, the surface nutrients are replaced each year by winter storms and the
cooling of the surface water to produce a shallow overturn. Nutrients are available to the
phytoplankton cells when the increase in spring sunlight warms the surface and decreases
the surface water density. Together the sunlight and nutrient supply trigger the first
period of phytoplankton growth. Grazing organisms decrease the phytoplankton and
 106

release nutrients for the second phytoplankton increase during the late summer. The
phytoplankton bloom continues, although controlled by the rate of nutrient resupply, and
the population declines with the reduction in light levels as winter begins. Note the
interaction between the sunlight, the stability of the surface water, the nutrients in the
surface water, and the phytoplankton biomass in figure 10.8.
In the tropics, lack of surface mixing and overturn mean low levels of nutrients and a low
plant biomass despite the constant high level of solar energy. When a plant or an animal
dies, organisms known as decomposers (bacteria and fungi) release the energy within the
organism’s tissues to the environment and break down the organism’s complex organic
molecules to basic molecules, such as carbon dioxide, nutrients, and water. Since no
significant amount of new matter comes to the earth from space, living systems must
recycle inorganic molecules to form the organic compounds required for their systems
and life processes.

Nitrogen is essential in the formation of proteins, and phosphorus is required in energy

reactions, cell membranes, and nucleic acids. Nitrogen in the form of nitrates, and
phosphorus in the form of phosphates are two soluble nutrients that are removed from the
water by the phytoplankton as their populations grow and reproduce. Nitrogen and
phosphorus are cycled into the animal populations as the animals feed on the plants and
are returned to the water as organisms die and decay. Excretory products from the
animals are also added to the seawater, broken down, and used again by a new
generation of plants and animals. Nitrogen gas is useless to plants; it must be converted
to nitrate to be incorporated into plant tissue. This is done by a few species of
microorganisms that convert nitrogen gas to ammonia, other species that convert
ammonia to nitrite, and still other species that change nitrite to nitrate, the form most
easily absorbed by the plants.

There are many other inorganic nutrients that are related to phytoplankton growth. Some
areas of the oceans have abundant nitrates and phosphates but show puzzlingly low
levels of primary production. Nineteen ninety-four experiments in the equatorial Pacific
proved that it is possible to cause a surge in phytoplankton production by adding soluble
 107

iron to the surface water. However, after an initial spurt, the growth slows and levels off
as the iron reacts with other dissolved substances and sinks. Nineteen ninety-five studies
of primary production in Antarctic waters that are high in nutrients but low in production
showed similar results. It is possible to follow the cyclic path of any molecule required
for life. Water is a requirement for life; it is part of all life processes and is cycled over
and over through life-forms, time, and space.

Lec- 28
30-05-24
Chapter no 6: Mixing process in ocean
Wave

Definition- A disturbance that moves over or through a medium with a speed determined
by the properties of the medium.

Characteristics:
1. Characteristics used to describe waves are wavelength (L), Wave height (H),
wave period (T), and wave speed (S).
2. If water depth is greater than 1/2 wavelength, a progressive wave travels as a
deep-water wave with a speed that is directly proportional to wavelength. If water
depth is less than 1/20 wavelength, the wave will move as a shallow-water wave,
the speed of which increases with increased water depth.
3. Crests are the high parts of the wave. The portion of an ocean wave that is
displaced above the still-water fine.
4. Troughs are the low parts of the wave.
5. Wave height (H) is the vertical distance between the crest and trough.
6. The horizontal distance between any two corresponding points on successive
waveforms, such as from crest to crest, or from trough to trough, is the
wavelength, L.
7. The ratio of wave height to wavelength, H/L, is called wave steepness.
 108

8. The time that elapses during the passing of one full wave, or wavelength, is the
wave's period, T (for time).
Speed (S) = Wavelength (L) / Period (T)
9. Another characteristic related to wavelength and speed is frequency. Frequency
(/) is the number of wavelengths that pass a fixed point per unit of time and is
equal to 1/T. If 6 wavelengths pass a point in 1 min, then:
Speed (S) = Lf
= 156 m * 6/min = 936 m/min = 15.6 m/s

Types of waves: Progressive waves may be longitudinal, transverse, or orbital.

1. Longitudinal waves: In longitudinal waves (push-pull), such as sound waves, the

particles that are in vibratory motion “push-and-pull” in the same direction that the
energy is traveling, like a spring whose coils are alternately compressed and spread. A
wave form travels through the medium by compressing and decompressing. Energy may
be transmitted through all states of matter—gaseous, liquid, or solid—by this
longitudinal movement of particles.
 109

2. Transverse waves: In transverse waves (side-to-side), energy travels at right angles

to the direction of particle vibration. An example is the wave created when one end of a
rope is fastened while the other end is moved up-and-down or side-to-side by hand. A
waveform is set up in the rope and progresses along it, and energy is transmitted from the
motion of the hand to the fastened end. Generally, this type of wave transmits energy
only through solids, because it is only in a solid that particles are strongly bound to one
another.

Longitudinal and transverse waves are called body waves, as they transfer energy
through a body of matter.

3. Orbital waves or interface waves: Waves that transmit energy along an interface
between any two fluids of different density have particle movements that are neither
longitudinal nor transverse. The best example of such an interface is that between air and
water (atmosphere and ocean). We may say that the movement of particles along such an
interface involves components of both longitudinal and transverse waves, because the
particles move in circular orbits. Thus, waves at the ocean surface are orbital waves or
interface waves. IQ

On the basis of depth, waves are 3 types-

 110

1. Deep-Water Waves: Ocean waves having the “ideal” characteristics just discussed
belong to a category called deep-water waves. Such waves travel across the ocean where
the water depth is greater than one-half the wavelength. They are not affected by the
ocean floor. Included in deep-water waves are all wind-generated waves as they move
across the open ocean.
Speed (m/s) = gT/ 2π= 1.56T IQ

2. Shallow-Water Waves: Waves in which depth (d) is less than 1/20 of the
wavelength
(L/20) are classified as shallow-water waves or long waves. Included in this category are
wind-generated waves that have moved into shallow nearshore areas; tsunami (seismic
sea waves), generated by earthquakes in the ocean floor; and tide waves, generated
by gravitational attraction of the sun and moon. In these waves, the wavelength is
very great relative to water depth, and wave speed increases with increasing ocean depth
(d):

Speed (m/s) = √(gd) = 3.1 √(d(m))

 111

Particle motion in shallow-water waves is in a very flat elliptical orbit that approaches
horizontal oscillation. The vertical component of particle motion decreases with
increasing depth. The presence of shallow-water waves can be detected at the ocean
bottom and therefore can affect the bottom.

3. Transitional Waves: Transitional

waves have wavelengths greater
than twice the water depth, but less
than 20 times. The speed of
transitional waves is controlled
partially by wavelength and partially
by water depth. Deep-water waves
generated by winds at the ocean
surface usually have periods of 10 to
12 s. They maintain their periods after
encountering shallow coastal water.
Figure 9-5 shows the concentration of
energy in ocean waves that have
periods from less than 0.1 s to more
than 1 day. The illustration also shows the principal causes of waves of different periods.

Another type of wave-

Internal waves: A wave that develops below the surface of a fluid, the density of which
changes with increased depth. This change may be gradual or occur abruptly at an
interface.
 112

There are waves that occur at the interface between the atmosphere and the ocean, where
an obvious density discontinuity exists. However, such density discontinuities also exist
within the ocean water column itself. These are sites for generation of internal waves.
Just as energy can be transmitted along the interface between the atmosphere and the
ocean, it also can be transmitted as an interface wave along density interfaces beneath the
ocean surface in what are called internal waves.

Internal waves may have heights exceeding 100

m.
The greater the difference in density between the
two fluids, the faster the waves will move.

Internal waves are known to have periods related

to tidal forces, indicating that these forces may be
a significant cause. Underwater avalanches in the
form of turbidity currents, wind stress, and energy put into the water by moving vessels
may also be causes of internal waves. It is thought that parallel slicks seen on surface
waters may overlie troughs of internal waves. The slicks are caused by a film of surface
debris that accumulates and dampens surface waves.

Internal waves reach greater heights from a smaller energy input than do the waves
resulting from very large energy input observed at the ocean’s surface. This is because
they move along interfaces, such as the pycnocline, across which the density difference
is considerably less than that which exists between the ocean surface and the atmosphere.
They are thought to move as shallow-water waves at speeds considerably less than those
of surface waves, with periods of 5 to 8 min and wavelengths of 0.6 to 0.9 km.

Capillary wave: Ocean wave whose wavelength is less than 1.74 cm. The dominant
restoring force for such waves is surface tension.
 113

Gravity wave: A wave for which the dominant restoring force is gravity. Such waves
have a wavelength of more than 1.74 cm (0.7 in), and their velocity of propagation is
controlled mainly by gravity.

Tsunami
Seismic sea wave. A long-period gravity wave generated by a submarine earthquake or
volcanic event. Not noticeable on the open ocean but builds up to great heights in
shallow water.
The Japanese call the large, destructive waves that occasionally roll into their harbors
tsunami, or “harbor waves.” Tsunami are unusual waves that originate from
earthquakes. News media often mistakenly call them “tidal waves”, which implies they
are related to the tides, but no such relation exists.

Tsunami are usually caused by fault movement, or displacement in Earth’s crust along a
fracture. This not only causes an earthquake, but also a sudden change in water level at
the ocean surface above. Secondary events, such as underwater avalanches produced by
the faulting, may also produce tsunami.

Because the wavelength of a typical tsunami exceeds 200 km, it is obviously a shallow-
water wave, the speed of which is determined by water depth. Moving at great speeds in
the open ocean, well over 700 k/h, these waves have heights of only approximately 0.5
m in the open ocean. Thus, tsunami are not readily observable until they reach shore. In
shallow water, they slow, and the water begins to pile up. Tsunami may form crests that
exceed 30 m height, rushing into unsuspecting harbors with destructive results. A
tsunami may consist of a single wave, but multiple waves are much more likely
depending on how the earthquake releases energy.

The ocean most plagued by tsunami is the Pacific. It is ringed by a series of trenches
that are unstable margins of lithospheric plates, along which large-magnitude
earthquakes occur.
 114

Lec-28
24.09.24
Wind generated waves: IQ
As the wind blows over the ocean surface, it creates pressure and stress. These deform
the ocean surface into small, rounded waves with extremely short wavelengths, less than
1.74 cm. Commonly they are called ripples, but oceanographers call them capillary
waves. The name comes from capillarity (the surface tension of water). Surface tension
is the dominant restoring force that works to destroy these tiny waves, restoring the
smooth ocean surface
once again. Capillary waves characteristically have rounded crests and V-shaped
troughs.

As capillary wave development

increases, the sea surface takes on a
rougher character. This “catches” more
of the wind, allowing the wind and
ocean surface to interact more
efficiently, transferring more energy to
the water. As more energy is transferred to the ocean, gravity waves develop. They have
wavelengths exceeding 1.74 cm and are shaped more like a sine curve. Because they
reach greater height at this stage, gravity replaces surface tension as the dominant
restoring force, giving these waves their name. The length of these “young” waves is
generally 15 to 35 times their height. As additional energy is gained, wave height
increases more rapidly than wavelength. The crests become pointed and the troughs are
rounded. When the steepness reaches a ratio of 1/7, the speed with which the waves
travel becomes 1.2 times that of typical deep-water waves.
Energy imparted by the wind increases wave height, length, and speed. When wave
speed reaches that of the wind, neither height nor length can change because there is no
net energy exchange, so the wave is at its maximum size.
 115

The variety of wave periods and wavelengths is caused by frequently changing wind
speed and direction. Factors that are important in increasing the amount of energy that
waves obtain are (1) wind speed, (2) the duration of time during which the wind blows in
one direction, and (3) the fetch—the distance over which the wind blows in one
direction.

Wave height is directly related to the energy in a wave. Wave heights in a sea area are
usually less than 2 m, although it is not uncommon to observe waves with heights of 10
m and periods of 12 s. As sea waves gain energy, their steepness increases. When
steepness reaches a critical value of 1/7 (H = 1/7L), open ocean breakers form, called
whitecaps.

Swell:
As waves generated in a sea area move toward its margins, where wind speeds diminish,
they eventually move faster than the wind. When this occurs, the wave steepness
decreases, and they become long-crested waves called swell.
The swell moves with little loss of energy over large stretches of the ocean surface,
transporting energy away from the wind-energy-input area of the sea area. Most of this
energy eventually will be released along the continental margins, as a major erosion
agent.
Waves with longer length, traveling faster, leave the sea area first. They are followed by
shorter-length, slower wave trains, or groups of waves. This progression illustrates the
principle of wave dispersion, which is a sorting of waves by their wavelength. In the
generating area, waves of many wavelengths are present. In deep water, wave speed is a
function of wavelength, so the longer waves “outrun” the shorter ones.
As a group of waves leaves a sea area and becomes a swell wave train, the group moves
across the ocean surface at only one-half the speed of an individual wave in the group.
Progressively, the leading wave disappears. However, the same number of waves always
remains in the group. As the leading wave disappears, a new wave replaces it at the back
of the group.
 116

Interference Patterns of wave

Because swells may move away from a number of storm areas in any ocean, it is
inevitable
that the swell from different storms will run together and the waves will clash, or
interfere with one another. This gives rise to a special feature of wave motion:
interference patterns.

An interference pattern produced when two or more wave systems collide is the
algebraic sum of the disturbance that each wave would have produced individually. The
result may be a larger or smaller trough or crest, depending on conditions. When swells
from two storm areas collide, the interference pattern may be constructive or destructive,
but it is
more likely to be mixed.

Ideally, constructive interference results when wave trains having the same wavelength
come together in phase, meaning crest-to-crest and trough-to-trough. If we sum the
displacements that would result from each wave individually, we find that the resulting
interference pattern is a wave having the same length as the two converging wave
systems, but with a wave height equal to the sum of the individual wave heights.
 117

Destructive interference results when wave crests from one swell coincide with the
troughs from a second swell. If the waves have identical characteristics, the algebraic
sum of the crest plus the trough would be zero, and the energy of these waves would
cancel each other.

However, it is more likely that the two swell systems possess waves of varied heights
and lengths and would come together with a mixture of destructive and constructive
interference. Thus, a more complex mixed interference pattern would develop. It is such
interference that explains the occurrence of a varied sequence of high and lower waves
and other irregular wave patterns we observe when swell approaches the seashore.

Surf
Most waves generated in the sea area by storm winds move across the ocean as swell.
They release their energy along the margins of continents in the surf zone, where the
swell forms breakers. As deep-water waves of the swell move toward continental margin
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over gradually shoaling water (water depth decreasing), they eventually encounter water
depths
that are less than one-half of their wavelength. These shoaling depths interfere with water
particle movement at the base of the wave, so the wave slows. As one wave slows, the
following waveform, which is still moving at unrestricted speed, overtakes the wave that
is being slowed, thus reducing the wavelength. The energy in the wave remains the same,
so it must go somewhere, so wave height increases. The crests become narrow and
pointed and the troughs become wide curves, a waveform previously described for high-
energy waves in the open sea. The increase in wave height accompanied by a decrease in
wavelength increases the steepness (H/L) of the waves. As the wave steepness reaches
1/7, the waves break as surf. If the surf is swell that has traveled from distant storms,
breakers will develop relatively near shore in shallow water, the shoaling of which is
primarily responsible for their breaking. By the time waves break, they have become
shallow-water waves. The horizontal water motion associated with such waves moves
water alternately toward and away from the shore, in a sort of oscillation. The surf will
be characterized by parallel lines of relatively uniform breakers.

However, if the surf is composed of waves that have been generated by local wind, the
waves may not have been sorted into swell. The surf may be more nearly characterized
by unstable, deep-water, high-energy waves with steepness already near 1/7. They will
break shortly after feeling bottom some distance from shore and the surf will be rough,
choppy, and irregular.
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Ideally, when the water depth is about 1.3 times the breaker height, the crest of the wave
breaks, producing surf. When the water depth becomes less than 1/20 the wavelength,
waves in the surf zone begin to behave as shallow-water waves. Particle motion is
greatly hampered by the bottom, and a very significant transport of water toward the
shoreline occurs. Breaking in the surf results from severe restriction of particle motion
near the waves bottom. This slows the wave form, but at the surface, individual water
particles that are orbiting have not been slowed, because they have no contact with the
bottom. Thus, the top of the waveform leans shoreward as the bottom of the waveform
“drags bottom.”

The entire waveform slows, water moves faster in the circular orbits near the surface due
to increasing wave height. This causes water particles at the ocean/atmosphere interface
to move faster toward shore than the waveform itself. This motion can be seen
particularly well in plunging breakers, which have a curling crest that moves over an air
pocket. This results because the curling particles literally outrun the wave, and there is
nothing beneath them to support their motion. Plunging breakers form on moderately
steep beach slopes.

The more commonly observed breaker is the spilling breaker. These result from a
relatively gentle slope of the ocean bottom, which more gradually extracts energy from
the wave, producing a turbulent mass of air and water that runs down the front slope of
the wave instead of producing a spectacular cresting curl. Because of the gradual
extraction of energy of spilling breakers, they have a longer life span and give surfers a
longer, if less exciting, ride than do the plunging breakers.

Wave Refraction
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As discussed, waves begin to bunch up and wavelengths become shorter as swell begins
to “feel bottom” upon approaching the shore. However, it is seldom that swell will
approach a shore at a perfect right angle (90°). Some segment of the wave can be
expected to feel bottom first, and therefore it will slow before the rest of the wave. This
bends the wave front, called refraction, as waves approach the shore. As shown in fig. 9-
13, an irregular shoreline can result from an irregular bottom topography, because it
slows portions of waves that approach the shore. Wave refraction unevenly distributes
wave energy along the shoreline. We can construct lines that are perpendicular to the
wave fronts, and space them so the energy between lines is equal at all times. These are
called orthogonal lines or wave “rays”.
You can see that waves converge on headlands that jut into the ocean, but the same
waves diverge in bays. Thus, a concentration of energy is released against the headlands,
while energy is more dispersed in bays. The result is heavy erosion of headlands,
whereas deposition may occur in bays.
The greater energy of waves breaking on headlands is reflected in an increased wave
height.

Wave Diffraction
Wave diffraction can be considered as the bending of waves
around objects. It is this kind of movement that allows waves
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to move past barriers into harbors as energy moves laterally along the crest of the wave.
This bending is on a much smaller scale and is less easily explained than the bending
discussed in refraction, which is a simple response to changes in velocity. Diffraction
results because any point on a wave front can be a source from which energy can
propagate in all directions.

Wave Reflection

Not all of the energy of waves is expended as they rush onto the shore. A vertical barrier,
such as a seawall, can reflect swell back into the ocean, with little loss of energy. For this
ideal reflection to occur without energy loss, the wave must strike the barrier at a right
angle. Such a condition is rare in nature. Nonetheless, less ideal reflections will produce
standing waves, also called stationary waves. Standing waves are the product of two
waves of the same length moving in opposite directions, so there is no net movement.
The standing wave is a special interference pattern. In a standing wave, no net
momentum is carried because the identical waves move in opposite directions. The water
particles continue to move vertically and horizontally, but there is no more of the circular
motion that we see in a progressive wave.

Standing waves are characterized by fines along which there is no vertical movement.
There may be one or more such nodes or nodal lines. Antinodes, crests that alternately
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become troughs, represent the points of the greatest vertical movement within a standing
wave.
There is no particle motion when an antinode is at its greatest vertical displacement, and
the maximum particle movement occurs when the water surface is level. At this time, the
maximum movement of the water is in a horizontal direction directly beneath the nodal
lines. The movement of water particles beneath the antinodes is entirely vertical. We will
consider standing waves further when we discuss the tides in the next chapter. Under
certain conditions, the development of standing waves significantly affects the tidal
character of coastal regions.

Reflection of wind-generated waves from coastal barriers occurs at an angle equal to the
angle at which the wave approached the barrier. This type of reflection may produce a
small-scale interference pattern similar to those previously discussed.
Tide
Periodic rise and fall of the ocean surface and connected bodies of water resulting from
the unequal gravitational attraction of the moon and sun on different parts of Earth.

Reasons:
1. Tides are generated through a combination of gravity and motion among Earth, the
moon, and the sun.
2. Distance becomes a more highly weighted variable in the tide-generating forces than
it is in gravitational attraction force
3. Although the gravitational attraction between Earth and the sun is more than 177
times than between Earth and the moon, the moon dominates the tides. Figure 10-1
illustrates the massiveness of the sun compared to the moon. Because the sun is 27
million times more massive than the moon, it should, solely on the basis of
comparative mass, have a tide generating force 27 million times greater than that of
the moon. However, we must consider more significant factors, the Earth-moon
distance and Earth-sun distance.
4. Uneven distribution of water and irregular topography of ocean bottom
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Equilibrium theory of tides

Earth that has two tidal bulges, one toward the moon and one away from the moon as
Earth rotates on its axis, and an ideal ocean of uniform
depth, with no friction between the seawater and the
seafloor.

1. The Rotating Earth (Why lunar day is longer

than solar day?)

Our ideal, uniformly deep ocean is modified only by the tide

generating forces that causes bulges on opposite sides of
Earth. Let us assume that a stationary moon is aligned with Earth’s equator so that the
maximum bulge will occur on the equator on opposite sides of Earth. Earth requires 24 h
for one complete rotation, so on the equator you would experience two high tides each
day. The time that would elapse between high tides, the tidal period, would be 12 h. If
you moved to any latitude north or south of the equator, you would experience a similar
tidal period, but the high tides would be less high, because you would be at a lower point
on the bulge, rather than at its apex. However, high tides do not occur every 12 h on
Earth’s surface. Instead, they occur every 12 h and 50 min. This period is called the lunar
day. The lunar day is the time that elapses between two successive passages of the moon
over any longitude line on Earth. If you observe the time at which the moon rises on
successive nights, you will see it rise 50 min later each night.

Where does the additional 50 min come from? During the time that Earth is making a full
rotation in 24 h, the moon has continued moving another 12.2° to the east. Thus, Earth
must rotate an additional 50 min to catch up and place the moon directly over the
observer’s longitude. (If we divide the lunar day of 24 h, 50 min into 24 lunar hours,
each lunar hour will be about 1 h 2 min of solar time in length.) So far, we have
considered the effects of Earth’s rotation and the revolution of the Earth-moon system
about its center of mass on the prediction of tides. We have ignored the effect of the sun.
 124

In the following discussion we will consider the combined effect of the moon and sun on
Earth’s tides.

The Lunar Day

A lunar day is the time that elapses
between successive appearances of the
moon on the meridian directly over a
stationary observer. As Earth rotates, the
Earth-moon system rotation moves the
moon in the same direction (toward the east). During one complete rotation of Earth (the
24 h solar day), the moon moves eastward 12.2°, and Earth must rotate an additional 50
min to place the observer in line with the moon again.

2. Combined Effects of Sun and Moon

Earth-moon system revolves around the sun. The
oscillating paths of Earth and the moon can be
seen as they rotate together around their
barycenter. In the upper right quadrant, you can
see that the moon cycles through its phases
approximately every 291/2 days. When the moon is
between Earth and the sun, it cannot be seen for a
few days, and is called the new moon. When the
moon is on the opposite side of Earth from the sun,
its entire disk is brightly visible, and we call it the
full moon. A quarter moon results when the moon
is at right angles to the sun relative to Earth.
(Viewed from Earth, it looks like half a moon.)
Refer to fig. 10-8. When the sun
and moon are aligned, either
with the moon between Earth
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and the sun (new moon), or with the moon on the side opposite the sun (full moon), the
tide-generating forces of the sun and moon are added together by constructive
interference. You can see this in fig. 10-8A. At this time, we experience the maximum
tidal range, the vertical difference between high and low tide. This maximum tidal range
is called the spring tide, because the tide surges or “springs forth.”

When the moon is in either quarter phase (fig. 10-8B), the tide-generating force of the
sun is working at right angles to the tide-generating force of the moon, and as a result of
destructive interference we experience minimum tidal range. This is called neap tide.
The time that elapses between successive spring tides (full moon and new moon) or neap
tides (first and third quarters) is about 2 weeks.

Why the Moon Generates Rigger Tides than the Sun.

Earth has a diameter of 12,682 km. The diameter of the moon is 3478 km, roughly 1/4
that of Earth. The diameter of the sun is 1,392,000 km, which is 109 times the diameter
of Earth. Their relative sizes are shown to scale. The tabular data compares the masses of
the sun and moon and their distances from Earth. These factors are important in
determining their relative tide-generating effect.

Determination of tide-generating force of sun relative to moon

The sun has 46% the tide-generating force of the moon. IQ

3. Declination of the Moon and Sun

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Up to this point, for learning purposes, we assumed that the moon and sun always remain
aligned over the equator, but of course this is not the case. Most of the year, the sun and
moon are north or south of the equator. This angular distance of the sun or moon above
or below Earth’s equatorial plane is called declination. IQ
Earth revolves around the sun along an
invisible ellipse in space. Imagine a plane
in space that includes this ellipse. This
plane is called the ecliptic. Earth is not
perpendicular (“upright”) on the ecliptic,
but leans on its side by 23.5°. The tilt of
Earth’s axis relative to its plane of
revolution around the sun (ecliptic) is
shown in fig. 10-10. You can see that
Earth’s tilted axis always points the same
direction throughout the yearly cycle.
This tilt causes the seasons—spring, summer, fall, and winter (fig. 10-10).
At the vernal equinox, which occurs about March 21, the sun is directly overhead along
the equator. On about June 21, the summer solstice occurs. At this time the sun reaches
its most northerly point in the sky, directly overhead along the Tropic of Cancer, which
is at 23.5°N latitude. The sun then moves southward in the sky each day, and on about
September 23 it is directly overhead along the equator again, producing the autumnal
equinox. During the next three months the sun is more southerly in the sky until the
winter solstice on about December 22, when the sun is directly overhead along the
Tropic of Capricorn, at 23.5°S latitude.
Without Earth’s 23.5° tilt, seasonal differences would disappear. Because of the tilt, the
sun’s declination varies between 23.5° north and 23.5° south of the equator on a yearly
cycle. To further complicate
matters, the plane of the moon’s
orbit is at an angle relative to
Earth’s equator.
 127

The plane of the moon’s orbit not only intercepts the plane of the ecliptic at an angle of
5°, but the plane of the moon’s orbit also precesses, or rotates, while maintaining this 5°
angle. This precession completes a cycle every 18.6 yr. Given these considerations, the
declination of the moon relative to the plane of Earth’s equator is relatively complex. In
A of fig. 10-11, the declination of the moon’s orbit relative to Earth’s equator is 28.5°.
The declination will change from 28.5° south to 28.5° north and back to 28.5° south of
the equator in a period of one month. Part B of the illustration shows the relationship of
the ecliptic, the plane of the moon’s orbit, and the plane of Earth's equator after one-
fourth of the precession, or 4.65 yr later. The maximum declination of the moon’s orbit
relative to Earth’s equator still approaches 28.5°. However, in part C, when one-half
precession is completed, which is 9.3 yr after the condition observed in A, the maximum
declination of the moon relative to Earth’s equator is 18.5°.
On the basis of these considerations, we must alter our previous concept of the predicted
equilibrium tide. We must now expect that tidal bulges will rarely be aligned with the
equator and will occur for the most part north and south of the equator. Since the moon is
the dominant force that creates tides in Earth’s oceans, we would suspect that the bulges
would follow the moon as it moves on its monthly journey across the equator, being
found at a maximum of 28.5° north and south of the equator.

4. Effects of Distance
Additional considerations that
will affect the tide-generating
force of the sun and moon on
Earth are their changing
distances from Earth because of
elliptical orbits. Earth ranges
from perihelion with the sun,
when the distance between the
bodies is 148.5 million km
during the winter months in the
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Northern Hemisphere, to aphelion, when the distance between the bodies is 152.2
million km during the summer months. The moon moves from perigee, its closest
approach to Earth, of 375,200 km to apogee of 405,800 km and back to perigee during a
period of 271/2 days—the anomalistic month. Because of these movements, spring tides
have greater ranges during the Northern Hemisphere winter than in the summer. Also, as
the result of changing distance between Earth and the moon, we find that tidal ranges
become greater at perigee each anomalistic month. Keeping in mind that tide-generating
forces vary inversely with the cube of the distance from the center of Earth to the center
of the tide-generating body, it can be appreciated that these changes resulting from the
elliptical nature of Earth’s orbit around the sun and the moon’s orbit around Earth can be
readily observed in the tides.

Perigee: The point on the orbit of an Earth satellite (moon) that is nearest Earth.
Apogee: The point farthest from Earth in the orbit of the moon or a human-made
satellite.
Perihelion: That point on the orbit of a planet or comet
around the sun that is closest to the sun.
Aphelion: The point in the orbit of a planet or comet where
it is farthest from the sun.

Earth-Moon-Sun Positions and the Tides

A, When the moon is in the new or full position, the tidal bulges created by the sun and
moon are aligned, producing constructive interference and therefore larger bulges, which
“spring forth” as spring tides. B, bottom: When the moon is positioned halfway between
the new and full phases (called the first and third quarters), the tidal bulge produced by
the moon is at right angles to the bulge created by the sun. The bulges tend to cancel
each other (destructive interference), and the resulting bulges are smaller, called neap
tides. New moon and full moon phases produce spring tides with maximum tidal ranges,
while the first and third quarter phases of the moon produce neap tides with minimal
tidal ranges.
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Types of tides
Ideally, we expect two high tides and two low tides of unequal heights during a lunar
day. However, due to modification from varying depths, sizes, and shapes of ocean
basins, tides in many parts of the world exhibit different patterns: diurnal tide (daily),
semidiurnal tides (twice daily), or mixed tides.
1. Diurnal tide: A tide that has a single high and low water each lunar day. These
tides are common in the Gulf of Mexico and along the coast of Southeast Asia.
Such tides have a tidal period of 24 h, 50 min.
2. Semidiurnal tide: Tide having two high and two low waters per tidal day with
small inequalities between successive highs and successive lows. Tidal period is
about 12 h and 25 min solar time. Semi-daily tide. Since tides are always growing
higher or lower at any location, due to the spring-neap tide sequence, successive
high tides and successive low tides can never be exactly the same at that location.
Semidiurnal tides are common along the Atlantic Coast of the United States.
3. Mixed tide: A tide having two high and two low waters per tidal day with a
marked diurnal inequality. Such a tide may also show alternating periods of
diurnal and semidiurnal components. The mixed tide may have characteristics of
both diurnal and semidiurnal tides. Successive high tides and/or low tides will
have significantly different heights. This is the tide that is most common
throughout the world and the type that is found along the Pacific coast of the
United States.
4. Ebb current: Seaward-flowing current during a decrease in the height of the tide.
5. Flood current: A tidal current associated with increasing height of the tide,
generally moving toward the shore.
6. Neap tide: Tides of minimal range occurring when the moon is in quadrature, first
and third quarters.
7. Spring tide: Tide of maximum range occurring every fortnight when the moon is
new or full.

Lec-28
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25.09.24
Ekman spiral
V. Walfrid Ekman developed a circulation model that has been called the Ekman spiral.
The model assumes that a uniform water column is being set in motion by wind blowing
across its surface. Because of the Coriolis effect, the surface current moves in a direction
by 45° to the right of the wind (in the Northern Hemisphere). This surface mass of
water moves with a velocity no greater than 3% of the wind speed. The water moves as a
thin “lamina,” or layer. As it moves, it also sets in motion another “layer” beneath it.

As the wind energy put into the ocean surface is transmitted downward, it is consumed
by water motion until none is left. Thus, with increasing depth, current speed decreases,
and the Coriolis effect causes a gradual spiral to the right. The energy of the wind is
passed downward through the water column. Each successive “layer” of water is set in
motion at a slower velocity, and in a direction to the right of the one above that set it in
motion. At some depth, the momentum imparted by the wind to the moving water
laminae is so slight that no motion occurs as a result of wind at the surface.

Although it depends on wind speed and latitude, this stillness normally occurs at a
depth of about 100 m and marks the base of the Ekman layer. Figure 8-2 shows the
spiral nature of this movement with increasing depth from the ocean’s surface. The
length of each arrow in the figure is proportional to the velocity of the individual lamina,
and the direction of each arrow indicates its direction of movement. Under these
theoretical conditions, the surface layer should flow at an angle of 45° to the direction of
the wind, as shown. However, the overall average transport of all the laminae is a net
water movement at 90° to the right of the wind direction. This is called the Ekman
transport.

Of course, no “ideal” conditions exist in the ocean, only real conditions, so movements
actually resulting from wind friction on the ocean surface deviate from this idealized
picture. Generally, we can say that the surface current will move at an angle of less than
45° to the direction of the wind and that the Ekman transport will be at an angle less than
 131

90° to the direction of the wind. This is particularly true in shallow coastal waters, where
all of the movement may be in a direction very nearly the same as that of the wind.
Northern Hemisphere 90° Right Southern Hemisphere 90° Left
As a result of the Ekman spiral phenomenon, water is pushed in toward the center of
clockwise gyres in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise gyres in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Ekman Spiral
Wind drives surface water in a direction 45° to the right of
the wind in the Northern Hemisphere. Deeper water
continues to deflect to the right and moves at a slower speed
with increased depth. Ekman transport, which is the net
water movement, thus is at right angles to the wind
direction. This illustrates the principle, but in reality, the
angles usually are somewhat less. The surface layer of water in which this spiraling
occurs is called the Ekman layer.
Horizontal circulation
Horizontal circulation in surface waters develops from friction between the ocean and the
wind.
Equatorial Currents, Boundary Currents, and Gyres
Trade winds blowing from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere and from the
northeast in the Northern Hemisphere are the principal drivers of the system of ocean
surface currents. The trade winds thus set in motion the water masses between the
tropics. They develop the equatorial currents that travel along the equator worldwide.
They are called “north” and “south” equatorial currents, depending on their position
north or south of the equator. These currents move westward parallel to the equator.
Deflection by the Coriolis effect and deflection along continental margins partially
directs these currents away from the equator, as warm western boundary currents. The
name means that they are currents traveling along the western boundary of their ocean
basin. the Gulf Stream is an example.
 132

At the same time, between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres, westerly winds
blow surface water in an easterly direction. These winds blow from the northwest in the
Southern Hemisphere and the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere. The Coriolis effect
and continental barriers turn this water toward the equator as a cold eastern boundary
current (eastern boundary of the ocean basin). the Peru Current is an example.
The combination of western boundary currents and eastern boundary currents produces
the dominant feature of ocean basin surface circulation, the subtropical gyre. It rotates in
a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in a counterclockwise direction in
the Southern Hemisphere.
At subpolar latitudes, the polar easterlies drive the surface currents in a westerly
direction and, in combination with the Coriolis effect, produce subpolar gyres that rotate
in a pattern opposite that of the adjacent subtropical gyres. These subpolar gyres are best
developed in the Atlantic waters between Greenland and Europe and the Weddell Sea off
Antarctica.
Ekman Spiral and Transport
Geostrophic Currents
If we use as an example the gyre in the North Atlantic
Ocean, and consider the Ekman transports property of
always turning water to the right in this hemisphere, you
can see that a clockwise rotation in the Northern
Hemisphere will tend to produce a subtropical
convergence of water in the middle of the gyre. Water
literally piles up in the center of the subtropical gyre. We
find within all such ocean gyres a hill of water that rises
as much as 2 m (about 6.6 ft) above the water level at the
margins of the gyres.
As Ekman transport continually pushes water into this
“hill” structure, gravity also acts, but to move water down the surface slope. The
Coriolis effect deflects the water flowing down the slope to the right in a curved path.
The water piles up on these hills until the down-slope component of gravity acting on
individual particles of water balances the Coriolis force. When these two forces balance,
 133

the net effect is a geostrophic current moving around the hill. (The term “geostrophic”
means “Earth turning”—the currents behave as they do because of Earth’s rotation.)
What was just described is accurate, but idealized. Due to friction between water
molecules, the water does converge and build up, but it gradually moves down the slope
of the hill as it flows around it.

Westward Intensification
The apex of the hill formed within a rotating gyre is not in the gyre s center. The highest
point of each hill is closer to the western boundary of the gyre. This is called westward
intensification. Its causes are complex, but a good part of westward intensification can be
explained by the Coriolis effect. Remember that Coriolis effect increases toward higher
latitudes (poleward). Thus, eastward-flowing high-latitude water turns equatorward more
strongly than westward-flowing equatorial water turns toward higher latitudes. This
causes a broad equatorward flow of water across most subtropical gyres.
In fig. 8-3B, assume we have a steady state, with a constant volume of water rotating
around the apex of the hill. The velocity of the water along the western margin will be
much faster than the velocity around the eastern side. This can be seen clearly in the
North Atlantic and North Pacific gyres, where western boundaiy currents move
northward in excess of 5 km/h, but a flow along the eastern margin is more of a “drift,”
moving well below 0.9 km/h.
Western boundary currents commonly flow 10 times faster, and to greater depths, than
eastern boundaiy currents. The warm western boundary currents are usually less than
one-twentieth the width of the broad, cool drifts that flow equatorward on the east side of
subtropical gyres. Directly related to this difference in speed is the steepness of the hills
slope. The slope of the hill on the side of the slow-moving eastern boundaiy current is
quite gentle; the western margin has a comparatively steep slope corresponding to the
high velocity of the western boundaiy current.

Equatorial Countercurrents
The large volume of water that is driven westward in tire north and south equatorial
currents piles up against continents and very' slowly “sloshes” back, creating equatorial
 134

countercurrents. Because the Coriolis effect is minimal near the equator, much of the
water is not turned toward higher latitudes. Instead, it piles up at the western margin of
an ocean basin. This is particularly true in tire western Pacific Ocean, where a dome of
equatorial water is trapped in the island-filled embayment between Australia and Asia.
This dome of water with very weak current flow displays the highest year-round surface
temperature found anywhere in the world ocean. Continued influx of water carried by the
equatorial currents forces an eastward countercurrent of water that continues to South
America.

Vertical circulation
Vertical movements are essential in stirring the ocean, delivering oxygen to its depths,
bringing nutrients to the surface, and distributing heat energy. Lateral movements of
water masses also may bring about some vertical circulation within the upper-water
mass. We refer to this shallow vertical circulation system as wind-induced circulation. Of
greater oceanwide importance in producing thorough mixing within the ocean is vertical
circulation due to density changes at the ocean surface. Density changes cause water
masses to sink. Changes that increase water density normally are changes in temperature
and salinity, so this circulation is referred to as thermohaline (temperature-salinity)
circulation.
Wind-Induced Circulation
There are regions throughout the world ocean where water masses rise or sink, due to
wind-driven surface currents that carry water away from these regions, or toward them.
Wherever surface flow is away from an area, upwelling occurs. If horizontal surface flow
brings insufficient replacement water into the area, then water must come from beneath
the surface—it must upwell—to replace water that was removed. This condition may
occur in the open ocean or along the margins of continents.

Winds from the east drive three westerly currents on either side of the equator: the North
Equatorial Current of the Indian Ocean and North and South Equatorial currents in the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The Ekman transport of water on the north side of the
 135

equator moves it to the right, toward a higher northern latitude, while in the Southern
Hemisphere it will move to the left toward a higher southern latitude. The net effect is a
water deficiency at the surface between the two currents. Water from deeper within the
upper-water mass comes to the surface to fill the void. This phenomenon is called
equatorial upwelling.

Coastal upwelling is common along the margins of

continents. It occurs where surface waters adjacent to the
continents are carried out to the open ocean via wind-
driven Ekman transport. The replacement of this water
comes from the lower portions of the upper water, an
example being the Peru Current. Such areas are
characterized by low surface temperatures and high
concentrations of nutrients, both brought up from depths
of between 100 and 200 m, making these areas high in
biological productivity. Coastal downwelling is sinking of surface water, caused by
reversing the direction of coastal winds that cause upwelling. Wind blowing in the
opposite direction pushes water toward shore instead, where it piles up and causes
downwelling.

Because of monsoonal (seasonal) changes in wind direction, the situation changes

significantly on a seasonal basis in the Indian Ocean. There is a general condition of a
low rate of upwelling in the subpolar regions and a low rate of down-welling in the
subtropical regions. Upwelling along the western margin of continents is also clearly
shown.
Near the center of
the rotating gyres of
the major ocean
current systems the
winds are relatively
weak, and the water
 136

rotates at a very low rate. The winds that do blow in these regions may be steady in
direction and are known to set up convection cells in the upper-water mass.

This phenomenon was first recognized by Irving Langmuir while crossing the Sargasso
Sea in 1938. He observed streaks, or straight rows, of seaweed parallel to the direction of
the wind and concluded that the plants were trapped in zones of convergence between
cells. Not only is macroscopic plant material concentrated in these regions, but also
microscopic plants and dissolved organic material. By contrast, in the regions of
divergence, where water is surfacing as a result of convection, the concentrations of
organic material are relatively low. This phenomenon is called Langmuir circulation.

Langmuir Circulation

Steady winds blowing

across the ocean
surface create
convection cells with
alternate right- and
left-hand circulation.
The axes of these cells run parallel to wind direction. Organic debris accumulates in
downwelling zones of convergence and produces streaks that run parallel to the wind
direction for great distances.

Thermohaline Circulation
First, let us consider something that does not cause vertical circulation. The intensity of
solar radiation is much greater in the equatorial region. Therefore, you might expect
heated equatorial surface water to expand and move away from the equator toward the
poles, spreading over the colder, denser high-latitude waters (see fig 8-4). You might
further expect some return subsurface flow from the high latitudes toward the equator.
 137

However, this exchange does not occur. The reason is that energy imparted to surface
waters by winds greatly exceeds the effect of density changes due to heating. Thus, wind
overcomes any tendency for such a pattern of circulation to develop. Instead, large-scale
vertical circulation in the ocean results primarily from surface-density differences in
oceanic water. The density differences result from temperature and salinity differences.
Density Vertical mixing of ocean water is driven primarily through the sinking of cold
water masses in subpolar latitudes. Surface masses may sink to the ocean bottom and
deep-water masses may rise to the surface. Salinity The other variable that affects surface
water density is salinity. Salinity appears to have a very minimal effect on the movement
of water masses in equatorial latitudes. Density changes due to salinity are important
only in very high latitudes, where low water temperature remains relatively constant.
For example, the highest-salinity water in the open ocean is found in the subtropical
regions, but there is little or no density-driven sinking of water in these areas because
water
temperatures are high enough to maintain a low density for the surface-water mass. In
such areas, a strong halocline, or salinity gradient, may develop. It features a relatively
thin surface water layer where salinity may exceed 37%o. Salinity decreases rapidly with
increasing depth to typical seawater salinities below 35%o.

Cold Deep Water An important sinking of cold surface waters that become deep-water
masses occurs in the subpolar regions of the Atlantic Ocean. In the North Atlantic, the
major sinking of surface water is thought to occur in the Norwegian Sea. From there it
flows as a subsurface current into the North Atlantic. This flow becomes part of what is
called North Atlantic Deep Water. Additional surface water may sink at the margins of
the Irminger Sea off southeastern Greenland and the Labrador Sea. In the southern
subpolar latitudes, the most significant area where deep-water masses form is the
Weddell Sea, where rapid winter freezing produces salt-laden high-density water that
sinks down the continental slope of Antarctica and becomes Antarctic Bottom Water, the
densest water in the open ocean.
On a broad scale, some surface-water masses converge, which may cause sinking. This
convergence occurs within the subtropical gyres and in the Arctic and Antarctic.
 138

Subtropical convergences produce a low rate of downwelling shown in fig. 8-8. Major
sinking does occur along the Arctic convergence and Antarctic Convergence (ANC). The
major water mass formed from sinking at the Antarctic convergence is called the
Antarctic Intermediate Water mass.

Worldwide Deep-Water Circulation For every liter of water that sinks from the surface
into the deep ocean, a liter of deep water is displaced and therefore must return to the
surface. It is difficult to identify specifically where this vertical flow to the surface is
occurring. It may occur as a gradual, rather uniform return throughout the ocean basins.
Although one may expect this return to the surface to be somewhat greater in low-
latitude regions, where surface temperatures are higher, the data used to construct fig. 8-8
show some major regions of upwelling are subpolar.
Figure 8-11 shows what oceanographers believe to be the general deep-water circulation
of the world ocean. The most intense deep-water flows are the western boundary
currents.
Figure 8-12 integrates deep thermohaline circulation and surface currents to show the
probable overall pattern of global circulation. This circulation provides the deep ocean
with oxygen-rich water by the sinking of dense surface water, primarily in the subpolar
North Atlantic Ocean. Here, a volume of water equal to 100 Amazon rivers begins its
long journey into the deep basins of all of the world’s oceans (blue arrows).

Eddy: A current of any fluid forming on the side of or within a main current. It usually
moves in a circular path and develops where currents encounter obstacles or flow past
one another. It can occur in estuary, coastal region and open ocean.

Eddy diffusion is significant because it enhances the mixing of water masses in the ocean
and coastal areas, helping to distribute nutrients, heat, pollutants, and sediments more
effectively than molecular diffusion alone. This process supports marine life, regulates
water temperature, and aids in the dispersion of pollutants. It plays a crucial role in
coastal ecosystem health and influences biological productivity, particularly in areas
 139

where turbulent water flow is common, such as near coastlines or around underwater
features.

Open Oceans: In the Gulf Stream (North Atlantic), eddy diffusion transports warm
waters from the tropics to cooler regions, influencing climate.
Coastal Areas: Along California's coast, eddy diffusion occurs due to the interaction
between coastal currents and wind, enhancing nutrient upwelling.
Estuaries: In river mouths or estuaries like the Chesapeake Bay, eddy diffusion mixes
freshwater with saltwater, affecting the salinity and ecosystem.

Upwelling and downwelling are important oceanic processes that influence the health
and productivity of marine ecosystems, particularly in relation to fisheries. Both
processes play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, biological productivity, and the
distribution of marine species, thereby impacting the sustainability and success of
fisheries.

Upwelling is the process by which deep, cold, nutrient-rich water rises to the surface of
the ocean. It is driven primarily by wind patterns and the Coriolis effect. Coastal
upwelling typically occurs when winds blow parallel to the coastline, pushing surface
waters away and allowing deeper waters to rise.

Significance of Upwelling for Fisheries:

1. Nutrient Supply: Upwelling brings nutrient-rich waters (especially nitrates and

phosphates) from the ocean depths to the surface. These nutrients are essential for
phytoplankton growth, which forms the base of the marine food chain.

2. High Biological Productivity: The influx of nutrients leads to the rapid growth of
phytoplankton, which supports a large biomass of zooplankton (which feed on
phytoplankton) and subsequently fish species (which feed on zooplankton). This
 140

high level of biological productivity makes upwelling regions some of the most
fertile fishing grounds in the world.

3. Major Upwelling Zones: Examples include the Peruvian coast, California coast,
Canary Current off northwest Africa, and Benguela Current off southwest Africa.
These areas account for some of the largest and most productive fisheries.

4. Fish Species Diversity and Abundance: Upwelling zones attract numerous

commercially important fish species such as -sardines, anchovies, mackerel, and
tuna. These species rely on the abundance of food made available by the
upwelling, leading to large fish stocks and successful fisheries.

5. Seasonal Fishing Patterns: Upwelling is often seasonal, with peaks during certain
times of the year depending on wind patterns. Fisheries in upwelling regions must
align their operations with these seasonal cycles to maximize catch.

6. Fisheries Management: Understanding upwelling patterns is critical for fisheries

management, as changes in upwelling strength or frequency (due to climate
variability or other factors) can greatly affect fish populations and yields.

7. Economic and Ecological Importance: Upwelling areas, though covering a small

portion of the world's oceans, support up to 25% of the world’s marine fish catch.
The Peru-Chile upwelling system is particularly significant for global fishmeal
production.

Downwelling is the process where surface waters sink into deeper parts of the ocean.
This typically occurs when surface water is pushed together or piled up due to wind
patterns or ocean currents. Downwelling tends to transport oxygen-rich surface water to
deeper layers of the ocean.

Significance of Downwelling for Fisheries:

 141

1. Low Nutrient Availability: Unlike upwelling, downwelling zones are generally

nutrient-poor because surface waters, which have already been depleted of
nutrients by biological activity, are pushed downward. As a result, these areas tend
to have lower biological productivity, making them less favorable for high fish
populations.

2. Oxygen Transport: Downwelling helps transport oxygen-rich surface waters to

deeper parts of the ocean, which is crucial for the health of deep-water marine
ecosystems. While these areas may not be as productive as upwelling regions,
oxygenated deep waters support species that live at greater depths.

3. Support for Migratory Fish Species: While downwelling areas may not be as
nutrient-rich, they can play an important role for migratory species like tunas,
swordfish, and marlins, which rely on the vertical mixing of water for oxygen and
thermal regulation during their long-distance travels.

4. Stabilization of Marine Ecosystems: Downwelling helps stabilize certain oceanic

regions by preventing the accumulation of decayed organic material and
maintaining oxygen levels in the deep ocean. This supports a stable environment
for deep-sea fisheries.

Comparison of Upwelling and Downwelling in Fisheries:

Upwelling- leads to high productivity and supports large, diverse fish populations,
making it vital for coastal fisheries. Fishermen in these areas benefit from abundant,
easily accessible fish stocks.
Downwelling- regions are generally less productive but contribute to deep-sea
ecosystems by ensuring the availability of oxygen in deeper waters. Fisheries targeting
deep-water species may still depend on this process, but overall, downwelling is less
beneficial for large-scale fish production compared to upwelling.

Climate Change Impacts:

 142

Upwelling Variability: Climate change can alter wind patterns and sea temperatures,
which may affect the intensity and timing of upwelling events. Changes in upwelling can
lead to fluctuations in fish populations, which could disrupt fisheries.
Ocean Deoxygenation: As global temperatures rise, the deep ocean is becoming more
stratified, potentially weakening downwelling in certain areas. This can lead to -oxygen
depletion- at deeper levels, affecting deep-water fish species.

Upwelling is critical for maintaining some of the world’s most productive and profitable
fisheries by enhancing nutrient availability and supporting rich marine ecosystems.
Downwelling, though less directly beneficial to fishery production, plays an essential
role in maintaining the overall health of marine ecosystems by oxygenating deep waters.
Together, these processes ensure the sustainability of various fish populations and
contribute significantly to global fisheries.

Subtropical gyre: The trade winds and westerly winds initiated in the subtropical
regions of all ocean basins, with the influence of the Coriolis effect, set large regions of
ocean water in motion. They rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, and they are centered in the subtropics.

Subtropical gyres are large circular ocean currents that occur in each of the major oceans,
primarily centered around 30° latitude in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
These gyres are driven by the combined forces of global wind patterns (trade winds and
westerlies), Earth's rotation, and the Coriolis effect.
It raises at 30° subtropical region but it can be spread upto 45°.

Locations of Subtropical Gyres:

North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre:

Ocean: Atlantic Ocean
Latitude: Centered around 30°N
 143

Key Currents: Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Current, Canary Current, North Equatorial
Current

South Atlantic Subtropical Gyre:

Ocean: Atlantic Ocean
Latitude: Centered around 30°S
Key Currents: Brazil Current, South Atlantic Current, Benguela Current, South
Equatorial Current

North Pacific Subtropical Gyre:

Ocean: Pacific Ocean
Latitude: Centered around 30°N
Key Currents: Kuroshio Current, North Pacific Current, California Current, North
Equatorial Current

South Pacific Subtropical Gyre:

Ocean: Pacific Ocean
Latitude: Centered around 30°S
Key Currents: East Australian Current, South Pacific Current, Peru (Humboldt) Current,
South Equatorial Current

Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre:

Ocean: Indian Ocean
Latitude: Centered around 30°S (No Northern Hemisphere subtropical gyre due to
landmass constraints)
Key Currents: Agulhas Current, South Indian Ocean Current, West Australian Current,
South Equatorial Current

Characteristics:
1. Located near 30° latitude in both hemispheres.
2. Driven by trade winds (near the equator) and westerlies (at mid-latitudes).
 144

3. Rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the

Southern Hemisphere.
Subtropical gyres are significant for climate regulation, oceanic heat transport, and are
known for their calm central regions (e.g., the Sargasso Sea in the North Atlantic).

Geostrophic current
A current that develops out of Earth’s rotation and is the result of a near balance between
gravitational force and the Coriolis effect.

Westward intensification
Pertaining to the intensification of the warm western limb of the subtropical gyre
currents that is manifested in higher velocity and deeper flow compared to the cold
eastern boundary currents that drift leisurely toward the equator.

Lec- 32
26.09.24
Marine Biology

Primary production
Primary production is the amount of carbon fixed by organisms through the synthesis of
organic matter using energy derived from solar radiation or chemical reactions. The
major process through which primary productivity occurs is photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction in which energy from the sun is stored in organic
molecules, in this manner:

water + carbon + light energy -> carbohydrate + oxygen dioxide

food sugar
 145

6H2O + 6CO2 + light energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

(glucose)

The total amount of organic matter produced by photosynthesis per unit of time is the
gross primary production of the oceans. Algae use some of this organic matter for their
own maintenance, through respiration. What remains is net primary production, which is
manifested as growth and reproduction products. It is the net primary production that
supports the rest of the marine population—animals protozoa, and bacteria.

Gross primary production has two components, new production and regenerated
production. New production is that part supported by nutrients brought in from outside
the
local ecosystem, by processes such as upwelling. The higher the ratio of new production
to gross primary production in an ecosystem, the greater its ability to support animal
populations that we depend on for fisheries, such as pelagic fishes and benthic scallops.
Regenerated production results from nutrients being recycled within the ecosystem.

Plantlike organisms and animals that float or drift with the movements of the water are
the plankton. Plantlike plankton are called phytoplankton; they are mainly unicellular
(single-
celled) organisms. Like land plants, the phytoplankton require sunlight, nutrients or
fertilizers, carbon dioxide gas, and water for growth. Phytoplankton cells contain the
pigment chlorophyll that traps the sun's energy for use in photosynthesis.
The photosynthetic process uses the sun’s energy to convert carbon dioxide and water
into sugars or high-energy organic compounds from which the cell forms new materials.
The synthesis of organic material from inorganic molecules by photosynthesis is termed
primary production. The total amount or mass of living matter produced by
photosynthesizing organisms is the gross primary production. Photosynthesis is
represented by the equation:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O — sunlight/chlorophyll —» C6H12O6 + 6 O2

 146

6 + 6 —sunlight/chlorophyll —» molecules molecules 1 +6

molecule molecules carbon dioxide water sugar oxygen

The sugars produced by photosynthesis are broken down by the plant cells with the
addition of oxygen to yield energy, carbon dioxide, and water in the process known as
respiration. Respiration provides both plants and animals with energy for their life
processes.

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 —> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + life-support energy

1 + 6 —> 6 + 6 + life-support energy molecule molecules molecules molecules
sugar oxygen carbon dioxide water

If the primary production that is broken down by respiration to yield energy for life
processes is deducted from the total or gross primary production, any remaining gain in
phytoplankton mass is termed the net primary production. This net primary production is
available to be consumed by animals and decomposed by bacteria.
The amount of living material produced by net and gross primary production can be
expressed as the number of organisms produced, their weight, or grams of carbon; this is
known as biomass. Biomass is usually reported as the dry weight of organic carbon in
grams present under a square meter of sea surface or gC/m 2. The rate at which biomass
changes, also known as primary productivity, is reported as gC/m 2/time. Biomass can
also be reported per volume. The total amount of living material in an area at any one
instant in time is the biomass known as standing crop. It is the result of growth,
reproduction, death, and grazing. When a population of herbivores is grazing the
phytoplankton population at the same rate as the net primary production increases it, a
nearly constant standing crop results.

Primary productivity measurement

 147

In the 1920s, the Gran method was developed. It is based on the fact that photosynthesis
releases oxygen in proportion to the amount of organic carbon that is synthesized. The
method places equal quantities of phytoplankton and seawater into a series of bottles, all
of which contain the same amount of dissolved oxygen. The bottles are then arranged in
pairs, one being transparent and the other fully opaque. These bottle pairs are suspended
on a line through the euphoric zone where photosynthesis can occur. Here they are left
for a specific period of time. After the bottles are brought to the surface, the oxygen
concentration is determined for each bottle.

Respiration will consume oxygen in both the transparent and opaque bottles. However,
photosynthesis is confined to the transparent bottles, where it releases oxygen to the
water. Increased oxygen concentration in the transparent bottles represents the net
production of the plants within the transparent bottle. Decreased oxygen content within
the opaque bottles simply corresponds to the respiration rate. For any depth, gross
production can be estimated by adding the oxygen gain in the clear bottles to the oxygen
loss in the opaque bottles. The depth at which the oxygen production and the oxygen
consumption are equal is called the oxygen compensation depth. This represents the level
of light intensity below which plants do not survive. Respiration goes on 24 h a day.
However, it is during the daylight hours that plants must produce biomass through
 148

photosynthesis. Biomass must be produced in excess of that which is consumed by

respiration in any 24-h period if the total biomass of the community is to increase.

Oxygen Compensation Depth

This is a comparison of phytoplankton production and consumption of oxygen (O 2),
under two conditions—light and no light. Clear bottles are used to let in light needed for
photosynthesis. Dark bottles are used to prevent light from entering, to form a control
group. The comparison reveals how deeply light can penetrate water to sustain enough
photosynthesis to increase phytoplankton mass. This phytoplankton growth can occur
only above the oxygen compensation depth. This is the depth at which oxygen produced
by photosynthesis equals oxygen consumption by respiration. For the clear bottles, the
green represents net photosynthesis (gross photosynthesis, less the consumption of
oxygen by respiration). In the dark bottles, the loss of oxygen gives a value for the
amount of respiration that occurred in the clear bottles (violet). This loss of oxygen,
added to the net photosynthesis that occurred in the clear bottles, gives a value for the
gross photosynthesis in the clear bottles.

A second method using radioactive carbon (C14), developed in the 1950s and since
refined, is currently the most often used method for determining marine primary
production. The procedure is similar to the Gran Method, because it involves the use of a
series of paired clear and opaque bottles. Each bottle contains identical phytoplankton
samples, equal amounts of CO2 containing carbon-14, and equal amounts of CO2
containing stable carbon. A third method used in studies of marine primary productivity
is to measure chlorophyll in living phytoplankton samples from surface waters. This
method is less precise than C14, but there is a direct relation between the amount of
chlorophyll and primary productivity. The satellite-borne Coastal Zone Color Scanner
(CZCS) senses the effect of phytoplankton pigment on the color of ocean water.
 149

Patterns of Biological Production and Temperature

Primary photosynthetic production in the oceans varies from about 0.1 gram of carbon
per square meter per day (gC/m2/d) in the open ocean to more than 10 gC/m2/d in
highly productive coastal areas. This variability is the result of the uneven distribution
of nutrients throughout the photosynthetic zone and seasonal changes in the availability
of solar energy. IQ
About 90% of the biological mass generated in the euphotic zone of the open ocean is
decomposed into inorganic nutrients before descending below this zone. Approximately
10% of this organic matter sinks into deeper water, where most of it is decomposed.
About 1% of the euphotic zone production reaches the deep-ocean floor. We call this
process the biological pump, because it removes (“pumps”) carbon dioxide and nutrients
from the upper ocean and concentrates them in the deep-sea waters and sediments.
The permanent thermocline prevents the return of these nutrients to the euphotic layer
throughout much of the subtropical gyres. The thermocline and resulting pycnocline
develop only during the summer season in temperate latitudes and are absent in polar
regions.
In the following sections, you will see that the degree to which thermal stratification
affects the patterns of biological production observed at different latitudes in the world
ocean.

Productivity in Polar Oceans

 150

As an example of seasonal productivity in a polar sea, consider the Barents Sea, north of
the Arctic Circle, off the northern coast of Europe. Diatom productivity peaks here
during May and tapers through July. This feeds a zooplankton development, mostly
small crustaceans. The zooplantkon biomass peaks in June and continues at a relatively
high level until winter darkness begins in October. In this region above 70°N latitude,
there is continuous darkness for about 3 months of winter and continuous illumination
for about 3 months during summer. In the Antarctic region, particularly at the southern
end of the Atlantic Ocean, productivity is somewhat greater. The most likely explanation
is the continual upwelling of water that has sunk in the North Atlantic. Moving
southward as a deep-water mass, this North Atlantic Deep Water surfaces hundreds of
years later, carrying high concentrations of nutrients. To illustrate the very great
productivity that occurs during the short summer season in polar oceans, consider the
growth rate of blue whales. The largest of all whales, the blue whale migrates through
temperate and polar oceans at times of maximum zooplankton productivity. This
excellent timing enables the whales to develop and support large calves (following a
gestation of 11 months, the calves can exceed 7 m length at birth). The mother blue
whale suckles the calf for 6 months with a teat that actually pumps the youngster full of
 151

rich milk. By the time the calf is weaned, it is over 16 m long. In 2 years, it will attain 23
m (75 ft). In 31/2 years, a 60 ton blue whale has developed. This phenomenal growth rate
gives some indication of the enormous biomass of copepods and krill that these large
mammals feed upon. Polar waters have little density or temperature difference. Thus, in
most polar areas, surface waters freely mix with deeper, nutrient-rich waters. However,
some density segregation of water masses occurs when summer ice melts. This lays
down a thin, low-salinity layer that does not readily mix with the deeper waters. Such
stratification is crucial to summer production, because it helps prevent phytoplankton
from being carried into deeper, darker waters. The result is that they are concentrated
instead in the sunlit surface waters. Without this density barrier, the summer bloom could
not develop. It is becoming increasingly clear that high levels of biological productivity
occur only under these conditions: when periods of deep mixing, which create high
nutrient levels in the sunlit surface waters, are followed by periods of density
stratification.
Nutrient concentrations (phosphates and nitrates) usually are adequate in surface waters.
Thus, photosynthetic productivity in the high latitudes is more commonly limited by
solar energy availability than by nutrients. The productive season in these waters is
relatively short but outstandingly productive.

Productivity in Tropical Oceans

In direct contrast with high productivity during the
summer season in the polar seas, low productivity is
the rule in tropical regions of the open ocean. This
may sound contradictory, for warm, sunny tropical
waters sound very productive—but there is a key
limiting factor. True, light penetrates much deeper
into the clear open tropical ocean than into the
temperate and polar waters, and this produces a very
deep oxygen compensation depth. However, in the tropical ocean, a permanent
thermocline produces a stratification of water masses. This prevents mixing between the
surface waters and the nutrient-rich deeper waters. At about 20° latitude, north and south,
 152

phosphate and nitrate concentrations are commonly less than 1/100 of the concentrations
of these nutrients in winter temperate oceans. In fact, nutrient-rich waters within the
tropics lie for the most part below 150 m (500 ft), and the highest nutrient concentration
occurs between 500 and 1000 m (1640 and 3300 ft) depth.
Primary productivity in tropical oceans generally is at a steady, low rate. However, when
we compare the total annual productivity of tropical oceans with that of the more
productive temperate oceans, we find that the tropical productivity is generally at least
one-half of that found in the temperate region. Within tropical regions, three
environments have unusually high productivity—regions of equatorial upwelling, coastal
upwelling, and coral reefs:

• Equatorial upwelling—where trade winds drive westerly equatorial currents on either

side of the equator, surface water diverges as a result of the Ekman spiral. This surface
water that moves off toward higher latitudes is replaced by nutrient-rich water that
surfaces from depths of up to 200 m. This condition of equatorial upwelling is probably
best developed in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
• Coastal upwelling—Where the prevailing winds blow toward the equator and along
western continental margins, surface waters are driven away from the coast. They are
replaced by nutrient-rich waters from depths of 200 to 900 m. This nutrient-rich
upwelling promotes high primary productivity in these areas, which supports large
fisheries. In the Pacific, such conditions exist along the southern coast of California and
the southwestern coast of Peru; in the Atlantic, such conditions are found along the
northwestern coast of Morocco and the southwestern coast of Africa.
• Coral reefs—The relatively high productivity of coral reef environment is not related to
the upwelling process.

Productivity in Temperate Oceans We have discussed general productivity in the polar

regions, where it is limited by available sunlight, and in the tropical low-latitude areas,
where the limiting factor is nutrients. Now let us consider the temperate regions, where
an alteration of these factors controls productivity in a more complex pattern. We will
look at production season-by-season.
 153

Winter. Productivity in temperate oceans is very low during winter, despite high nutrient
concentrations in the surface layers. Ironically, nutrient concentration is highest during
winter. The limiting factor is solar energy. In fig. 14—7 (winter), you can see that the
sun is at its lowest elevation above the horizon during this season. A high percentage of
solar energy is reflected, leaving a smaller percentage to be absorbed into surface waters.
The oxygen compensation depth for basic producers, such as diatoms, is so shallow that
it does not allow growth of the diatom population.

Summer. In fig. 14-7 (summer), as the sun rises higher, surface waters in temperate parts
of the ocean are warmed. The water becomes separated from deeper water masses by a
strengthening seasonal thermocline that may develop around 15 m (50 ft) depth. As a
result, little or no exchange of water occurs across this discontinuity. Nutrients that are
depleted from surface waters cannot be replaced by those from deep waters. Throughout
summer, the Phytoplankton population remains at a relatively low level, but again
increases in some temperate areas during autumn.
Spring. In fig. 14—7 (spring), as the sun rises higher in the sky, the oxygen
compensation depth deepens as solar radiation is transmitted deeper into the surface
water. Eventually, the seasonal thermocline develops to help confine the phytoplankton
to the euphotic zone and produce an exponential growth of the diatom population, a
spring bloom.
 154

This expanding population puts a tremendous demand on the nutrient supply in the
euphotic zone. In most Northern Hemisphere areas, decreases in the diatom population
will occur by May as a result of insufficient nutrient supply.

Fall.
The autumn increase is much less spectacular than that of the spring. In fig. 14-7 (fall),
solar radiation diminishes as the sun drops lower in the sky. This lowers surface
temperature, and the summer thermocline breaks down. A return of nutrients to the
surface layer occurs as increased wind strength mixes it with the deeper water mass in
which the nutrients have been trapped throughout the summer months. This bloom is
very short-lived. The phytoplankton population declines rapidly. The limiting factor in
this case is the
opposite of that which reduced the population of the spring phytoplankton. In the case of
the spring bloom, solar radiation was readily available, and the decrease in nutrient
supply was the limiting factor.

Factors influencing primary production

1. temperature
2. light
3. density of water
4. overturn
5. mixing
6. biological pumping
7. upwelling
8. formation of thermocline and pycnocline
9. uptake and release of nutrients by organisms
10. nutrients availability
11. nutrients regeneration
12. photosynthetic rate- chlorophyll rate, type, day of the time
13. phytoplankton productivity
14. herbivore population
 155

Lec- 33
29.09.24
Marine Primary Producer
Producers are plants and algae that photosynthesize their own food from carbon dioxide,
water, and sunlight. Their capture of solar energy, and binding it into their food sugars, is
the basis for all nutrition in the ocean, except around hydrothermal vents. The oceans
producers are the foundation of the ocean food web. The major primary producers of the
oceans are marine algae. They capture most of the solar energy used to support the
marine biological community. Marine organisms depend primarily on the small
planktonic varieties of marine algae that inhabit the near-surface sunlit water of the
world’s oceans. These algae are not so obvious. All are microscopic, but they are
scattered throughout the breadth of the ocean surface layer. They represent the largest
biomass community in the marine environment—phytoplankton.

In addition to the food production of algae living near the ocean surface, another food-
production method operates in the deep ocean. In the total darkness of the deep sea,
where
no measurable sunlight penetrates, certain bacteria use energy released by oxidizing
hydrogen sulfide or methane to synthesize food. This food-production method supports a
vast array of unusually large deep-sea benthos. The chemical energy stored by both of
these producers of organic matter—surface phytoplankton and deep-sea bacteria—is
passed to the various populations of animals that inhabit the oceans through a series of
feeding relationships called food chains and food webs.

Classification of organisms
All living things belong to one of the five kingdoms—monera, protista, mycota,
metaphyta, and metazoa.

Kingdom Monera are the simplest of all organisms. These organisms are single-celled,
but lack a discrete nucleus. Their nuclear material is spread throughout the cell. Included
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in this kingdom are the cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and heterotrophic bacteria.
Recent discoveries have shown bacteria to be much more important to marine ecology
than previously believed. They are found throughout the breadth and depth of the oceans.

Kingdom Protista represent a higher stage of evolutionary development. It includes

single-celled organisms that have a nucleus. Protista include single-celled algae that
produce food for most marine animals and single-celled “animals” called Protozoa.

Kingdom Mycota, or the fungi, appears to be poorly represented in the oceans. Less than
1% of the known 50,000 species are sea-dwellers. Although fungi exist throughout the
marine environment, they are best known from the intertidal zone. Here, they live in a
relationship with cyanobacteria or green algae. This relationship creates what we call
lichen, in which fungus provides a protective covering that retains water during periods
of exposure, while algae provide food for the fungus through photosynthesis. Other fungi
function primarily as decomposers in the marine ecosystem: they remineralize organic
matter.

Kingdom Metaphyta is the multicelled plants. They are restricted to the shallow coastal
margins of the ocean and are not a major component of the marine productive
community. However, they are very important as producers within restricted
communities, such as, mangrove swamps and salt marshes.

Kingdom Metazoa is the multicelled animals. Metazoans range in complexity from the
simple sponges to complex vertebrates.

Macroscopic (large) algae and plants

These are the attached forms of macroscopic algae and metaphyta (multicelled plants)
found in shallow waters along the ocean margins.

 Brown Algae (Phaeophyta)

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The brown algae in the phylum Phaeophyta include the largest members of the marine
algal community that are attached to the bottom. Their color ranges from very light
brown to black.
Brown algae occur primarily in temperate- and cold-water areas. Their sizes range
widely. Smallest is the small black encrusting patch of Ralfsia of the upper and middle
intertidal zones, where the algae may become crisp and dry in the sun without dying.
Largest is the bull kelp (Pelago-phycus), which may grow in water deeper than 30 m.

 Green Algae (Chlorophyta)

Most species of the phylum Chlorophyta are intertidal, or grow in shallow bay waters.
They contain the pigment chlorophyll, which makes most of them grass green in color.
They grow only to moderate size, seldom exceeding 30 cm in the largest dimension.
Forms range from finely branched filaments to flat thin sheets.
Various species of sea lettuce (genus Ulva), a thin membranous sheet only two cell
layers thick, are widely scattered throughout cold-water areas. Sponge weed (genus
Codium), a two-branched form more common in warm waters, can exceed 6 m in length.

 Red Algae (Rhodophyta)

Red algae are the most abundant and widespread of marine macroscopic algae. Over
4000 species of the phylum Rhodophyta occur from the very highest intertidal levels to
the outer edge of the inner sublittoral zone. Many are attached to the bottom. They are
very rare in fresh water. Red algae range from just visible to the unaided eye to lengths
up to 3 m. While found in both warm- and cold-water areas, the warm-water varieties are
relatively small. The color of red algae varies considerably, depending on their depth in
the intertidal or inner sublittoral zones. In the upper, well-lighted areas it may be green to
black or purplish, changing through a brown to a pinkish red in deeper-water zones,
where less light is available.
The bulk of marine photosynthetic productivity is believed to occur above water depths
where the amount of light is reduced to 1% of that available at the surface. This depth is
about 100 m. However, a red alga has been observed growing at a depth of 268 m on a
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seamount near San Salvadore, Bahamas. Available light at this sighting was thought to
be only 0.05% of the light available at the ocean’s surface.

 Seed-Bearing Plants (Spermatophyta)

As noted, the metaphyta generally are confined to coastal areas. The only metaphyta
observed in the marine environment belong to the highest group of plants, the seed-
bearing Spermatophyta. Two seed-bearing plants found in the marine environment are
eelgrass (Zostera) and surf grass (Phyllospadix). Eelgrass, a grasslike plant with true
roots, exists primarily in quiet waters of bays and estuaries from the low tide zone to a
depth of some 6 m. Surf grass prefers the high-energy environment of an exposed rocky
coast and can be found from the intertidal zones down to a depth of 15 m. Both of these
plants are important sources of the detrital food for the marine animals that inhabit their
environment. Found in salt marshes are grasses (most of the genus Spartina), whereas
mangrove swamps contain primarily mangroves (genera Rhizophora and Avicennia).

Microscopic (small) algae

Now we will introduce all the members of the important phytoplankton that produce over
99% of the food supply for marine animals. As the plankton part of their name indicates,
they are primarily floating forms, although some live on the bottom in the nearshore
environment.

 Golden Algae (Phylum Chrysophyta)

Containing the yellow pigment carotene (or carotin), the microscopic algae in the
phylum Chrysophyta store food in a carbohydrate and oils.

Diatoms
The diatoms are cells contained in a shell, or frustule, composed of opaline silica (SiO 2 •
nH2O). These silica housings are important geologically because they accumulate on the
ocean bottom and produce a siliceous sediment, diatomite. Some deposits of diatomite on
land are mined and used primarily in the manufacture of filtering devices.
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The frustule of the diatom is similar in structure to a microscopic pill box. The top and
the bottom of the box are called valves; the larger of the valves is the epitheca and the
smaller the hypotheca. The protoplasm of the plant is contained within this housing and
exchanges nutrients and waste products with the surrounding water through slits or pores
in the valves.
The reproduction of diatoms is by simple cell division. To achieve this division, the
valves of the frustule must separate. Each valve then serves as one-half the housing for
each newly formed cell. A new valve must form to complete the enclosure of each
daughter cell, and each of these newly formed halves forms as a hypotheca.
This process leads to the formation of smaller and smaller cells. Eventually, the newly
formed daughter cell is going to approach a size so small that if it were decreased further,
abnormalities would result. At this point, a change in the process occurs, namely, the
formation of an auxospore. The auxospore forms between the two separating valves
within a membrane that allows the auxospore to grow into a full-sized diatom so that the
process of reproduction by the splitting of the frustule can recommence.

Coccolithophores
Coccolithophores are for the most part flagellum-bearing organisms (whiplike
locomotive structures) covered with small calcareous plates (CaC03), coccoliths. The
name of the group means “bearers of coccoliths.” The individual plates are about the size
of a bacterium, and the entire organism is too small to be captured in plankton nets.
Coccolithophores are included in the nanoplankton, which have dimensions of less than
0.06 mm. The coccolithophores contribute significantly to calcareous deposits in all of
the temperate and warmer oceans.

 Dinoflagellate Algae (Phylum Pyrrophyta)

A second group of phytoplankton important in marine productivity is the dinoflagellates,
which make up the phylum Pyrrophyta. Possessing flagella for locomotion, they have a
slight capacity to move into more favorable areas for algal productivity. The
dinoflagellates are not important geologically because many have no protective covering.
 160

Those that do have coverings made of cellulose, which is easily decomposed by bacterial
action when the organism dies. Many of the 1100 species are luminescent.

Red Tides IQ
Sometimes up to 2 million dinoflagellates may be found in 1 l (1 qt) of water,
causing a red tide. Mainly responsible for red tides are two genera of dinoflagellates,
named Ptychodiscus and Gonyaulax. Both produce water-soluble toxins. Gonyaulax
toxin is not poisonous to shellfish, but it concentrates in their tissue and is poisonous to
humans who eat the shellfish. Ptychodiscus toxin kills fish and shellfish. April through
September are particularly dangerous months for red tides in the Northern Hemisphere.
In most areas, there is a quarantine during these months against harvesting of shellfish
that feed on these microscopic organisms and concentrate the poisons that they secrete to
levels that are dangerous to humans.
A potentially tragic epidemic of paralytic shellfish poisoning from a Gonyaulax red
tide occurred in the coastal waters of Massachusetts in the fall of 1972. Fortunately, no
deaths occurred, although 30 cases of poisoning were reported. Symptoms of paralytic
shellfish poisoning are similar to those of drunkenness, including incoherent speech,
uncoordinated movement, dizziness, and nausea. Documented cases throughout the
world include 300 deaths and 1750 nonfatal cases. There is no known antidote for the
toxin, which attacks the human nervous system, but the critical period usually passes in
24 h.
A new type of poisoning caused by domoic acid, a toxin produced by a diatom, occurred
along the eastern coast of Canada in 1987. One hundred people were poisoned from
eating mussels; of these, three people died and ten still suffer from memory loss. Domoic
acid poisoning has been called amnesic shellfish poisoning because of the memory loss
suffered by a number of the victims.
In September 1991, the first known occurrence of marine bird poisoning by domoic acid
occurred along the northern California coast. Mass mortality occurred in brown pelicans
and Brandt’s cormorants. The diatom, was ingested by unaffected anchovies that were
eaten by the birds. These are the only marine organisms known to have been killed by
the toxin.
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Red tides are occurring more frequently, more toxic species are showing up, and larger
areas are being affected. More marine species, including dolphins and humpback whales,
are succumbing to the toxins. Human activities may be contributing to this increasing
problem. For example, sewage and fertilizer that make their way into coastal waters can
harm organisms by causing an overabundance of nutrients.
Another sickness resulting from eating fish poisoned by a dinoflagellate that lives
attached to seaweeds eaten by tropical fish is ciguatera fish poisoning. Ciguatera
poisoning affects more humans than any other form of poisoning from seafood. It affects
from 10,000 to 15,000 people annually in tropical regions.

Lec- 34
02.10.24
Zonation
edit should be done

Because the marine environment is so large and complex, it is divided into subunits
called zones. The zone classifications used here are based on the system developed by
Joel Hedgpeth in 1957; they are shown in figure 10.1.
 162

The water environment is the pelagic zone, and the seafloor environment is the benthic
zone. The pelagic zone is divided into the coastal or neritic zone above the continental
shelf and the oceanic zone or deep water away from the influence of land. The oceanic
zone is then subdivided into the subzones.
The surface, where there is enough light intensity for plant growth, is known as the
photic zone, and it extends through both the neritic and oceanic zones. The photic zone
has a depth of 50 to 100 m.
All the other subdivisions of the pelagic zone are without sunlight; they form the aphotic
zone.
The benthic environment of coastal regions is subdivided on the basis of depth. Tidal
fluctuations and waves at the shoreline define the supralittoral or splash zone (above
high water), the littoral or intertidal zone (between high and low water), and the
sublittoral or subtidal zone (below low water). These three zones occur in the photic
zone, where there is sufficient light to support plantlike cells and benthic plants.
Life in all the zones is influenced by variations in temperature, dissolved gases, substrate,
nutrients, and all the factors discussed in previous chapters. The coastal littoral and the
pelagic photic zones change greatly with latitude and season, in contrast to regions of
greater depth where conditions remain nearly constant. There are great differences
between the shallow zones of polar, middle, and tropic latitudes. The photic zone is
deeper in the clear waters of the tropics than in the coastal waters of the midlatitudes.
Substrate is an important factor in benthic zones; at shallow depths the bottom may be
rock, sand, or mud while in the deeper zones there is less variety.
Abyssal region- largest ecological unit of the world

This diagram represents the zonation of the marine environment, dividing it into distinct
horizontal and vertical zones based on depth, light penetration, and proximity to the
coast.

1. Horizontal Zonation (Proximity to the Shore): This classification is based on the

distance from the shore and the type of marine environment near the coastline:
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Neritic Zone: This zone includes the water column above the continental shelf,
extending from the low tide mark to the outer edge of the continental shelf. It is
relatively shallow and supports high levels of productivity due to sunlight and nutrients.

Supralittoral Zone (Splash Zone): This is the area above the high tide line. It is
generally dry but can be splashed by waves during high tide or storms.

Littoral Zone (Intertidal Zone): This zone lies between high and low water marks. It is
periodically submerged at high tide and exposed during low tide. It is home to organisms
that can survive both underwater and in air.

Sublittoral Zone (Subtidal Zone): Found below the low tide mark, this zone remains
submerged and extends to the edge of the continental shelf. It is rich in marine life due to
nutrient availability.

Oceanic Zone: This zone refers to the open ocean beyond the continental shelf. The
waters are deeper, and light availability decreases with depth. This zone is divided into
several vertical layers based on depth and light penetration.

2. Vertical Zonation (Depth and Light Penetration):

The marine environment can also be divided vertically, based on depth, pressure, and
light availability:

Epipelagic Zone (Photic Zone): This surface layer extends down to about 200 meters
and receives sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis. It is home to the majority of marine
life, including plankton, fish, and marine mammals.

Mesopelagic Zone: Ranging from 200 to 1000 meters, this is the twilight zone, where
light decreases significantly but is not completely absent. Some organisms have
 164

bioluminescence to adapt to the low-light conditions.

Bathypelagic Zone: From 1000 to 4000 meters, this zone is completely dark (aphotic
zone). The pressure is high, and temperatures are cold. Life here is adapted to extreme
conditions, often with unique features like bioluminescence.

Abyssopelagic Zone: Extending from 4000 to 6000 meters, this zone includes the
abyssal plain. It is dark and cold, and only specialized organisms survive here.

Hadal Zone: This is the deepest part of the ocean, typically found in oceanic trenches,
beyond 6000 meters. Life here is extremely sparse, and organisms are highly adapted to
the intense pressure and darkness.

Benthic Zone: This refers to the ocean floor at all depths. It supports a variety of
organisms depending on the depth and location. The abyssal and hadal benthic zones are
home to organisms that feed on detritus falling from upper layers.

The zonation of the marine environment based on light penetration is crucial in

determining the types of organisms and ecosystems that can thrive in different ocean
layers. Light penetration decreases with depth, dividing the ocean into three primary
zones:

1. Photic Zone (Euphotic Zone): This is the only zone where enough sunlight
penetrates for photosynthesis to occur. It is home to most marine plants (like
phytoplankton) and photosynthetic organisms. The majority of marine life is found here,
including fish, plankton, and marine mammals. Supports high biological productivity due
to sunlight.
Examples: Coral reefs, seagrass beds.
Depth: From the surface down to about 200 meters.
 165

2. Disphotic Zone (Twilight Zone / Mesopelagic Zone): Sunlight penetrates this zone
but is too weak for photosynthesis. Known as the "twilight zone," where light diminishes
significantly. Organisms here rely on bioluminescence (e.g., lanternfish) for
communication, hunting, and attracting mates. Many animals in this zone migrate
vertically to the photic zone at night to feed. Adaptations include large eyes to capture
the limited light and low-energy lifestyles.

Depth: From about 200 to 1000 meters.

3. Aphotic Zone (Midnight Zone): This zone receives no sunlight. It is perpetually

dark. Organisms here rely on detritus (dead organic matter) falling from upper layers or
use chemosynthesis (bacteria using chemicals to produce energy) in areas like
hydrothermal vents. Life is sparse, but species like giant squids, anglerfish, and other
deep-sea creatures are adapted to these conditions. The abyssopelagic and hadal zones
fall within the aphotic zone, where extreme pressure and cold temperatures prevail.
Depth: From about 1000 meters to the ocean floor.

Lec-35
07.10.24
Major groups of organisms
Name
Example
3 characteristics

Plantlike organisms and animals that float or drift with the movements of the water
are the plankton. Plantlike plankton are called phytoplankton and animal plankton are
known as zooplankton. Organisms that live attached to the sea floor or on or in the sea
floor are the benthos, and the animals that swim freely and purposefully in the sea are the
nekton.
 166

The Plankton
Although many plankton have a limited ability to move toward and away from the sea
surface, they make no purposeful motion against the ocean’s currents and are carried
from place to place suspended in the seawater. Some plankton are quite large; jellyfish
may be the size of a large washtub, trailing 15-m tentacles. But the phytoplankton and
many zooplankton must be observed under a microscope. Bacteria and the smallest
phytoplankton cells may be less than 0.005 mm in diameter; these are collected using
special filtering systems. The zooplankton and phytoplankton between 0.07 and 1 mm
are known as "net plankton,” because they are often captured in tow nets made of very
fine mesh nylon.

Phytoplankton
The phytoplankton are mainly unicellular (single-celled) plantlike organisms known as
algae. Each phytoplankton cell is an independent, photosynthesizing individual, and
even in species in which the cells attach together in long chains or other aggregations,
there is no division of labor between the cells. There is only one large, multicellular
planktonic alga, the seaweed Sargassum that is found floating in the area of the North
Atlantic known as the Sargasso Sea. Sargassum reproduces vegetatively by
fragmentation to form large mats, which provide shelter and food for a wide variety of
organisms, including specialized
fish and crabs found nowhere else.

Diatoms and dinoflagellates are two major groups of organisms belonging to the
phytoplankton. Diatoms are sometimes called golden algae, because their characteristic
yellow-brown pigment masks their green chlorophyll. Some diatoms have radial
symmetry; they are round and shaped like pillboxes, while others have bilateral
symmetry and are elongate. The round diatoms float better than the elongate forms;
therefore, the elongate diatoms are often found on the shallow sea floor or attached to
floating objects, while the round diatoms are more truly planktonic. All are found in
areas of cold, nutrient-rich water.
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A hard, rigid, transparent cell wall impregnated with silica surrounds each diatom. Pores
connect the living portion of the cell inside to its outside environment. The buoyancy of
the diatoms is increased by the low density of the interior of the cells and the production
of oil as a storage product. Their small volume and accompanying relatively large
surface area help these cells to stay afloat. Their large surface area also provides them
with greater exposure to sunlight and water containing the gases and nutrients for
photosynthesis and growth. In addition, some diatoms have spines or other projections
that increase their ability to float.

Diatoms reproduce very rapidly by cell division; when their populations discolor the
water, it is known as a bloom. Diatoms are most important as primary producers. Those
that are not consumed by herbivores eventually die and sink to the ocean floor. In
shallow areas, the cells reach the sea floor with some organic matter still locked inside,
and they may, over a very long period of time, form oil deposits. The cell walls of
diatoms that sink to greater depths build up siliceous sediments, the siliceous ooze.

Dinoflagellates are red to green in color and can exist at lower light levels than diatoms,
because they can both photosynthesize like a plant and ingest organic material like an
animal. Their external walls do not contain silica; some are smooth and flexible but
others are armored with plates of cellulose. Dinoflagellates usually have two whip like
appendages or flagella that beat within grooves in the cell wall, giving the cells limited
motility. Under favorable conditions, they multiply even more rapidly than diatoms to
form blooms, but they are not as important as the diatoms as a primary ocean food
source. Some dinoflagellates are called fire algae, because they glow with
bioluminescence at night.

Red Tides and Toxic Blooms

Certain species of dinoflagellates produces red tides. These blooms may or may not be
poisonous to fish and other organisms, and may or may not produce symptoms of
paralytic
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shellfish poisoning (PSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), or diarrhetic

shellfish poisoning (DSP) in humans. In North American waters several different
dinoflagellates produce red tides: Gonyaulax, Alexandrium, and Gymnodinium are
toxic; Noctiluca is not. Toxic species are generally not poisonous to shellfish feeding on
a bloom, but the toxins are concentrated in the tissues of the shellfish and produce PSP,
NSP, or DSP in humans eating the affected shellfish.

Gymnodinium and a species of Gonyaulax kill fish in the Gulf of Mexico; Gonyaulax
also kills shrimp and crab. The toxins that produce PSP are powerful nerve poisons that
can cause paralysis and death if the breathing centers are affected. One species of
Gymnodinium can produce at least five different toxins, and the saxitoxins, which are
found in butter clams (Saxidomus) but are produced by Gonyaulax, are fifty times more
lethal than strychnine. The toxin is not affected by heat, so cooking the shellfish does not
neutralize the poison. Even after the visible signs of red water due to a dinoflagellate
bloom have disappeared, the shellfish can retain the toxin in their tissues for long
periods, and so the beaches are kept closed to shellfish harvesting.

NSP symptoms are similar to basic food poisoning; unlike PSP, few cases have been
reported, and no known deaths have occurred. Only recently have researchers linked
DSP outbreaks to the presence of a dinoflagellate, for DSP outbreaks may have been
occurring throughout history and been attributed to bacterial contamination.

The blooms often happen in spring or summer after heavy rains have produced land
runoff from sewage and agriculture that is high in nitrates and phosphates. Extra
nutrients mean extra growth and this may explain why many of the world’s coastal areas
are experiencing such massive outbreaks. The dumping of ballast water by commercial
vessels and the transfer of commercial shellfish stocks are considered an additional factor
in the increasing number and severity of red tide episodes. High salinities are thought by
some to trigger blooms in the Gulf of Mexico; along the New England coast, temperature
and light may play major roles in activating blooms. Another suggestion is that cysts or
thick-walled resting cells formed by the dinoflagellates settle to the bottom and may be
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brought to the surface by upwelling water. Cysts in the shallow waters of bays and
harbors may be activated by sudden disturbance of the bottom; in deeper coastal water,
the cysts appear to have an annual cycle. Just as not all red tides are toxic, not all red
water is caused by dinoflagellates. The Red Sea received its name because of dense
blooms of nontoxic photosynthetic bacteria with large amounts of red pigment. The
Indian Ocean has red tides
due to a toxic photosynthetic bacterium, not a dinoflagellate.

An estimated 10,000 to 50,000 people eating fish in tropical regions of the world are
affected by ciguatera poisoning each year. There is no way to prepare affected fish to
make it safe to eat. Symptoms of ciguatera poisoning are extremely variable and may
occur in various combinations; they include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal
cramps, reduced blood pressure, and in severe cases, convulsions, muscular paralysis,
hallucinations, and death. Several dinoflagellates are associated with ciguatera, but
Gambierdiscus toxicus is most often the cause. Researchers in the Gilbert Islands found
that dinoflagellates are eaten by herbivores, and the ciguatoxins then move through the
food web in a cycle that appears to take at least eight years. Ciguatera is an international
problem; it has delayed development of fisheries in the Red Sea, Sri Lanka, New Guinea,
and Puerto Rico; the loss to the Floridean/Caribbean/Hawaiian seafood industry is
estimated at $10 million yearly.

Shellfish contaminated with domoic acid, traced to a bloom of the diatom

Pseudonitzsebia pungens, caused three deaths in eastern Canada in 1987. Prior to that
time diatoms were not known to produce toxins. Shellfish and crab fisheries along the
entire U.S. West Coast were closed in 1991 due to blooms from another species of this
diatom. Domoic acid poisoning in humans is known as amnesic shellfish poisoning
(ASP) and may cause short-term memory loss as well as nausea, disorientation, and
muscle weakness.

Zooplankton
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The zooplankton are either herbivores, grazing on the phytoplankton, or carnivores

feeding on other members of the zooplankton. Many of the zooplankton have some
ability to swim and can even dart rapidly over short distances in pursuit of prey or to flee
predators. They may move vertically in the water column, but, like the phytoplankton,
they are also transported by the currents.

The life histories of zooplankton types are varied and show different strategies for
survival in a world where reproduction rates are high and life spans are short. These
animals may produce three to five generations a year in warm water, where food supplies
are abundant and higher temperatures accelerate life processes.

At high latitudes, where the season for phytoplankton growth is brief, the zooplankton
may produce only a single generation in a year. Rapid growth rates and short life spans
of the carnivorous zooplankton are responsible for the rapid liberation of nutrients to be
recycled by the phytoplankton.

Zooplankton exist in patches of high population density between areas that are
much less heavily populated. High population patches attract predators, and the sparser
populations between the denser patches preserve the stock. Turbulence and eddies
disperse individuals from the densely populated patches to the intervening sparse areas.
Convergence zones and boundaries between water types concentrate zooplankton
populations, which attract predators.

Some zooplankton migrate toward the sea surface each night and return to the depths
each day, either in an attempt to maintain their light level or in response to the movement
of their food resource. The amount of daily migration varies between 10 m and 500 m.
Accumulations of these organisms reflect sound waves from depth sounders and are seen
on a depth recording as a false bottom or deep scattering layer, known as the DSL.

Foraminiferans and radiolarians are single-celled microscopic members of the

zooplankton. Foraminiferans are encased in compartmented calcareous coverings, while
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the radiolarians are surrounded by silica walls. The radiolarian coverings are ornately
sculptured and covered with delicate spines. Protrusions or pseudopodia ("false feet”),
many with skeletal elements, radiate from the cell and catch diatoms and small protozoa.
Both foraminiferans and radiolarians are found in the warmer regions of the oceans.
After death, their coverings accumulate on the ocean floor contributing to the ocean
sediments.

Among the most common, and widespread zooplankton types worldwide are the small
crustaceans (shrimplike animals): copepods and euphausiids. These animals are
basically herbivorous and consume more than half their body weight daily. Copepods
are smaller than euphausiids; euphausiids move more slowly and live longer than
copepods. Both reproduce more slowly than the diatoms, doubling their populations only
three to four times a year. They may make up more than 60% of the zooplankton in any
of the oceans and serve as a food source for small fish. In the Arctic and Antarctic, the
euphausiids are the krill, occurring in such quantities that they provide the main food for
the baleen whales.

Arrowworms are common, carnivorous members of the zooplankton. They are abundant
in ocean waters from the surface to the great depths. Arrowworms are 2 to 3 cm long,
nearly transparent, and feed on other zooplankton. There are several species found in
seawater, and in some cases a particular species is limited to a certain type of water.

Chaetognaths: The arrowworms are transparent and difficult to see, although they may
grow to more than 2.5 cm in length. The name chaetognath means bristle-jawed and
refers to the hair-like attachments around their mouths, used to grasp prey while they
devour it. They are voracious feeders, primarily eating small zooplankton. In turn, they
are eaten by fishes and larger planktonic animals such as jellyfish. These exclusively
marine, hermaphroditic animals are usually more abundant in the surface waters some
distance from shore.
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Other zooplankton include swimming snails, comb jellies, and true jellyfish. The
swimming snails are pteropods, modified mollusks that may or may not have a small
shell, but they all have a transparent, gracefully undulating "wing”. Some pteropods are
herbivores, and some are carnivores. Comb jellies or ctenophores float in the surface
waters. Some have trailing tentacles; all are propelled slowly by eight rows of beating
cilia or hair-like cell extensions. The round sea gooseberries (Pleurobrachia) or sea
walnuts are small, but the beautiful, tropical Venus girdle maybe 30 cm or more in
length. All ctenophores are carnivores, feeding on other zooplankton.

True jellyfish resemble comb jellies, but they come from another unrelated group of
animals, the Cnidaria or coelenterates. Some jellyfish spend their entire lives as
drifters; others are planktonic for only a portion of their lives, as they eventually settle
and change to a bottom-dwelling form similar to a sea anemone.

Another group of unusual jellyfish include the Portuguese man-of-war, Physalia, and
the small by-the-wind- sailor, Velella. Both the Portuguese man-of-war and the by-the-
wind-sailor are colonial animals; they are collections of individual but specialized
organisms, some of which have the task of gathering food, reproducing, or protecting the
colony with stinging cells, while some form the float.

The Nekton
Approximately 5000 species of nekton swim freely through the pelagic and neritic
regions of the oceans. The only invertebrate animals (animals without backbones) among
these are
the squid and a few species of shrimp. The other members of the nekton are vertebrates
(animals with backbones); these are the fish, the reptiles, and the mammals.

Squid are elusive, abundant, and until recently, little known inhabitants at all ocean
depths. They swim rapidly, and their wide range of bioluminescence and coloration
allows them to change color and disappear swiftly. They range from a few centimeters in
length to the giant squid (Architeuthis) that may be 20 m long. Scientists know little
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about these huge creatures but suspect that there may be large numbers of them in upper
aphotic zone.

The fish dominate the nekton. Fish are found at all depths and in all the oceans, but
their distribution is determined directly or indirectly by their dependence on primary
producers. Fish are concentrated in upwelling areas, shallow coastal areas, and estuaries.
The surface waters support much greater populations per unit of water volume than the
deeper zones, where food resources are sparser. Fish come in a wide variety of shapes
related to their environment and behavior. Some are streamlined, designed to move
rapidly through the water (tuna and mackerel); others are flattened for life on the sea
floor (sole and halibut); while still others are elongate for living in soft sediments and
under rocks (some eels). Fins provide the push or thrust for locomotion and are found in
a variety of shapes and sizes. Fish use their tins to change direction, turn, balance, and
brake.

Swimming forms
These invertebrates can swim about as fast as any fish their size, and do so by trapping
water in a cavity between their soft body and pen-like shell and forcing it out through a
siphon. To capture prey, they use two long arms with pads containing suction cups at the
ends. Eight shorter arms with suckers convey the prey to the mouth, where it is crushed
by a beaklike mouthpiece.

Locomotion in fish is more complex than in the squid because of body motion and the
role of fins. The basic movement of a swimming fish is the passage of a wave of lateral
body curvature from the front to the back of the fish. This is achieved by the alternate
contraction and relaxation of muscle segments along the sides of the body. These muscle
segments are called myomeres. The backward pressure of the fish’s body and fins
produced by the movement of this wave provides the forward thrust.

Most active swimming fish have two sets of paired fins, pelvic and pectoral, used in
maneuvers such as turning, braking, or balancing. When they are not in use, they can be
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folded against the body. Vertically oriented fins, dorsal and anal, serve primarily as
stabilizers. The fin most important in propelling the high-speed fish is the tail, or caudal,
fin. Caudal fins flare dorsally and ventrally to increase the surface area available to
develop thrust against the water. (This is equivalent to humans donning “frog flippers”
on their feet to swim more efficiently.) Increased surface area also increases frictional
drag. The efficiency of the design of a caudal fin depends on its shape and can be
expressed mathematically as an aspect ratio, calculated as follows;
(fin height)2 /fin area

There are five basic shapes of caudal fins and keyed by letter to the following
description:
A. The rounded fin (aspect ratio 1) is flexible and useful in accelerating and maneuvering
at slow speeds.
B, C. The somewhat flexible truncate tail (B—aspect ratio 3) and forked tail (C—
aspect ratio 5) are found on faster fish and still may be used for maneuvering.
D. The lunate caudal fin (aspect ratio 7-10) is found on the fast-cruising fishes such as
tuna, marlin, and swordfish; it is very rigid and useless in maneuverability, but very
efficient in propelling.
E. The heterocercal fin (ratio 7-10) is asymmetrical (hetero- = uneven, cereal = tail), with
most of its mass and surface area in the upper lobe.

The heterocercal fin produces a significant lift to sharks as it is moved from side to side.
This lift is important because sharks have no swim bladder and tend to sink when they
stop moving. To aid this lifting, the pectoral (chest) fins are large and flat. Positioned on
the shark’s body like airplane wings, they in fact function like aircraft wings, or a
hydrofoil boat, to lift the front of the shark’s body to balance the rear lift supplied by the
caudal fin. The shark gains tremendous lift but loses a lot in maneuverability as a result
of this adaptation of the pectoral fins. This is why sharks tend to swim in broad circles,
like a circling airplane.
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Pectoral fins in many fish do more than just help maneuvering. Wrass and sculpins use
them to “row” themselves through the water in jerky motions while the rest of the body
remains motionless. Skates and rays swim by sending undulating motions across the
greatly modified pectoral fins, and manta rays flap them like wings. The flying fish,
Exocoetus, uses greatly enlarged pectoral fins to glide for up to 400 m across the ocean
surface after propelling itself with the enlarged ventral lobe of its caudal fin into the air
to escape dolphins and other predators. Other fish have pectoral fins modified into
fingerlike structures used to walk on the ocean floor.

Many fish in no great hurry propel themselves by undulation of the dorsal fin. Examples
are triggerfish, seahorses, ocean sunfish, and trunkfish. The sunfish also uses its anal fin
and stubby caudal fin to aid in the process, still without impressive results.

Adaptations for Seeking Prey

Several factors affect each species’ adaptation for capturing food. These include mobility
(lunging versus cruising), speed, body length, body temperature, and circulatory system.

Lungers Versus Cruisers Some fish spend most of their time waiting patiently for prey
and exert themselves only in short bursts as they lunge at the prey. Others cruise
relentlessly through the water, seeking prey. There is a marked difference in the
musculature of fishes that use these different styles to obtain food.

Lungers sit and wait. grouper, representative of the lungers. It has a truncate caudal fin
for
speed and maneuverability, and almost all its muscle tissue is white.

Cruisers, on the other hand, actively seek game, like the tuna. Less than half of a
cruiser’s muscle tissue is white; most is red.

What is the significance of red vs. white muscle tissue?

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Red muscle fibers are much smaller in diameter. White muscle fibers are much larger
and contain lower concentrations of myoglobin, a red pigment with an affinity for
oxygen. These qualities allow the red fibers to obtain a much greater oxygen supply than
is possible for white fibers. This supports a metabolic rate six times that of white fibers,
needed for endurance. The red muscle tissue is abundant in cruisers that constantly swim.
Lungers can get along quite well with little red tissue, because they need not constantly
move. White tissue, which fatigues much more rapidly than red tissue, is used by the
tuna for short periods of acceleration while on the attack. It is also quite adequate for
propelling the grouper and other lungers during their quick passes at prey.

Body Temperature As is true with many chemical reactions, metabolic processes can
proceed at greater rates at higher temperatures. Although fish are generally considered to
be poikilothermic (cold-blooded), having body temperatures that conform to the
temperature of their environment, there are some fast swimmers with body temperatures
above that of the surrounding water. Some are only slightly above the temperature of the
water: the mackerel (Scomber), yellowtail (Seriola), and bonito (Sarda) have body
temperature elevations of 1.3°, 1.4°, and 1.8°C, respectively. Other fast swimmers that
have much higher elevations are members of the mackerel shark genera, Lamna and
Isurus, as well as the tuna, Thunnus. Homeothermic bluefin tuna have been observed to
maintain a body temperature of 30° to 32°C, regardless of the temperature of the water in
which they are swimming. Although the bluefin tuna is more commonly found in warmer
water where the temperature difference is no more than 5°C, body temperatures of 30°C
have been measured in bluefin tuna swimming in 7°C water.

Why do these fish exert so much energy to maintain their body temperatures at
high levels when other fishes do quite well with ambient body temperatures?
Their mode of behavior is that of a cruiser, and any adaptation (high temperature and
metabolic rate) that can increase the power output of their muscle tissue helps them
search out and capture prey.
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Circulatory System: Mackerel sharks and tuna are aided maintaining their high body
heats by a modified circulatory system. While most fish have a dorsal aorta, just beneath
the vertebral column, that provides blood to the swimming muscles, mackerel sharks and
tuna have additional cutaneous arteries just beneath the skin on either side of the body.
As cool blood flows into red muscle tissue, its temperature is increased by heat generated
by muscle metabolism (muscle contractions). A fine network of tiny blood vessels within
the muscle tissue is designed to minimize heat loss. The vessels that return the blood to
the cutaneous vein, parallel to the cutaneous artery along the side of the fish, are all
paired with small vessels carrying blood into the muscle tissue. In this way, the warm
blood leaving the tissue helps to heat the cooler blood entering from the cutaneous artery.

Sharks and Rays

Sharks differ from other fish by their skeletons of cartilage rather than bone and by their
toothlike scales. The shark’s teeth are modified scales; they are replaced rapidly it they
are lost, and they occur in as many as seven overlapping rows. Sharks are acutely aware
of their environment through good eyesight and excellent senses of smell, hearing,
mechanical reception, and electrical sense. They are most sensitive to chemicals
associated with their feeding and are able to detect them in amounts as dilute as one part
per billion. Sharks can detect the movement of water from currents or from injured or
distressed animals; they use their electroreception sense to locate prey and recognize
food. As a shark swims through the earth’s magnetic field, an electric field is produced
that varies with direction, giving the shark its own compass.

The whale shark is the world’s largest fish, reaching lengths of more than 15 m. This
graceful and passive animal feeds on plankton and is harmless to other fish and
mammals. The docile basking shark, 5 to 12 m long, is another plankton feeder. Many
sharks are swift and active predators, attacking quickly and efficiently using their rows of
sharp serrated teeth. They also play an important role as scavengers by eliminating the
diseased and aged animals. Sharks can and do attack humans, although the reasons for
these attacks and the frenzied feeding sometimes observed in groups of sharks are not
understood. A human swimming inefficiently at the surface may look like a struggling,
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ailing animal and be attacked; a diver swimming completely submerged may appear as a
more natural part of the environment and be ignored.

Skates and rays are flattened, shark-like fish that live near the sea floor. They move by
undulating their large side fins, which gives them the appearance of flying through the
water. The large manta rays are plankton feeders, but most rays and skates are
carnivorous, preferring crustaceans, mollusks, and other benthic organisms. Their tails
are usually thin and whiplike, and that of the stingray carries a poisonous barb at the
base. Some of the skates and a few of the rays have shock-producing electric organs;
they are along the sides of the tail in skates and on the wings of the rays. Their purpose
appears to be mainly defensive. Like the sharks, most rays bear their young live. Skates
enclose the fertilized eggs in a leathery capsule, called a mermaid’s purse or a sea
purse, that is ejected into the sea and from which the fully formed young emerge in a
few months.

Bony Fish
Most commercially valuable fish are found between the ocean’s surface layers and about
200 m deep, and most of these fish are streamlined, active, predatory, and capable of
high-speed, long-distance travel. Among the most important species fished commercially
are the enormously abundant small herring-type fish, such as sardine, anchovy,
menhaden, and herring.

These fish feed directly on plankton and are found in large schools in areas of high
primary production. Fish schools may consist of a few fish in a small area or thousands
of fish covering several square kilometers. Usually, the fish are all of the same species
and similar in size. Fish schools have no definite leaders, and the fish change position
continually. Most schooling fish have wide-angled eyes and the ability to sense changes
in water displacement, allowing them to keep their relationship to one another constant
as the school moves or changes direction. Schooling probably developed as a means of
protection, since each fish in the school has less chance of being eaten than it does alone.
The school may also keep reproductive members of the population together.
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Other valuable fish that are harvested commercially include mackerel, pompano,
swordfish, and tuna. These fish are caught at sea, out of sight of land. Fish that live on or
near the bottom do not swim as rapidly as those that swim freely in the water. The
flounder, halibut, turbot, and sole are commercially valuable bottom fish. Perch and
snapper tend to congregate along the sea floor in the shallower, nearshore areas. They are
often called rock fish because they hide among the rocks and live in cracks of reefs and
rocky areas.

The fish of the deep sea are not well known, for the depths at which they live are difficult
and expensive to sample. In the dim, transitional layer between 200 and 1000 m, the
waters support vast schools of small luminous fish. The many species of Cyclothone are
believed to be the most common fish in the sea. Deeper-living species are black, while
the shallower-living species are silvery, to blend with the dim light.

The lantern fish has a worldwide distribution; some 200 species are distinguished by the
pattern of light organs along their sides. They are a major item in the diet of tuna, squid,
and porpoises. Stomias, a fish with a huge mouth, long, pointed teeth, and light organs
along its sides, is also found here, as is the large-eyed hatchetfish. These fish prey on the
great clouds of euphausiids and copepods found at this depth.

In the perpetually dark zones are predators with highly specialized equipment for
catching their prey. These fish are equipped with light-producing organs used as lures,
large teeth that in some species fold backward toward the gullet so their prey cannot
escape, and gaping mouths with jaws that unhinge to accommodate large fish. Among
the most famous
of these predators is Saccopharynx with its funnel-like throat and tapering body. When
the stomach is empty the fish appears slender, but it expands to accept anything the great
mouth can swallow. The female angler fish has a dorsal fin modified into a fishing rod
with an illuminated lure dangling just above her jaws. Although fierce and monstrous in
appearance, most of these deep-water fish are small, between 2 and 30 cm in length.
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They breathe slowly, and the tissues of their small bodies have a high water and low
protein content. These fish go for long periods between feedings and use their food for
energy rather than for increased tissue production.

Mammals
Marine mammals are warm-blooded air breathers. They may spend all of their lives at
sea, or they may return to land to mate and give birth. In either case, the young are born
live and are nursed by their mothers. Included in the group are large and small whales
(including porpoises and dolphins), seals, sea lions, walruses, sea otters, and sea cows.

Whales belong to the mammal group called cetaceans. Some cetaceans are toothed,
pursuing and catching their prey with their teeth and jaws (for example, the killer whale,
the sperm whale, and the small whales known as dolphins and porpoises); others have
mouths fitted with strainers of baleen, or whalebone.

Baleen whales gulp water and plankton, then expel the water through the baleen, leaving
the krill behind. The blue, finback, right, sei, gray, and humpback whales are baleen
whales. The gray whale feeds mainly on bottom crustaceans and worms.
The truly oceanic mammals are the cetaceans— whales, porpoises, and dolphins

Baleen whales include three families:

1. The gray whale has short, coarse baleen, no dorsal fin, and only two to five ventral
grooves beneath the lower jaw.

2. The rorqual whales have short baleen, many ventral grooves, and are divided into two
subfamilies: The balaenopterids have long, slender bodies, small sickle-shaped dorsal
fins, and flukes with smooth edges (minke, Bairds, Brydes, sei, fin, and blue whales).
The megapterids, or humpback whales, have a more robust body, long flippers, flukes
with uneven trailing edges, tiny dorsal fins, and tubercles on the head.
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3. The right whales have long, fine baleen, broad triangular flukes, no dorsal fin, and no
ventral grooves. The “northern” right whale is the baleen whale most threatened with
extinction. The southern right whale (Southern Hemisphere) and the bowhead whale that
remains near the Arctic pack-ice edge are the other members of this family.

Reptiles
Few reptiles are found in today’s oceans. The gavial is a slender-nosed, fish-eating
crocodile living in the coastal waters of India, and saltwater crocodiles are common in
the estuaries of northern Australia. The only modern marine lizard is the big, gregarious
marine iguana of the Galapagos Islands. It lives along the shore and dives into the
water at low tide to feed on the algae. This iguana has evolved a flattened tail for
swimming and has strong legs with large claws for climbing back up on the cliffs.

There are about fifty different kinds of sea snakes found in the warm waters of the
Pacific and Indian Oceans; there are no sea snakes in the Atlantic Ocean. Sea snakes are
extremely
poisonous with small mouths, flattened tails for swimming, and nostrils on the upper
surface of the snout that can be closed when the snakes are submerged. The snakes dive
as deep as 100 m and stay submerged as long as two hours. Sea snakes eat fish, and most
reproduce at sea by giving birth to live young.

Sea turtles live in the ocean but nest on land. The four large sea turtles are the green,
hawksbill, leatherback, and loggerhead turtles. Green sea turtles are herbivores; they
weigh
140 kg or more. The hawksbill is a tropic species feeding primarily on reef sponges. The
loggerhead, weighing between 70 and 180 kg, is usually found around wrecks and reefs
feeding on crabs, mollusks, and sponges. The leatherback feeds only on jellyfish,
following them over large areas of the ocean.