COURSE CODE: CEE 301

COURSE TITLE: FLUID MECHANICS

CREDIT: 3 UNITS

LECTURE MANUAL

COMPILED BY: ENGR. Nurudeen Alajagusi SAKARIYAH

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
KWARA STATE UNIVERSITY, MALETE.
Module 1: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Module 2: Fluid Properties

Module 3: Fluid Statics

Module 4: Fluid Kinematics

Module 5: Fluid Dynamics

Module 6: Flow Measurement

Module 7: Viscous Flow in Pipes

Module 8: Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

Module 9: Boundary Layer Theory

Module 10: Open Channel Flow

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MODULE ONE

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

1.1 Introduction

Fluid mechanics is the branch of applied science that deals with the behaviour of fluids. liquids,
gases, and vapours at rest and in motion. It provides the theoretical foundation for the analysis
and design of systems involving fluid flow, such as water distribution networks, pipelines, rivers,
dams, irrigation systems, and sewage treatment plants.

In civil and environmental engineering, understanding fluid mechanics enables engineers to

design systems that transport, store, and regulate water and other fluids efficiently and safely.

1.2 Historical Development of Fluid Mechanics

The study of fluids dates back to ancient civilizations. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans
applied basic hydraulic principles to design aqueducts, water clocks, and irrigation systems.
Key milestones in fluid mechanics include:

• Archimedes (287–212 BC): Formulated the principle of buoyancy, stating that a body
submerged in a fluid experience an upward force equal to the weight of the displaced
fluid.

• Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647): Invented the mercury barometer and developed the
theorem of efflux velocity for fluids.
• Blaise Pascal (1623–1662): Discovered Pascal’s Law, which governs the transmission of
pressure in confined fluids.
• Isaac Newton (1642–1727): Defined the relationship between shear stress and velocity
gradient, leading to Newton’s Law of Viscosity.
• Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782): Formulated the Bernoulli equation, establishing a
relationship between pressure, velocity, and elevation in fluid flow.

Modern fluid mechanics integrates these classical theories with computational and experimental
techniques to analyze complex real-world systems.

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1.3 The Nature of Fluids

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of shear stress, no matter
how small that stress may be.
Fluids can be classified as:

1. Liquids: Possess a definite volume but no fixed shape (e.g., water, oil).

2. Gases: Have neither definite volume nor shape and expand to fill their container (e.g.,
air, steam).

Difference between solids and fluids:

A solid resists deformation and has a definite shape, while a fluid continuously deforms under
applied shear.

1.4 Branches of Fluid Mechanics

1. Fluid Statics: Study of fluids at rest.

2. Fluid Kinematics: Study of motion of fluids without considering forces.

3. Fluid Dynamics: Study of fluids in motion and the forces causing that motion.

These three branches form the foundation for all hydraulic and environmental fluid applications.

1.5 Dimensions and Units

In engineering, physical quantities are expressed in terms of basic dimensions. Mass (M),
Length (L), Time (T), and Temperature (Θ).

Quantity Symbol SI Unit Dimensions

Length L m L

Mass m kg M

Time t s T

Force F N MLT⁻²

Pressure p Pa (N/m²) ML⁻¹T⁻²

Energy E J ML²T⁻²

4
1.6 Continuum Hypothesis

Although fluids are made up of discrete molecules, in engineering analysis, they are treated as a
continuum. a continuous distribution of matter with no voids.
This assumption allows the use of differential equations to describe the variation of properties
such as pressure, velocity, and density at any point.

The continuum concept is valid when the distance between molecules is much smaller than the
characteristic length of the system.

1.7 Basic Fluid Properties

(a) Density (ρ)

Mass per unit volume:
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Units: kg/m³

(b) Specific Weight (γ)

Weight per unit volume:

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔

where 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2

(c) Specific Gravity (SG)

Ratio of the density of a substance to that of water at 4°C:

𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

(d) Viscosity (μ)

Viscosity measures the internal resistance of a fluid to deformation under shear stress.
According to Newton’s Law of Viscosity:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
where
𝜏= shear stress (N/m²),
𝜇= dynamic viscosity (Pa·s),
𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦= velocity gradient (s⁻¹).
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For fluids obeying this law, viscosity is constant at a given temperature—they are Newtonian
fluids (e.g., water, air). Fluids that do not obey it (e.g., blood, paints) are non-Newtonian.

(e) Compressibility

The degree to which a fluid changes volume under pressure. Gases are highly compressible;
liquids are nearly incompressible.

1.8 Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s Law states that the pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all
directions.

Mathematically,
𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴

and the same pressure acts at every point of the fluid and on the walls of its container.

Application: Hydraulic presses, brakes, jacks, and lifts.

1.9 Sample Calculations

Example 1 (Basic):
A liquid has a mass of 4.8 kg and occupies a volume of 0.006 m³. Determine its density and
specific weight.
Solution:
𝑚 4.8
𝜌= = = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉 0.006
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 = 800 × 9.81 = 7848 𝑁/𝑚3

Answer: Density = 800 kg/m³, Specific Weight = 7848 N/m³.

Example 2 (Intermediate):

A piston of diameter 100 mm in a hydraulic press exerts a downward force of 1.5 kN on the
fluid. Calculate the pressure transmitted to the confined liquid.

6
Solution:

𝜋𝐷2 𝜋(0.1)2
𝐴= = = 7.854 × 10−3 𝑚2
4 4
𝐹 1500
𝑝= = = 1.91 × 105 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 7.854 × 10−3

Answer: 𝑝 = 191 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Example 3 (Advanced Derivation – Viscosity):

Two parallel plates are separated by a 0.001 m-thick layer of oil. The lower plate is stationary
while the upper plate moves at 2 m/s. Determine the shear stress if the dynamic viscosity of the
oil is 0.9 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2.
Solution:
𝑑𝑢 2
𝜏=𝜇 = 0.9 × = 1800 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑑𝑦 0.001

Interpretation:
A shear stress of 1800 N/m² is required to maintain this velocity difference.

1.10 Civil and Environmental Applications

• Water supply: Flow in distribution pipelines and elevated tanks.

• Hydraulic design: Spillways, weirs, and drainage systems.

• Environmental engineering: Flow of wastewater and pollutants.

• Hydrology: Surface runoff and groundwater movement.

• Energy systems: Hydropower turbines and pumps.

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1.12 Summary

• Fluid mechanics forms the basis of hydraulic and environmental system design.

• Fluids continuously deform under shear stress.

• Basic properties include density, viscosity, and pressure.

• Key laws: Pascal’s Law and Newton’s Law of Viscosity.

• Applications include hydraulics, irrigation, hydropower, and water treatment.

1.13 Exercises

1. Define a fluid and explain how it differs from a solid.

2. A tank contains 2.5 m³ of water weighing 24.525 kN. Compute its density and specific
gravity.

3. Explain the concept of a Newtonian fluid with examples.

4. Derive Pascal’s Law and state its practical uses.

5. Explain why liquids are considered incompressible.

1.14 Review Questions

1. State and explain the three branches of fluid mechanics.

2. Define and derive Newton’s Law of Viscosity.

3. What is the continuum hypothesis? Why is it essential?

4. Mention at least five applications of fluid mechanics in civil engineering.

5. Discuss the importance of viscosity and give examples of Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids.

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MODULE TWO

Properties of Fluids

2.1 Introduction

Understanding the properties of fluids is fundamental to fluid mechanics.

These properties determine how fluids behave under various conditions of pressure, temperature,
and motion. In civil and environmental engineering, the properties of fluids influence the design
of pipelines, dams, water supply systems, and treatment plants. Accurate knowledge of these
properties ensures the efficient performance of hydraulic and environmental systems.

2.2 Classification of Fluid Properties

Fluid properties are broadly classified as:

1. Intensive Properties: Independent of the quantity of matter (e.g., temperature, pressure,

density, viscosity).

2. Extensive Properties: Depend on the quantity of matter (e.g., mass, volume, energy).

Fluid properties may also be scalar, vector, or tensor in nature, depending on how they vary
with direction.

2.3 Density (ρ)

Definition:
Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

• Unit: kg/m³

• Typical values:

o Water = 1000 kg/m³ (at 4°C)

o Air = 1.225 kg/m³ (at 15°C, 1 atm)

Engineering importance:
Density determines buoyancy, hydrostatic pressure, and flow behavior.

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Example 2.1:

A 0.05 m³ volume of oil weighs 400 N. Determine its density.

Solution:
𝑊/𝑔 400/9.81
𝜌= = = 816.7 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉 0.05

2.4 Specific Weight (γ)

Definition:
Specific weight is the weight per unit volume of a fluid.

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔

where 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2

Unit: N/m³

Example 2.2:
Find the specific weight of a liquid whose density is 850 kg/m³.

𝛾 = 850 × 9.81 = 8340 𝑁/𝑚3

2.5 Specific Gravity (SG)

Definition:
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a fluid to that of water at 4°C.
𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Example 2.3:
If a fluid has a density of 920 kg/m³, determine its specific gravity.
920
𝑆𝐺 = = 0.92
1000

Interpretation:
The fluid is lighter than water and will float on its surface.
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2.6 Viscosity (μ)

Viscosity is the internal resistance offered by a fluid to motion or deformation.

When a fluid flows between two adjacent layers, the top layer tends to move faster than the one
below. The resistance between these layers is quantified by viscosity.

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

For a Newtonian fluid:

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

where:

• 𝜏= Shear stress (N/m²)

• 𝜇= Dynamic viscosity (N·s/m² or Pa·s)

• 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦= Velocity gradient (s⁻¹)

Types of Viscosity

1. Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity (μ)

Measures internal resistance directly (Pa·s).

2. Kinematic Viscosity (ν)

Ratio of dynamic viscosity to density:
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌

Units: m²/s

Temperature Effect on Viscosity

• Liquids: Viscosity decreases with temperature (molecules move more freely).

• Gases: Viscosity increases with temperature (molecular collisions increase).

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Example 2.4:

The viscosity of a fluid is 0.01 𝑁𝑠/𝑚2 and its density is 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . Find the kinematic
viscosity.
𝜇 0.01
𝜈= = = 1.11 × 10−5 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝜌 900

2.7 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus

Compressibility is the property by which a fluid changes its volume under pressure.
It is the reciprocal of the Bulk Modulus (K).
𝑑𝑝
𝐾 = −𝑉
𝑑𝑉

• Liquids: Nearly incompressible (high K).

• Gases: Highly compressible (low K).

Example 2.5:
If a pressure increase of 2 × 10⁶ N/m² reduces the volume of water by 0.1%, calculate the bulk
modulus.

𝑑𝑝 2 × 106
𝐾=− = = 2 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2
Δ𝑉/𝑉 0.001

2.8 Vapour Pressure

Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapour molecules in equilibrium with their liquid
at a given temperature.

• At high temperatures, vapour pressure increases.

• When the local pressure in a liquid falls below vapour pressure, cavitation occurs
(formation of vapour bubbles), causing damage to pumps and turbines.

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2.9 Surface Tension and Capillarity

Surface Tension (σ):

Force per unit length acting along the surface of a liquid due to molecular cohesion.
𝐹
𝜎= (𝑁/𝑚)
𝐿

• Water at 20°C: σ = 0.073 N/m

• Mercury: σ = 0.47 N/m

Example 2.6:
Calculate the force required to break a water film 4 cm wide, given σ = 0.073 N/m.

𝐹 = 2𝜎𝐿 = 2 × 0.073 × 0.04 = 0.00584 𝑁

Capillarity:

The rise or fall of a liquid in a narrow tube due to surface tension.

2𝜎cos⁡ 𝜃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑟

where

• ℎ= capillary rise or fall (m)

• 𝜃= contact angle (°)

• 𝑟= tube radius (m)

• For water (θ ≈ 0°): capillary rise occurs.

• For mercury (θ ≈ 140°): capillary depression occurs.

Example 2.7:
Find the capillary rise of water in a 1 mm diameter glass tube.
2(0.073)cos⁡ 0°
ℎ= = 0.0297 𝑚 = 29.7 𝑚𝑚
(1000)(9.81)(0.0005)

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2.10 Cohesion and Adhesion

• Cohesion: Attraction between similar molecules (e.g., water-water).

• Adhesion: Attraction between dissimilar molecules (e.g., water-glass).

Both are responsible for surface tension and capillary action.

2.11 Vaporization and Boiling Point

When vapour pressure equals the surrounding atmospheric pressure, a liquid boils.
Boiling point depends on external pressure — higher altitudes lower the boiling temperature.

2.12 Summary Table of Common Fluid Properties

Property Symbol Unit Typical Value (Water @20°C)

Density ρ kg/m³ 998

Specific Weight γ N/m³ 9790

Dynamic Viscosity μ Pa·s 1.002×10⁻³

Kinematic Viscosity ν m²/s 1.004×10⁻⁶

Surface Tension σ N/m 0.073

Vapour Pressure pᵥ kPa 2.34

2.13 Civil and Environmental Applications

• Hydraulics: Determines flow resistance in pipes and channels.

• Groundwater studies: Viscosity and density affect seepage flow.

• Water treatment: Surface tension influences aeration and sedimentation.

• Environmental systems: Vapour pressure relates to evaporation and condensation in the

hydrological cycle.

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2.15 Summary

• Density and specific weight relate to mass and weight per volume.

• Specific gravity compares fluid density with that of water.

• Viscosity governs fluid resistance to motion.

• Surface tension and capillarity arise from molecular forces.

• Vapour pressure determines the onset of cavitation and boiling.

• Most liquids are practically incompressible.

2.16 Exercises

1. Define density, specific weight, and specific gravity.

2. A liquid weighs 735 N and occupies 0.075 m³. Determine its density and specific gravity.

3. Explain the difference between dynamic and kinematic viscosity.

4. Water rises 32 mm in a capillary tube of radius 0.5 mm. Find the surface tension.

5. Discuss how temperature affects the viscosity of liquids and gases.

2.17 Review Questions

1. Explain the significance of fluid properties in environmental engineering design.

2. What is vapour pressure? Describe its effect on pump performance.

3. Derive the formula for capillary rise.

4. Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion with examples.

5. List five key physical properties of water and their typical values.

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MODULE THREE

Fluid Statics

3.1 Introduction

Fluid statics, or hydrostatics, is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with fluids at rest. In this
condition, there are no shear stresses within the fluid, only normal stresses due to pressure.

The study of fluid statics is crucial in civil and environmental engineering because it forms the
foundation for the design of dams, reservoirs, tanks, gates, hydraulic presses, and pressure
measuring devices.

Understanding pressure variation in stationary fluids enables engineers to determine the forces
acting on submerged surfaces such as retaining walls, sluice gates, and bridge piers.
3.2 Basic Concept of Pressure

Definition:
Pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area acting on a surface.
𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴
• Unit: Pascal (Pa) = N/m²

• Dimensions: ML⁻¹T⁻²

Pressure at a point in a fluid at rest acts equally in all directions, a principle known as Pascal’s
Law.

3.3 Pascal’s Law

Statement:
“The pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally and undiminished in all
directions throughout the fluid and acts normally on all bounding surfaces.”

Mathematical Expression:

𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 = ⋯ = constant

Applications:

• Hydraulic jacks and lifts

• Hydraulic brakes
• Transmission of pressure in pipelines

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Example 3.1

A hydraulic press has a plunger diameter of 50 mm and a ram diameter of 250 mm. If a force of
300 N is applied on the plunger, find the load lifted by the ram.
𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝜋(0.05)2 𝜋(0.25)2
𝐴1 = , 𝐴2 =
4 4
𝐴2 0.252
𝐹2 = 𝐹1 = 300( ) = 300 × 25 = 7500 𝑁
𝐴1 0.052

Answer: Load lifted = 7.5 kN

3.4 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

In a static fluid, pressure increases with depth due to the weight of the fluid above.
Consider a vertical fluid column of height ℎ, cross-section 𝐴, and density 𝜌.

𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

where:
𝑝0 = pressure at the free surface (often atmospheric),
𝜌𝑔ℎ= gauge pressure due to the fluid column.

Hydrostatic Law:

Pressure increases linearly with depth in a fluid of constant density.

𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔
𝑑𝑧

Example 3.2

Find the pressure 5 m below the surface of water in a tank if the atmospheric pressure is 101.3
kPa.

𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 101300 + (1000 × 9.81 × 5) = 101300 + 49050 = 150350 𝑃𝑎

Answer:
Absolute pressure = 150.35 kPa

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3.5 Absolute and Gauge Pressure

• Absolute Pressure (pₐ): Measured from absolute zero pressure (perfect vacuum).

• Gauge Pressure (p_g): Measured above atmospheric pressure.

• Vacuum Pressure (p_v): Measured below atmospheric pressure.

𝑝𝑎 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔

Note: Atmospheric pressure at sea level = 101.325 kPa.

3.6 Pressure Measurement Devices

1. Piezometer Tube – Simple, used for low pressures in liquids.

2. Manometers – Use columns of liquid to balance pressure differences.

o Simple Manometer: One fluid (e.g., U-tube).

o Differential Manometer: Measures pressure difference between two points.

3. Bourdon Gauge: Mechanical device using an elastic curved tube.

Example 3.3: U-tube Manometer

A differential U-tube manometer contains mercury (ρ = 13600 kg/m³) and connects two points A
and B in a pipeline. The mercury level difference is 0.25 m, and the fluid in the pipe has a
density of 900 kg/m³. Find the pressure difference between A and B.

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = (𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌𝑓 )𝑔ℎ = (13600 − 900)(9.81)(0.25)

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = (12700)(9.81)(0.25) = 31117.5 𝑃𝑎 = 31.12 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Answer:
Pressure at A is 31.1 kPa higher than at B.

3.7 Pressure Distribution in a Fluid

In a stationary fluid, pressure acts:

• Normal to every surface.

• Equally in all directions (Pascal’s principle).

• Increases linearly with depth.

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Hydrostatic Pressure Equation:

𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

3.8 Forces on Plane Surfaces

Total Pressure (P):

The total pressure on a submerged plane surface is the resultant force due to hydrostatic pressure.

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴

where:

• ℎ𝑐 = depth of the centroid of the area,

• 𝐴= area of the surface.

Center of Pressure (h_p):

The point of action of the resultant hydrostatic force.

𝐼𝐺
ℎ𝑝 = ℎ𝑐 +
ℎ𝑐 𝐴

where 𝐼𝐺 is the second moment of area about the surface centroidal axis.

Example 3.4:

A rectangular gate 2 m wide and 3 m high is submerged vertically in water, with its top edge 1 m
below the surface. Determine:

1. The total pressure

2. The depth of center of pressure

Solution:
3
• ℎ𝑐 = 1 + 2 = 2.5 𝑚

• 𝐴 = 2 × 3 = 6 𝑚2

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = 1000 × 9.81 × 2.5 × 6 = 147,150 𝑁

19
 𝑏ℎ3 2 × 33
𝐼𝐺 = = = 4.5 𝑚4
12 12
4.5
ℎ𝑝 = 2.5 + = 2.5 + 0.3 = 2.8 𝑚
2.5 × 6

Answer:
Total pressure = 147.15 kN, Center of pressure = 2.8 m below surface

3.9 Pressure on Curved Surfaces

The total hydrostatic force on a curved surface can be resolved into horizontal and vertical
components.

• Horizontal Component (Pₕ): Equal to the pressure on the vertical projection.

𝑃ℎ = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑣

• Vertical Component (Pᵥ): Equal to the weight of the fluid directly above the curved
surface.

Resultant Force (R):

𝑅 = √𝑃ℎ2 + 𝑃𝑣2

Example 3.5:

A quarter-circular gate of radius 2 m is submerged in water. Determine the horizontal and

vertical components of the hydrostatic force.

Given:

ℎ𝑐 = 2𝑚, 𝐴𝑣 = (2)(2) = 4 𝑚2
𝑃ℎ = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑣 = 1000 × 9.81 × 2 × 4 = 78,480 𝑁
𝜋𝑟 2
𝑃𝑣 = 𝜌𝑔(Volume above gate) = 1000 × 9.81 × ×1
4
𝑃𝑣 = 1000 × 9.81 × 3.14 × 1 = 30,800 𝑁
𝑅 = √78, 4802 + 30, 8002 = 84,389 𝑁

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3.10 Buoyancy and Flotation

Archimedes’ Principle:
A body wholly or partially submerged in a fluid experience an upward buoyant force equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced.

𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉

Conditions for Equilibrium:

• Floating body: Weight = Buoyant force

• Submerged body: Weight > Buoyant force

Example 3.6:

A wooden block (SG = 0.7) floats on water. Determine the percentage of its volume submerged.
𝑉𝑠
= 𝑆𝐺 = 0.7
𝑉

Answer:
70% of the block volume is submerged.

3.11 Stability of Floating Bodies

A floating body is stable if, when tilted slightly, it returns to its original position.

Key terms:

• Centre of Buoyancy (B): Centroid of displaced volume.

• Metacentre (M): Point where the buoyant force acts when the body is tilted.

• Metacentric Height (GM):

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺

where
𝐼
𝐵𝑀 = 𝑉(metacentric radius)
𝐼= moment of inertia of waterline area,
𝑉= displaced volume.

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Stability Conditions:

• 𝐺𝑀 > 0: Stable

• 𝐺𝑀 = 0: Neutral

• 𝐺𝑀 < 0: Unstable

Example 3.7:

A rectangular pontoon 4 m wide and 8 m long floats in water. It displaces 10 m³ of water. Find its
metacentric height if the center of gravity is 0.3 m above the center of buoyancy.

𝐼 (𝐿 × 𝐵 3 )/12 8 × 43 /12 8 × 64/12 42.7

𝐵𝑀 = = = = = = 4.27 𝑚
𝑉 𝑉 10 10 10
𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺 = 4.27 − 0.3 = 3.97 𝑚

Answer:
Metacentric height = 3.97 m (Stable)

3.13 Summary
• Pressure acts equally in all directions in a static fluid.

• Hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth.

• Pascal’s law forms the basis of hydraulic machines.

• Manometers are used for precise pressure measurement.

• Hydrostatic forces act through the center of pressure.

• Floating bodies are stable if the metacentric height is positive.

3.14 Exercises
1. Define pressure and explain Pascal’s law.

2. A 4 m high tank contains oil (SG = 0.8). Find the pressure at the bottom.

3. Derive the expression for total pressure and center of pressure on a vertical plane surface.

4. Explain the difference between absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressure.

22
 5. A block of wood (SG = 0.6) floats in oil (SG = 0.9). Find the fraction of volume
submerged.

3.15 Review Questions

1. State and prove Pascal’s law.

2. What is the significance of manometers in hydraulic systems?

3. Discuss the stability conditions for a floating body.

4. Explain how hydrostatic pressure is used in dam design.

5. Differentiate between buoyancy and flotation with examples.

23
MODULE FOUR

HYDROSTATICS: FLUIDS AT REST

4.1 Introduction

Hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with fluids at rest or in static
equilibrium.
It forms the basis for understanding pressure distribution in fluids, buoyancy, stability of
submerged and floating bodies, and the design of hydraulic structures such as dams, reservoirs,
tanks, and gates.

In hydrostatics, the primary variable of interest is pressure, which varies with depth in a fluid
due to the weight of the fluid above a given point.

4.2 Concept of Pressure in Fluids

Pressure in a fluid at rest acts equally in all directions and always perpendicular to any
surface in contact with the fluid.

Definition:

Pressure is the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

Where:
𝑃= pressure (Pa or N/m²)
𝐹= normal force (N)
𝐴= area (m²)

4.3 Variation of Pressure with Depth

Consider a small fluid element of height 𝛿ℎand cross-sectional area 𝐴at rest in a gravitational
field. The equilibrium of vertical forces gives:

𝑃 + 𝛿𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝛿ℎ

or
𝑑𝑃
= 𝜌𝑔
𝑑ℎ

24
Integrating between the free surface (pressure 𝑃0 ) and depth ℎ:

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Thus, pressure increases linearly with depth in a static fluid.

4.4 Absolute, Gauge, and Atmospheric Pressures

1. Absolute Pressure
Measured relative to a perfect vacuum.

𝑃abs = 𝑃atm + 𝑃gauge

2. Gauge Pressure
Measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure (e.g., tire or pipe pressure).

3. Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure exerted by the weight of the air column above the Earth’s surface.
𝑃atm = 101.325 kPaat sea level.

4.5 Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law states that:

Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions throughout the
fluid and acts equally on all surfaces of the container.

𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 = ⋯

Applications:

• Hydraulic presses and jacks

• Hydraulic brakes

• Hydraulic lifts

25
4.6 Hydrostatic Pressure on Plane Surfaces

For a plane submerged surface of area 𝐴⁡inclined at an angle 𝜃to the horizontal, the total
hydrostatic force is given by:

𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴

where:
ℎ𝑐 = depth of centroid of the area from the free surface.

The centre of pressure ℎ𝑝 is the point where the resultant pressure force acts, given by:

𝐼𝐺 sin⁡2 𝜃
ℎ𝑝 = ℎ𝑐 +
ℎ𝑐 𝐴

where 𝐼𝐺 = second moment of area (moment of inertia) about the horizontal axis through the
centroid.

4.7 Hydrostatic Pressure on Curved Surfaces

For curved surfaces, pressure forces are resolved into horizontal and vertical components:

• Horizontal component (𝐹𝐻 ) = Pressure on the vertical projection

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑣

where 𝐴𝑣 is the vertical projected area.

• Vertical component (𝐹𝑉 ) = Weight of the fluid directly above the curved surface

𝐹𝑉 = Weight of fluid above the surface

Resultant force 𝐹𝑅 :

𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝐻2 + 𝐹𝑉2

and the line of action is found using the geometry of the problem.

26
4.8 Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

Archimedes’ Principle:

Anybody wholly or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body.

𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑉

where:
𝐹𝐵 = buoyant force (N)
𝜌𝑓 = density of the fluid (kg/m³)
𝑉= volume of displaced fluid (m³)

Conditions for Equilibrium:

• If 𝐹𝐵 > 𝑊: body rises (floats)

• If 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊: body remains suspended

• If 𝐹𝐵 < 𝑊: body sinks

4.9 Stability of Floating and Submerged Bodies

The stability of a floating body depends on the relative positions of the centre of gravity (G) and
metacentre (M).

• If 𝑀is above 𝐺→ Stable equilibrium

• If 𝑀coincides with 𝐺→ Neutral equilibrium

• If 𝑀is below 𝐺→ Unstable equilibrium

Metacentric height (GM):

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺

𝐼
where 𝐵𝑀 = 𝑉
𝐼= second moment of area of the waterline
𝑉= volume of displaced fluid

27
4.10 Worked Examples

Example 4.1 — Pressure at Depth

Find the pressure at a depth of 6 m in water if the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa.

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 101.3 × 103 + (1000)(9.81)(6)

𝑃 = 101300 + 58860 = 160160 Pa = 160.16 kPa

Example 4.2 — Hydrostatic Force on a Gate

A rectangular gate 2 m × 3 m is submerged vertically in water, with its top edge 1 m below the
surface.
Find the total force on the gate and its centre of pressure.
3
ℎ𝑐 = 1 + = 2.5 m
2
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = (1000)(9.81)(2.5)(2 × 3) = 147,150 N
𝑏ℎ3 2(33 )
𝐼𝐺 = = = 4.5 m4
12 12
4.5
ℎ𝑝 = 2.5 + = 2.5 + 0.3 = 2.8 m
(2.5 × 6)

Hence, 𝐹 = 147.15𝑘𝑁at a depth of 2.8 m below the surface.

4.11 Civil and Environmental Engineering Applications

• Dams and reservoirs: calculating water thrust on walls.

• Water tanks: determining wall and base pressures.

• Hydraulic gates and locks: force analysis for opening/closing mechanisms.
• Submarine and ship design: buoyancy and stability analysis.

• Environmental systems: pressure head estimation in sedimentation tanks and clarifiers.

4.12 Summary

• Pressure increases linearly with depth.

• Pascal’s Law governs pressure transmission in fluids.

• Hydrostatic force on surfaces depends on depth, area, and orientation.

28
 • Buoyancy and stability principles are vital for floating bodies.

• Hydrostatics is fundamental in hydraulic and environmental structure design.

4.13 Review Questions and Exercises

1. Define pressure and derive the expression for pressure variation with depth.

2. Explain Pascal’s law and give two engineering applications.

3. Derive the expression for total pressure and centre of pressure on a plane surface
submerged in a liquid.

4. A tank 3 m deep contains oil (SG = 0.85). Find the pressure at the bottom of the tank in
kPa.

5. A cubical block (edge = 0.5 m, weight = 900 N) floats in water. Find the percentage
volume submerged.
6. Discuss the factors affecting the stability of floating bodies.

7. A circular gate of 2 m diameter lies vertically with its centre 3 m below the water surface.
Determine the total hydrostatic force on the gate.

29
MODULE FIVE

FLUID KINEMATICS: DESCRIPTION OF FLUID MOTION

5.1 Introduction

Fluid Kinematics deals with the motion of fluids without considering the forces or energy that
cause that motion. It focuses on describing how fluid particles move in space and time, using
velocity and acceleration fields.

In civil and environmental engineering, fluid kinematics is fundamental for understanding flow
through pipes, channels, rivers, drainage systems, and atmospheric flows.

5.2 Fundamental Concepts of Fluid Motion

When a fluid moves, its velocity and position change with time. To describe fluid motion, we
use two approaches:

1. Lagrangian Description – follows individual fluid particles as they move.

The position and velocity of each particle are expressed as functions of time:

⃗ = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑉

This approach is conceptually simple but mathematically complex for continuous fluids.

2. Eulerian Description – focuses on specific points in space and examines how the
velocity and other fluid properties vary with time at those points:

⃗ =𝑉
𝑉 ⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

The Eulerian approach is commonly used in engineering fluid analysis.

5.3 Types of Fluid Flow

Fluid motion can be classified according to several characteristics:

(a) Steady and Unsteady Flow

• Steady flow: Fluid properties at a point do not change with time.

∂
=0
∂𝑡

30
 • Unsteady flow: Properties change with time.

(b) Uniform and Non-Uniform Flow

• Uniform flow: Velocity is the same at all points in a given section.

• Non-uniform flow: Velocity varies from point to point.

(c) One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flow

• 1-D flow: Velocity varies along one direction only (e.g., flow in a straight pipe).

• 2-D flow: Velocity varies in two directions (e.g., flow over a weir).

• 3-D flow: Velocity varies in all three directions (rare in practical engineering).

(d) Laminar and Turbulent Flow

• Laminar flow: Smooth, orderly layers with no cross-mixing.

Occurs when Reynolds number (Re) < 2000.

• Turbulent flow: Irregular, chaotic motion with mixing between layers.

Occurs when Re > 4000.

(e) Compressible and Incompressible Flow

• Compressible: Fluid density changes significantly (e.g., gases).

• Incompressible: Density remains nearly constant (e.g., water).

(f) Rotational and Irrotational Flow

• Rotational flow: Fluid elements rotate about their center.

• Irrotational flow: No local rotation of fluid elements.

5.4 Streamlines, Pathlines, and Streaklines

These are geometric representations of fluid motion:

• Streamline: A line tangent to the velocity vector at every point in the flow field.
No flow crosses a streamline.
Equation:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤

• Pathline: The actual path followed by a single fluid particle over time.

31
 • Streakline: The locus of particles that have passed through a particular point in space.

In steady flow, all three coincide.

5.5 Velocity and Acceleration in Fluid Flow

If the velocity components of a fluid are 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤along the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧axes respectively, then the
acceleration components are:
∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
∂𝑡 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

and similarly for 𝑎𝑦 , 𝑎𝑧 .

Here:
• The first term is the local acceleration (due to time variation),

• The remaining terms are convective acceleration (due to spatial variation).

5.6 Continuity Equation

The continuity equation represents the principle of conservation of mass in fluid flow.

For an incompressible fluid, the continuity equation in three dimensions is:

∂𝑢 ∂𝑣 ∂𝑤
+ + =0
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

For steady 1-D flow,

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

where 𝑄= discharge (m³/s), 𝐴= cross-sectional area (m²), 𝑉= velocity (m/s).

5.7 Velocity Potential and Stream Function

In irrotational flow, a scalar function 𝜙(velocity potential) exists such that:

∂𝜙 ∂𝜙 ∂𝜙
𝑢= ,𝑣 = ,𝑤 =
∂𝑥 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

32
For 2D incompressible flow, the stream function 𝜓is defined such that:
∂𝜓 ∂𝜓
𝑢= ,𝑣 = −
∂𝑦 ∂𝑥

The streamlines are the curves of constant 𝜓, while equipotential lines are curves of constant 𝜙.

For irrotational flow:

∇2 𝜙 = 0
5.8 Flow Nets

A flow net consists of families of streamlines and equipotential lines that intersect at right
angles.
Applications in Civil and Environmental Engineering:

• Seepage analysis under dams and levees

• Flow through porous media

• Design of filters and drains

• Groundwater flow patterns

5.9 Worked Examples

Example 5.1 — Continuity Equation Application
Water flows through a pipe of diameter 150 mm at 2.5 m/s. The pipe contracts to 100 mm. Find
the velocity in the smaller section.

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝜋(0.15)2 𝜋(0.1)2
× 2.5 = × 𝑉2
4 4
0.15 2
𝑉2 = 2.5 × ( ) = 2.5 × 2.25 = 5.63 m/s
0.1

Example 5.2 — Flow Type Determination

Determine the flow type for water at 20°C in a 50 mm pipe if the velocity is 0.2 m/s.
𝜌𝑉𝐷 (1000)(0.2)(0.05)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 9,980
𝜇 1.002 × 10−3

33
Since 𝑅𝑒 > 4000, the flow is turbulent.

5.10 Civil and Environmental Applications

• Design of water supply and sewer systems (steady/unsteady flow).

• Study of sediment transport in open channels (velocity field).

• Groundwater flow modeling using flow nets.

• Pollutant dispersion analysis in environmental hydraulics.

• Flow visualization in hydraulic laboratories.

5.11 Summary

• Fluid motion is described using Lagrangian and Eulerian approaches.

• Flow types: steady/unsteady, laminar/turbulent, compressible/incompressible.

• Streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines visualize flow fields.

• Continuity equation expresses mass conservation.

• Stream function and velocity potential describe irrotational flow.

• Flow nets are vital in seepage and groundwater studies.

5.12 Review Questions and Exercises

1. Differentiate between Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions of flow.

2. Define and classify types of fluid flow.

3. Derive the continuity equation for a steady incompressible flow.

4. Explain the physical significance of streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines.

5. A pipe reduces from 200 mm to 120 mm. If velocity in the larger section is 3 m/s, find
the velocity in the smaller section.

6. Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent if water flows in a 75 mm pipe at 0.5
m/s.

7. Explain how flow nets are used in analyzing seepage beneath dams.

8. Distinguish between velocity potential and stream function.

34
MODULE SIX

FLUID DYNAMICS: FORCES AND ENERGY IN FLUID MOTION

6.1 Introduction

Fluid dynamics is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with fluids in motion and the forces
causing that motion.
Unlike hydrostatics (fluids at rest), fluid dynamics examines velocity, acceleration, energy, and
momentum relationships in moving fluids.

In civil and environmental engineering, understanding fluid dynamics is essential for analyzing
and designing:

• Water distribution systems

• Stormwater drainage networks

• Rivers and open channels

• Pumping stations

• Hydraulic turbines and energy dissipators

6.2 Types of Motion in Fluids

Fluid particles in motion can exhibit the following types of motion:

1. Translation – all particles move in the same direction and velocity.

2. Rotation – particles rotate about their own axes.

3. Deformation (strain) – particles change shape due to velocity gradients.

In most real flows, these motions occur simultaneously.

6.3 Forces Acting on a Fluid Element

A moving fluid element is subjected to several types of forces:

1. Body forces: act throughout the mass (e.g., gravity).

𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉

2. Surface forces: act on the element’s surface (pressure and viscous stresses).
3. Inertial forces: arise due to acceleration of the fluid.
35
 4. External forces: e.g., pump head, applied loads, etc.

The equilibrium of these forces forms the basis of motion equations.

6.4 Euler’s Equation of Motion

For an inviscid (non-viscous), incompressible fluid in steady flow, the equation of motion along
a streamline is obtained from Newton’s second law:
𝑑𝑃
+ 𝑔 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝜌

where
𝑃= pressure (Pa)
𝜌= density (kg/m³)
𝑔= acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²)
𝑧= elevation (m)
𝑉= velocity (m/s)

6.5 Bernoulli’s Equation

Integrating Euler’s equation gives Bernoulli’s Equation, the cornerstone of fluid dynamics:

𝑃 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧 = constant
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Each term represents energy per unit weight:

𝑃
• : pressure head
𝜌𝑔

𝑉2
• : velocity head
2𝑔

• 𝑧: potential head

This equation expresses the principle of conservation of energy for steady, frictionless,
incompressible flow along a streamline.

36
6.6 Practical Form of Bernoulli’s Equation

Between two points (1) and (2):

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

where ℎ𝐿 = head loss due to friction and other resistances.

In terms of total head:

𝑃 𝑉2
𝐻= + +𝑧
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

6.7 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

1. Venturi Meter – measures discharge through a pipe.

2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
𝑄 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 √
𝑎12 − 𝑎22

2. Orifice Flow – measures velocity of efflux.

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔ℎ

where 𝐶𝑑 = coefficient of discharge.

3. Pitot Tube – measures local velocity in a flow field.

𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ

4. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Total Energy Line (TEL) are graphical
representations of head variation along the flow path.

6.8 Momentum Equation

The momentum principle states:

The rate of change of momentum of a fluid system equals the net external force acting on it.

37
For steady flow:

∑𝐹 = 𝑚̇(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

where 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄is the mass flow rate.

Applications include:

• Force on pipe bends and elbows

• Jet impingement on plates and vanes

• Reaction of nozzles

6.9 Energy and Head Losses in Pipes

When fluid flows through pipes, energy losses occur due to:

1. Major losses – caused by friction (Darcy–Weisbach equation):

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔

where 𝑓= friction factor, 𝐿= length, 𝐷= diameter.

2. Minor losses – due to fittings, valves, bends, entries, exits:

𝑉2
ℎ𝑚 = 𝐾
2𝑔

Total head loss:

ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑚

6.10 Power Transmission by a Pipeline

If water is conveyed through a pipeline to a turbine, the power transmitted is:

𝑃 = 𝛾𝑄(𝐻 − ℎ𝐿 )

and the efficiency:

38
 𝐻 − ℎ𝐿
𝜂=
𝐻

where 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔is the specific weight of the fluid.

6.11 Worked Examples

Example 6.1 — Application of Bernoulli’s Equation

Water flows through a horizontal pipe of diameters 150 mm and 100 mm. The pressure
difference between the sections is 2.5 m of water.
Find the rate of flow.

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑉22 − 𝑉12
=
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝐴2
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝐴1 2
2 𝐴2 2 2
2.5 𝑉2 − (𝐴1 ) 𝑉2
=
1 2 × 9.81
𝜋(0.15)2 𝜋(0.1)2 𝐴2
𝐴1 = , 𝐴2 = , = 0.444
4 4 𝐴1
𝑉22 (1 − 0.4442 )
2.5 = ⇒ 𝑉2 = 6.1 m/s
19.62
𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 7.85 × 10−3 × 6.1 = 0.0479 m3 /s

Example 6.2 — Head Loss and Power Transmission

Water flows in a 300 mm diameter pipe, 500 m long, with velocity 2 m/s. If 𝑓 = 0.02, find head
loss and efficiency if the available head is 10 m.

𝐿 𝑉2 500 4
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = 0.02 × × = 6.8 m
𝐷 2𝑔 0.3 19.62
10 − 6.8
𝜂= = 0.32 = 32%
10

39
6.12 Civil and Environmental Applications

• Design of water supply systems using Bernoulli’s and energy equations.

• Determining pump head requirements in treatment plants.

• Velocity and discharge measurement (Venturi, orifice, Pitot).

• Force calculations on hydraulic structures.

• Estimation of energy losses in pipelines and channels.

6.13 Summary

• Euler’s equation expresses motion due to differential pressure, elevation, and velocity.

• Bernoulli’s equation represents energy conservation in a flowing fluid.

• Head losses occur due to friction and fittings.

• Momentum principle explains fluid forces on boundaries.

• Fluid dynamics forms the basis for flow measurement and hydraulic design.

6.14 Review Questions and Exercises

1. Derive Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation of motion.

2. Define the terms pressure head, velocity head, and potential head.

3. A 100 mm diameter pipe reduces to 50 mm. If pressure drop is 1.5 m, determine flow
rate.

4. Explain major and minor head losses and give three examples of each.

5. State the assumptions made in deriving Bernoulli’s equation.

6. Derive the expression for head loss due to friction using Darcy–Weisbach formula.

7. Water is pumped through a 200 mm pipe (length 100 m, 𝑓 = 0.02) at 3 m/s. Determine
head loss.

8. Discuss three practical applications of Bernoulli’s equation in civil/environmental

systems.

40
MODULE SEVEN: FLOW MEASUREMENT

7.1 Introduction

Measurement of flow is a vital aspect of fluid mechanics and hydraulic engineering. Engineers
often need to determine the rate of flow of liquids and gases through pipes, channels, and other
hydraulic structures for design, operation, and environmental monitoring.
Flow measurement is essential in applications such as:

• Determining water supply and distribution capacity,

• Monitoring wastewater discharges,

• Calibrating pumps and turbines, and

• Controlling irrigation and drainage systems.

In this chapter, we will explore the principles, devices, and methods used in flow measurement
and their application to engineering problems.

7.2 Basic Flow Parameters

The primary parameters to measure in fluid flow are:

1. Discharge (Q):
The rate at which fluid flows through a cross-section, expressed as:

𝑄 =𝐴×𝑉

where:
𝑄= discharge (m³/s),
𝐴= cross-sectional area (m²),
𝑉= mean velocity (m/s).

2. Velocity (V):
The speed of the fluid particles in a given direction.

3. Head (h):
The energy per unit weight of the fluid, often expressed as elevation, pressure, or velocity
head.

41
7.3 Methods of Flow Measurement

Flow measurement methods can be broadly divided into direct and indirect methods.

(a) Direct Method

This involves collecting the discharge directly using a measuring tank and stopwatch.
If a known volume of fluid 𝑉is collected in time 𝑡:
𝑉
𝑄=
𝑡

This is often used in laboratory experiments or small-scale open channel flows.

(b) Indirect Method

This method determines discharge based on velocity or head difference using flow measuring
devices like:

• Venturi meters

• Orifice meters

• Pitot tubes

• Notches and weirs (for open channels)

• Current meters

7.4 Flow Measurement Devices

7.4.1 Venturi Meter

A Venturi meter is a device used to measure the discharge of a fluid in a pipeline by constricting
the flow area, causing a change in pressure that can be related to velocity.

Construction:
It consists of three main parts:

1. Converging section

2. Throat

3. Diverging section

Working Principle:
Based on Bernoulli’s equation, the difference in pressure head between the inlet and the throat
is used to calculate discharge.

42
 2𝑔ℎ1 − 2𝑔ℎ2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴1 𝐴2 √
𝐴12 − 𝐴22

or, more simply,

2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 √
1 − (𝐴2 /𝐴1 )2

Where:
𝐶𝑑 = coefficient of discharge (typically 0.98),
𝐴1 = area at inlet,
𝐴2 = area at throat,
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = pressure head difference.

Applications:
Used in water treatment plants, large water supply systems, and irrigation pipelines.

7.4.2 Orifice Meter

An orifice meter consists of a thin plate with a small circular opening installed in a pipe. It
works on the same principle as a Venturi meter but is more compact and less expensive.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ

Where:
𝐴𝑜 = area of orifice,
ℎ= pressure head difference.

Typical 𝐶𝑑 = 0.60–0.65.

Limitations:
Higher energy loss compared to a Venturi meter.

7.4.3 Pitot Tube

The Pitot tube measures velocity at a point in the flow.

It consists of a small tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. The difference between the
stagnation and static pressures gives the velocity:

43
 𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ

To determine discharge:

𝑄 =𝐴×𝑉

Applications:
Used in laboratories, airspeed measurements, and open channels.

7.4.4 Notches and Weirs

Used for open channel flow measurement.

They rely on the relationship between head over the crest and discharge.

(a) Rectangular Notch:

2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑏√2𝑔ℎ3/2
3

Where:
𝑏= width of notch,
ℎ= head of water above crest.

(b) V-Notch:
8 𝜃
𝑄= 𝐶𝑑 tan⁡( )√2𝑔ℎ5/2
15 2

(c) Weirs:

Similar to notches but built into permanent structures across streams.

7.5 Flow Measurement in Open Channels

Open channels (rivers, canals, drainage systems) have free surfaces. Flow measurement involves:
• Current meters: measure point velocity and integrate over the cross-section.

• Float methods: using floating objects to estimate surface velocity.

• Hydraulic structures: like flumes and weirs, which relate head to discharge.

44
7.6 Calibration of Flow Meters

Flow meters must be calibrated to ensure accuracy.

Calibration involves:

1. Passing a known discharge through the device.

2. Measuring the corresponding head or pressure difference.

3. Deriving the calibration curve of 𝑄vs. √ℎ.

7.7 Worked Examples

Example 7.1 – Venturi Meter

A Venturi meter is fitted to a 150 mm diameter pipe. The diameter at the throat is 75 mm. The
differential mercury manometer shows a reading of 0.20 m. Determine the discharge if 𝐶𝑑 =
0.98.

Solution:

𝜋𝐷12 𝜋(0.15)2
𝐴1 = = = 0.0177 𝑚2
4 4
𝜋(0.075)2
𝐴2 = = 0.00442 𝑚2
4
ℎ = 0.20 × 12.6 = 2.52 𝑚
2 × 9.81 × 2.52
𝑄 = 0.98 × 0.00442√ = 0.0195 𝑚3 /𝑠
1 − (0.00442/0.0177)2

Example 7.2 – V-Notch

Find the discharge over a 90° V-notch when the head of water is 0.15 m and 𝐶𝑑 = 0.62.
8
𝑄= × 0.62 × tan⁡(45°) × √2 × 9.81 × (0.15)5/2 = 0.0022 𝑚3 /𝑠
15

45
7.8 Summary

• Flow measurement is essential for hydraulic and environmental system design.

• Common devices include Venturi meters, Orifice meters, Pitot tubes, and Weirs.

• Bernoulli’s principle forms the foundation for most flow measuring instruments.
• Accuracy depends on calibration and installation.

7.9 Exercises and Review Questions

1. Differentiate between direct and indirect methods of flow measurement.

2. Derive the discharge formula for a Venturi meter.

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of an orifice meter compared to a Venturi
meter?

4. A V-notch has a head of 0.12 m and 𝐶𝑑 = 0.62. Calculate the discharge.

5. Explain how a Pitot tube measures velocity.

6. Describe how you would calibrate a flow measuring device in the laboratory.

7. What are the practical applications of flow measurement in environmental engineering?

46
MODULE EIGHT: FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

8.1 Introduction

An open channel is a conduit in which liquid flows with a free surface exposed to the
atmosphere. Common examples include rivers, canals, drainage ditches, and spillways.
Unlike pipe flow (which is under pressure), open channel flow is driven mainly by gravity, and
its characteristics depend on the channel slope, shape, and roughness.

Open channel flow is fundamental to:

• Irrigation and drainage systems,

• River and flood management,

• Sewage and stormwater disposal, and

• Hydraulic structure design (culverts, spillways, weirs).

8.2 Classification of Open Channel Flow

Open channel flow can be classified in several ways:

(a) Steady and Unsteady Flow

• Steady Flow: Flow parameters (depth, velocity, discharge) do not change with time.
∂𝑦
=0
∂𝑡

• Unsteady Flow: Flow parameters vary with time.

∂𝑦
≠0
∂𝑡

(b) Uniform and Non-uniform Flow

• Uniform Flow: The depth of flow, velocity, and discharge remain constant along the
channel length.
∂𝑦
=0
∂𝑥

• Non-uniform Flow: Flow parameters vary along the channel length.

(c) Laminar and Turbulent Flow
47
 • Determined by the Reynolds number:
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈

o Laminar: 𝑅𝑒 < 500

o Turbulent: 𝑅𝑒 > 2000

(d) Subcritical, Critical, and Supercritical Flow

Characterized by the Froude number (Fr):
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝐷

• Subcritical: 𝐹𝑟 < 1(tranquil flow)

• Critical: 𝐹𝑟 = 1

• Supercritical: 𝐹𝑟 > 1(rapid flow)

8.3 Geometric Properties of Open Channels

To analyze open channel flow, we define several important geometric parameters:

Property Symbol Formula

Flow area 𝐴 depends on shape

Wetted perimeter 𝑃 length of channel in contact with water

𝐴
Hydraulic radius 𝑅 𝑅=
𝑃
𝐴
Hydraulic depth 𝐷 𝐷 = 𝑇 , where 𝑇is the top width

8.4 Flow Equations in Open Channels

8.4.1 Continuity Equation

For a steady flow:

𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑉 = constant

48
8.4.2 Energy Equation (Bernoulli’s Theorem)

Between two sections of the same channel:

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑧1 + 𝑦1 + = 𝑧2 + 𝑦2 + + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔

where ℎ𝐿 = head loss due to friction and turbulence.

8.4.3 Momentum Equation

𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

8.5 Uniform Flow in Open Channels

Uniform flow occurs when depth and velocity remain constant along the channel.
Two important empirical formulas are used:
(a) Chezy’s Formula

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆

where:
𝑉= mean velocity (m/s),
𝐶= Chezy’s constant,
𝑅= hydraulic radius (m),
𝑆= slope of the energy grade line.

(b) Manning’s Formula

1 2/3 1/2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛

where:
𝑛= Manning’s roughness coefficient (depends on channel material).

Discharge:
1 2/3 1/2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑆
𝑛

49
8.6 Determination of Normal Depth

Normal depth (𝑦𝑛 ) is the depth at which uniform flow occurs.

For a given discharge 𝑄, the equation is:

1
𝑄= 𝐴(𝑦𝑛 )𝑅(𝑦𝑛 )2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑛

This equation is solved iteratively using numerical methods.

8.7 Velocity Distribution

Velocity in open channels is not uniform:

• Maximum velocity occurs below the free surface (not at it).

• Velocity decreases near the channel boundaries due to friction.

Empirical correction factors:

energy correction factor
𝛼=
1
momentum correction factor
𝛽=
1

Usually, 𝛼 ≈ 1.1, 𝛽 ≈ 1.03.

8.8 Specific Energy Concept

The specific energy (E) at a section is:

𝑉2
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔

where:

• 𝑦= depth of flow,

• 𝑉= velocity.

At critical flow, specific energy is minimum:

50
 𝑑𝐸
= 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔𝐷𝑐
𝑑𝑦

8.9 Flow Transitions

(a) Hydraulic Jump

A hydraulic jump occurs when flow changes from supercritical to subcritical (sudden rise in
water level).
It is an energy-dissipating phenomenon used in stilling basins and spillways.

The relation between depths before (𝑦1 ) and after (𝑦2 ) the jump is:
𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8𝐹𝑟12 − 1]
𝑦1 2

where 𝐹𝑟1= Froude number before the jump.

(b) Gradually Varied Flow

Occurs when depth changes slowly along the channel.

The governing equation is:
𝑑𝑦 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝐹𝑟 2

where 𝑆0 = bed slope, 𝑆𝑓 = friction slope.

8.10 Worked Examples

Example 8.1 — Discharge Using Manning’s Equation

A rectangular channel 3 m wide has a depth of 1.5 m, slope 𝑆 = 0.0005, and 𝑛 = 0.015.
Determine the discharge.
Solution:

𝐴 = 𝑏 × 𝑦 = 3 × 1.5 = 4.5 𝑚2
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 = 3 + 3 = 6 𝑚
𝐴 4.5
𝑅= = = 0.75 𝑚
𝑃 6

51
 1
𝑉= (0.75)2/3 (0.0005)1/2 = 1.98 𝑚/𝑠
0.015
𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑉 = 4.5 × 1.98 = 8.91 𝑚3 /𝑠

Example 8.2 — Hydraulic Jump

Find the sequent depth for a hydraulic jump if 𝑦1 = 0.3 𝑚and 𝐹𝑟1 = 3.0.
𝑦2 1
= [√1 + 8(3)2 − 1] = 3.78
𝑦1 2
𝑦2 = 3.78 × 0.3 = 1.13 𝑚

8.11 Summary

• Open channel flow is governed by gravity and free-surface conditions.

• Important equations: Continuity, Bernoulli, Manning, and Chezy.

• Flow can be uniform, non-uniform, steady, or unsteady.

• Specific energy and Froude number are key parameters.

• Hydraulic jumps dissipate energy and stabilize flow.

8.12 Exercises and Review Questions

1. Define and distinguish between steady and unsteady flow.

2. Derive the Manning’s equation for uniform flow.

3. What is the significance of the Froude number?

4. Determine the discharge for a trapezoidal channel with known dimensions.

5. Explain the concept of specific energy and its application.

6. What are the engineering uses of hydraulic jumps?

7. A rectangular channel 4 m wide has a depth of 2 m, slope = 0.001, and 𝑛 = 0.016.

Compute the discharge.

8. Sketch and label a gradually varied flow profile.

52
MODULE NINE: BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW RESISTANCE

9.1 Introduction

In ideal fluid flow, the fluid is assumed to have no viscosity, implying no resistance to motion.
However, real fluids possess viscosity, which causes shear stresses and leads to energy losses and
flow resistance.
When a fluid flows over a solid surface (such as the bed of a river, a pipe wall, or an airfoil),
viscous effects create a boundary layer, a thin region near the surface where velocity changes
from zero (due to the no-slip condition) to the free-stream velocity.

Understanding boundary layer behavior is essential in civil and environmental engineering for:
• Predicting friction losses in pipes and channels,

• Designing hydraulic structures,

• Modeling sediment transport, and

• Estimating energy requirements in water conveyance systems.

9.2 Concept of Boundary Layer

The boundary layer is the thin region adjacent to a solid boundary where viscous forces are
significant and velocity gradients exist.

(a) No-slip Condition

At the solid boundary, the fluid velocity equals the velocity of the surface:

𝑢 = 0at𝑦 = 0

(b) Boundary Layer Thickness (𝜹)

It is defined as the distance from the boundary at which the velocity reaches 99% of the free-
stream velocity:

𝑢 = 0.99𝑈

(c) Types of Boundary Layer

1. Laminar Boundary Layer: Flow is smooth and orderly (low Reynolds number).

2. Turbulent Boundary Layer: Flow is irregular and mixing is intense (high Reynolds
number).

53
 3. Transitional Boundary Layer: Occurs between laminar and turbulent regions.

9.3 Development of Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate

As fluid flows over a flat surface:

• The boundary layer starts at the leading edge.

• Its thickness increases along the plate.

• Flow transitions from laminar to turbulent beyond a critical Reynolds number.

The Reynolds number based on distance 𝑥from the leading edge is:
𝑈𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝑥 =
𝜈

Transition occurs approximately when 𝑅𝑒𝑥 = 5 × 105 .

9.4 Velocity Distribution in Boundary Layers

(a) Laminar Flow (Blasius Solution)

For laminar boundary layers over a flat plate, Blasius obtained:

𝑢 𝑦
= 𝑓( )
𝑈 𝜈𝑥
√
𝑈

Boundary layer thickness:

𝜈𝑥
𝛿 = 5.0√
𝑈

(b) Turbulent Flow

For turbulent flow:
𝑢 𝑦
= ( )1/7
𝑈 𝛿

54
Boundary layer thickness:

𝛿 = 0.382𝑥(𝑅𝑒𝑥 )−1/5

9.5 Displacement and Momentum Thickness

These parameters describe the effect of the boundary layer on the external flow.

• Displacement thickness (𝛿 ∗ ):
𝛿
𝑢
𝛿 ∗ = ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈

• Momentum thickness (𝜃):

𝛿
𝑢 𝑢
𝜃=∫ (1 − )𝑑𝑦
0 𝑈 𝑈

These quantities are important in determining drag forces and flow resistance.

9.6 Flow Separation

Flow separation occurs when the fluid decelerates near a surface and reverses direction, causing
a region of recirculating flow.
This happens when the pressure gradient becomes adverse (pressure increasing in the flow
direction).
Consequences:

• Increased energy losses,

• Reduction in lift (for airfoils),

• Vibration and instability in structures,

• Sediment deposition in channels.

55
9.7 Flow Resistance and Friction Losses

In open channels and pipes, resistance arises due to wall shear stress, expressed as:

𝜏0 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅𝑆𝑓

The average shear stress per unit area causes head loss (h_f):

ℎ𝑓 = 𝑆𝑓 𝐿

Darcy–Weisbach Equation

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔

where:
𝑓= friction factor (dimensionless),
𝐿= pipe or channel length,
𝐷= hydraulic diameter,
𝑉= mean velocity.

Empirical Relations for Friction Factor

• Laminar flow:
64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒

• Turbulent flow (Blasius formula for smooth pipes):

𝑓 = 0.316𝑅𝑒 −0.25

• Colebrook-White equation (for rough pipes):

1 𝜖/𝐷 2.51
= −2.0log⁡10 ( + )
√𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒√𝑓

where 𝜖= roughness height.

56
9.8 Energy and Momentum Correction Factors

Due to non-uniform velocity distribution, correction factors are applied:

• Energy correction factor (𝛼):

∫𝐴 𝑣 3 𝑑𝐴
𝛼=
𝑉 3𝐴

• Momentum correction factor (𝛽):

∫𝐴 𝑣 2 𝑑𝐴
𝛽=
𝑉 2𝐴

For turbulent flow, 𝛼 ≈ 1.03, 𝛽 ≈ 1.02.

9.9 Worked Examples

Example 9.1 — Laminar Boundary Layer Thickness

Find the boundary layer thickness at a distance of 0.6 m from the leading edge of a flat plate if
the flow velocity is 2.0 m/s and kinematic viscosity 𝜈 = 1.0 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠.

Solution:

𝜈𝑥 1.0 × 10−6 × 0.6

𝛿 = 5.0√ = 5.0√ = 2.74 × 10−3 𝑚
𝑈 2.0

Result:
Boundary layer thickness 𝛿 = 2.74 𝑚𝑚.

Example 9.2 — Friction Factor and Head Loss

Water flows through a 200 mm diameter pipe, 100 m long, at a velocity of 1.5 m/s.
Find the head loss if 𝑓 = 0.02.

𝐿 𝑉2 100 (1.5)2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = 0.02 × × = 0.573 𝑚
𝐷 2𝑔 0.2 2 × 9.81

57
Result:
Head loss ℎ𝑓 = 0.573 𝑚.

9.10 Engineering Applications

Boundary layer and flow resistance principles are used in:

• Design of water conveyance systems (pipes, channels).

• Prediction of head loss and energy consumption in pumping stations.

• Sediment transport analysis in rivers.

• Optimization of hydraulic structures to minimize turbulence and separation.

9.11 Summary

• The boundary layer is the thin region near a surface where viscous effects dominate.
• Its behavior (laminar or turbulent) depends on the Reynolds number.

• Flow separation occurs under adverse pressure gradients.

• Friction factor determines resistance and energy loss in pipes and channels.

• Boundary layer theory bridges the gap between ideal and real fluid behavior.

9.12 Exercises and Review Questions

1. Define boundary layer and explain its significance in fluid mechanics.

2. Derive the expression for boundary layer thickness in laminar flow.

3. Explain the physical meaning of displacement and momentum thickness.

4. What causes flow separation and how can it be minimized?

5. Derive the Darcy–Weisbach equation for head loss due to friction.

6. Calculate the friction factor for a pipe flow with 𝑅𝑒 = 105 .

7. A 150 mm diameter pipe carries water at 2.0 m/s. If 𝑓 = 0.022and length = 60 m,

determine the head loss.

8. Differentiate between laminar and turbulent boundary layers.

9. State the engineering importance of energy and momentum correction factors.

58
MODULE TEN: OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

10.1 Introduction

Open channel flow refers to the flow of a liquid with a free surface exposed to the atmosphere.
Unlike pipe flow, which is entirely enclosed and pressurized, open channel flow occurs in natural
or artificial conduits such as rivers, canals, drainage ditches, sewers, and spillways.
In civil and environmental engineering, the study of open channel flow is vital for the design of
hydraulic structures, flood control systems, irrigation networks, and wastewater disposal
facilities.

Open channel flow is governed by the principles of mass, momentum, and energy conservation,
but it also depends on the gravitational force and channel geometry, making it more complex
than flow in closed conduits.

10.2 Classification of Open Channel Flow

Open channel flows can be classified based on several criteria:

1. Nature of Flow:

• Steady Flow: The depth of flow (and other parameters) does not change with time at a
given location.
∂𝑦
=0
∂𝑡
• Unsteady Flow: The flow depth and velocity vary with time.
∂𝑦
≠0
∂𝑡
2. Uniformity of Flow:

• Uniform Flow: Depth, area, and velocity are constant along the channel.
𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥
• Non-Uniform Flow: Flow depth and velocity vary along the channel length.

3. Flow Regime:

• Laminar Flow: Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒 < 500

• Turbulent Flow: 𝑅𝑒 > 2000

• Transitional Flow: 500 < 𝑅𝑒 < 2000

59
4. Channel Type:

• Natural Channels: Rivers, streams.

• Artificial Channels: Canals, irrigation ditches, spillways.

10.3 Geometric Elements of Open Channel Flow

For a channel section, the following parameters define its geometry:

Symbol Description Formula

𝐴 Flow Area Depends on shape

Sum of contact length with

𝑃 Wetted Perimeter
water

𝑇 Top Width Width of free surface

𝐴
𝑅 Hydraulic Radius 𝑅=
𝑃
𝐴
𝐷 Hydraulic Depth 𝐷=
𝑇
These geometric relationships are essential for analyzing flow characteristics.

10.4 Energy in Open Channel Flow

The total specific energy (E) of a flowing liquid at a cross-section is the energy per unit weight
of water relative to the channel bottom:

𝑉2
𝐸 =𝑦+
2𝑔

where:
𝑦= flow depth (m)
𝑉= average velocity (m/s)
𝑔= acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²)

60
10.4.1 Specific Energy Diagram

The specific energy curve relates flow depth and velocity for a given discharge per unit width.
There exists a critical depth (𝑦𝑐 ) where the specific energy is minimum.

𝑞 2 1/3
𝑦𝑐 = ( )
𝑔

𝑄
where 𝑞 = 𝑏 is discharge per unit width.

10.5 Flow Regimes: Subcritical, Critical, and Supercritical Flow

The Froude Number (Fr) defines the type of flow:

𝑉
𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝐷

• 𝐹𝑟 < 1: Subcritical flow (tranquil, dominated by gravity)

• 𝐹𝑟 = 1: Critical flow

• 𝐹𝑟 > 1: Supercritical flow (rapid, dominated by inertia)

Understanding these regimes helps determine energy losses and control structures’ behavior
(e.g., weirs, sluice gates).

10.6 Uniform Flow and Manning’s Equation

In uniform open channel flow, the Manning equation is widely used to compute discharge:
1 2/3 1/2
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 𝑆
𝑛

where:
𝑄= discharge (m³/s)
𝑛= Manning’s roughness coefficient
𝐴= flow area (m²)
𝑅= hydraulic radius (m)
𝑆= slope of energy grade line (m/m)

61
10.7 Worked Example 1: Flow in a Rectangular Channel

Given:
Width, 𝑏 = 2.5 𝑚; Depth, 𝑦 = 1.2 𝑚; Slope, 𝑆 = 0.001; 𝑛 = 0.015

Find:
Discharge 𝑄

Solution:

𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦 = 2.5 × 1.2 = 3.0 𝑚2

𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 = 2.5 + 2(1.2) = 4.9 𝑚
𝐴 3.0
𝑅= = = 0.612 𝑚
𝑃 4.9
1
𝑄= × 3.0 × 0.6122/3 × 0.0011/2 = 1.56 𝑚3 /𝑠
0.015

Result: 𝑄 = 1.56 𝑚3 /𝑠

10.8 Worked Example 2: Determination of Flow Type

Given:
Discharge 𝑄 = 1.56 𝑚3 /𝑠; 𝑏 = 2.5 𝑚; 𝑦 = 1.2 𝑚
Find: Type of flow.
𝑄 1.56
𝑉= = = 0.52 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 3.0
𝑉 0.52
𝐹𝑟 = = = 0.15
√𝑔𝑦 √9.81 × 1.2

Result: 𝐹𝑟 < 1→ Subcritical (tranquil) flow

10.9 Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)

Gradually varied flow occurs when flow depth changes slowly along the channel.
The differential equation governing GVF is:
𝑑𝑦 𝑆0 − 𝑆𝑓
=
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝐹𝑟 2

62
where:

• 𝑆0 = bed slope

• 𝑆𝑓 = friction slope

• 𝐹𝑟= Froude number

This equation forms the basis of water surface profile computation (e.g., backwater curves,
drawdown curves).

10.10 Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)

Rapidly varied flow occurs when the depth changes abruptly, such as at hydraulic jumps or under
sluice gates.
In such cases, energy and momentum principles are applied instead of the differential equation.

10.11 Hydraulic Jump

A hydraulic jump occurs when supercritical flow transitions to subcritical flow, resulting in
energy dissipation.
𝑦2 1
= (√1 + 8𝐹𝑟12 − 1)
𝑦1 2

This phenomenon is crucial for designing stilling basins in dams and spillways.

10.12 Summary

• Open channel flow involves a free surface exposed to atmospheric pressure.

• Flow classification: steady/unsteady, uniform/non-uniform, laminar/turbulent.

• Key parameters: flow area, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius, and specific energy.

• Froude number determines flow regime (subcritical, critical, or supercritical).

• Manning’s equation is fundamental for uniform flow analysis.

• Hydraulic jumps and energy losses are critical in engineering design.

63
10.13 Exercises

1. Define open channel flow and explain its importance in civil engineering.

2. Differentiate between uniform and non-uniform flow.

3. Derive the equation for specific energy.

4. For a rectangular channel with 𝑏 = 3 𝑚, 𝑦 = 1 𝑚, 𝑆 = 0.0008, and 𝑛 = 0.013, find 𝑄.

5. Calculate the Froude number and classify the flow for the above channel.

6. Discuss the practical applications of hydraulic jumps in dam design.

10.14 Review Questions

1. What are the geometric elements of open channel flow?

2. Explain the significance of the Froude number.

3. Derive Manning’s equation from dimensional analysis.

4. Compare specific energy and total energy in open channel flow.

5. Explain gradually and rapidly varied flows with practical examples.

64
REFERENCES
1. White, F. M. (2016). Fluid Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Education.
2. Cengel, Y. A., & Cimbala, J. M. (2018). Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications.
McGraw-Hill.
3. Modi, P. N., & Seth, S. M. (2017). Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics. Standard Book House.
4. Streeter, V. L., & Wylie, E. B. (2015). Fluid Mechanics. McGraw-Hill.

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