DEFINITIONS IN POLICY PROCESSES
1. Policy Formulation
Policy formulation is the stage where government officials and policymakers develop
possible solutions to address a public problem.
Key points
• Occurs after a problem has been identified and placed on the policy agenda.
• Policymakers analyze the problem and design different policy alternatives.
• Experts, analysts, and stakeholders may be consulted during this process.
Purpose
The aim is to develop workable strategies and options that can solve the identified problem.
2. Policy Adoption
Policy adoption refers to the stage where government authorities formally select and
approve a particular policy option.
Key points
• Decision-makers such as cabinet members, ministers, or legislators approve the
policy.
• The chosen policy may become a law, regulation, or official government program.
Purpose
This stage gives the policy official authority and legitimacy, allowing it to move forward for
implementation.
3. Policy Implementation
Policy implementation is the process of putting the adopted policy into action.
Key points
• Government agencies and public officials carry out the policy.
• Resources such as funds, personnel, and equipment are allocated.
• Programs, projects, and regulations are introduced to achieve the policy goals.
Purpose
The objective is to translate policy decisions into real actions and outcomes that address the
public problem.
4. Policy Drafting
Policy drafting is the process of writing and preparing the formal document that outlines
the policy and its provisions.
Key points
• Involves preparing legal or administrative texts that clearly explain the policy.
• Specifies rules, responsibilities, procedures, and implementation guidelines.
• Usually carried out by legal experts, policy analysts, or government officials.
Purpose
It ensures the policy is clearly written, structured, and legally sound so that it can be
properly adopted and implemented.
POLICY MAKING PROCESS
1. Problem Identification
Problem identification is the first stage of policy making where a situation is recognized as a
public issue that requires government action.
Key aspects
• A condition becomes a policy problem when it affects many people and demands
government intervention.
• Problems may be identified by citizens, civil society groups, experts, or the media.
• Data, research, and public complaints often help highlight the problem.
Example
Rising unemployment, poor healthcare services, or high inflation may be identified as national
problems that need policy responses.
Importance
• Helps policymakers understand what needs to be solved.
• Determines whether an issue deserves attention from government institutions.
2. Agenda Setting
Agenda setting is the stage where identified problems are prioritized and placed on the
government’s list of issues to address.
This stage is closely linked to Agenda-Setting Theory developed by Maxwell McCombs and
Donald Shaw, which explains how media attention can influence which issues receive public and
political attention.
Key aspects
• Not all problems identified are addressed immediately; governments must choose which
issues are most urgent.
• Influenced by:
o Public opinion
o Media coverage
o Political leaders
o Interest groups and civil society organizations.
Importance
• Determines which problems government will focus on.
• Issues placed on the agenda move forward to policy development.
3. Policy Formulation
Policy formulation is the stage where possible solutions are developed to address the problem
on the agenda.
Key aspects
• Government officials, experts, and policy analysts design different policy options.
• These options are evaluated based on cost, feasibility, and potential impact.
• Consultation with stakeholders and specialists often occurs.
Example
If unemployment is the issue:
• Policymakers may propose job creation programs.
• They may introduce skills training initiatives.
• They may offer incentives for businesses to hire workers.
Importance
• Provides clear strategies and plans to solve public problems.
• The best policy option is selected for implementation.
TYPES OF AGENDAS IN AGENDA SETTING
1. Systematic Agenda (Public Agenda)
The systematic agenda refers to all issues that the public widely recognizes as important and
that deserve government attention.
Key characteristics
• Includes problems that affect many people in society.
• Widely discussed by citizens, interest groups, and the media.
• The public believes the government should take action on these issues.
Examples
Issues such as unemployment, poverty, poor healthcare, corruption, and education quality may
appear on the systematic agenda because they affect large sections of society.
Importance
• Reflects the general concerns of society.
• Serves as the starting point for issues that may later enter government decision-making.
2. Institutional Agenda
The institutional agenda consists of issues that government institutions have formally
accepted for serious consideration.
Key characteristics
• These issues are being discussed by government bodies such as ministries, parliament, or
committees.
• Only a small number of issues from the systematic agenda reach this level.
• Government officials begin studying the problem and considering possible policy
responses.
Examples
If the public is concerned about rising food prices, the government may place the issue on the
institutional agenda by discussing it in cabinet meetings or parliamentary debates.
Importance
• Shows that the government has acknowledged the problem.
• The issue moves closer to the policy-making stage.
3. Decision Agenda
The decision agenda refers to the list of issues that are ready for immediate decision by
policymakers.
Key characteristics
• Contains a small number of high-priority issues.
• Government leaders must make specific decisions, such as approving a policy, law, or
program.
• These decisions usually occur in parliament, cabinet meetings, or executive offices.
Examples
Parliament debating and voting on a new education bill or approving a national budget are issues
on the decision agenda.
Importance
• It is the final stage before policy adoption.
• Leads directly to policy implementation
.
DECISION AGENDA
(Issues ready for final Govt decisions)
INSTITUTIONAL AGENDA
(Issues being seriously discussed by Govt)
SYSTEMATIC AGENDA
(Issues recognized by the public)
THEORIES ON AGENDA SETTING
1. Elite Theory
Elite Theory argues that policy agendas are largely controlled by a small group of powerful
individuals or elites in society.
Key ideas
• Political, economic, and social elites have the most influence over decision-making.
• Ordinary citizens have limited power in determining which issues appear on the policy
agenda.
• Government leaders, wealthy individuals, and powerful institutions shape public policy.
Examples of elites
• Political leaders
• Business executives
• High-level government officials
• Influential organizations
Implication
According to this theory, issues appear on the government agenda because elites consider them
important, not necessarily because the public demands action.
2. Pluralist Theory
Pluralist Theory suggests that policy agendas are shaped by competition among many
different groups in society.
Key ideas
• Power is widely distributed among different interest groups.
• Various organizations, pressure groups, and citizens compete to influence government
decisions.
• No single group dominates the policy agenda completely.
Examples of groups
• Trade unions
• Business associations
• Civil society organizations
• Professional groups
Implication
Issues reach the policy agenda when groups successfully advocate for them and persuade
policymakers. The agenda reflects the balance of interests in society.
3. Multiple Streams Model
The Multiple Streams Model was developed by John Kingdon to explain how issues suddenly
gain attention in government policy agendas.
Key idea
Kingdon argued that three separate “streams” must come together for a policy issue to reach the
agenda.
The three streams
1. Problem Stream
• Refers to the recognition of a public problem.
• Issues become visible through crises, reports, or public complaints.
2. Policy Stream
• Involves the development of possible solutions by experts, analysts, and policymakers.
3. Political Stream
• Includes political factors such as changes in government, elections, public opinion, and
pressure from interest groups.
Policy Window
When these three streams come together at the same time, a “policy window” opens, creating
an opportunity for policymakers to act.
Example
A natural disaster (problem), a prepared disaster-management plan (policy solution), and strong
political support (political stream) may combine to push disaster management onto the
government agenda.
MODELS USED IN POLICY FORMULATION
1. Rational Comprehensive Model
The Rational Comprehensive Model assumes that policymakers make decisions in a logical,
systematic, and fully informed way to achieve the best possible outcome.
Key features
• Policymakers clearly define the problem.
• All possible policy alternatives are identified.
• Each alternative is carefully analyzed.
• The costs and benefits of each option are evaluated.
• The best solution that maximizes benefits and minimizes costs is selected.
This model requires complete information, sufficient time, and analytical capacity.
Advantages
• Leads to well-planned and efficient policies.
• Encourages thorough analysis of policy options.
Limitations
• In reality, policymakers rarely have complete information or unlimited time.
• It can be complex and time-consuming.
2. Incremental Model
The Incremental Model suggests that policymakers usually make small adjustments to existing
policies instead of creating entirely new ones.
This model was strongly associated with Charles E. Lindblom.
Key features
• Policies change gradually through small steps.
• Decision-makers focus on limited alternatives rather than many options.
• Existing policies serve as the starting point.
Advantages
• Easier and more practical for policymakers.
• Reduces the risk of major policy failures.
• Requires less information and analysis.
Limitations
• May slow down major reforms.
• Can maintain ineffective policies for a long time.
3. Mixed Scanning (Mixed Planning) Model
The Mixed Scanning Model combines elements of the rational comprehensive model and the
incremental model.
This model was developed by Amitai Etzioni.
Key features
• Policymakers first conduct a broad, general analysis of the problem (similar to the
rational model).
• After that, they make smaller, incremental decisions to implement policy changes.
Advantages
• More realistic than the rational model.
• Allows both long-term planning and gradual adjustments.
• Balances careful analysis with practical decision-making.
Limitations
• Still requires some level of analysis and planning.
• Implementation may still face political or administrative challenges.
1. Rational Comprehensive Model
The Rational Comprehensive Model assumes that policymakers adopt policies through logical
and systematic analysis.
Key features
• The problem is clearly defined.
• All possible policy alternatives are identified.
• Each alternative is carefully evaluated based on costs and benefits.
• Policymakers choose the best option that maximizes benefits and minimizes costs.
Implication for policy adoption
Under this model, the adopted policy is considered the most efficient and rational solution to
the problem.
Limitation
In reality, policymakers rarely have complete information, time, or resources to evaluate every
possible alternative.
2. Incremental Model
The Incremental Model, associated with Charles E. Lindblom, suggests that policy adoption
usually involves small adjustments to existing policies rather than major changes.
Key features
• Policymakers rely on previous policies as a starting point.
• Only a few alternatives are considered.
• Changes are made gradually through small steps.
Implication for policy adoption
Policies are adopted based on minor modifications to current programs, which makes
decisions easier and less risky.
Limitation
This model may slow down major reforms and maintain ineffective policies.
3. Garbage Can Model
The Garbage Can Model explains policy adoption as a somewhat chaotic and unpredictable
process, especially in complex organizations.
The model was developed by Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen.
Key features
In this model, four elements exist independently:
• Problems
• Solutions
• Participants (decision-makers)
• Choice opportunities
These elements are mixed together like items in a “garbage can.” A policy decision occurs when
these elements happen to come together at the same time.
Implication for policy adoption
Policy decisions may not always follow a clear or rational process; instead, they may occur due
to timing, chance, or organizational dynamics.
Limitation
The model may make policy processes appear too random or disorganized.
4. Punctuated Equilibrium Model
The Punctuated Equilibrium Model suggests that policymaking often involves long periods of
stability followed by sudden major changes.
This model is associated with Frank R. Baumgartner and Bryan D. Jones.
Key features
• Policies usually remain stable for long periods.
• Small incremental changes occur during these stable periods.
• Occasionally, major events or pressures cause rapid and dramatic policy shifts.
Implication for policy adoption
Policies may suddenly change due to crises, political shifts, or strong public pressure.
Example
A major economic crisis or natural disaster may lead governments to adopt rapid and large-
scale policy reforms.
STEPS IN POLICY FORMULATION
1. Defining the Policy Problem
The first step is to clearly define and understand the problem that requires government
intervention.
Key activities
• Identifying the causes of the problem
• Determining who is affected
• Collecting relevant data and evidence
Importance
A clear definition ensures that policymakers focus on the real issue rather than its symptoms.
2. Setting Policy Objectives
After defining the problem, policymakers establish clear goals and objectives that the policy
should achieve.
Key activities
• Determining what the policy intends to accomplish
• Setting short-term and long-term goals
Importance
Policy objectives guide the development of appropriate solutions and provide a basis for
evaluating success.
3. Generating Policy Alternatives
In this step, policymakers develop different possible solutions to address the problem.
Key activities
• Brainstorming policy options
• Consulting experts, stakeholders, and interest groups
• Considering various strategies and programs
Importance
Having multiple alternatives allows decision-makers to compare options and choose the most
suitable one.
4. Evaluating Policy Alternatives
Once alternatives are identified, they are carefully analyzed and compared.
Key activities
• Assessing the costs and benefits of each option
• Evaluating feasibility and potential impact
• Considering social, political, and economic consequences
Importance
This step helps policymakers select a policy that is effective, practical, and affordable.
5. Selecting the Preferred Policy Option
The final step in policy formulation is choosing the best policy alternative from the available
options.
Key activities
• Reviewing the analysis results
• Consulting decision-makers and stakeholders
• Preparing the final policy proposal
Importance
The selected option is then forwarded to the policy adoption stage, where it can be approved
and implemented.