Chapter 5 – Life Processes (Class 10 Science)

Printable Notes and Flashcards

📝 NOTES – Life Processes

1. What are Life Processes?
- Processes essential for maintaining life in an organism.
- Include: Nutrition, Respiration, Transportation, Excretion.
- Energy is needed to maintain structure → energy comes from food.

2. Nutrition
- Autotrophic Nutrition: Green plants, some bacteria. Use CO₂ + H₂O → Carbohydrates (via photosynthesis).
- Heterotrophic Nutrition: Animals, fungi. Depend on autotrophs; use enzymes to break complex food into simpler
forms.

Photosynthesis Steps:
1. Light absorption by chlorophyll.
2. Light energy → Chemical energy + Splitting of water.
3. CO₂ reduction → Carbohydrates.

3. Nutrition in Human Beings

- Mouth: Mechanical breakdown + salivary amylase.
- Stomach: Pepsin, HCl, mucus.
- Small Intestine: Digestion (enzymes from pancreas/liver), absorption via villi.
- Large Intestine: Absorbs water; waste exits via anus.

4. Respiration
- Aerobic: Uses O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + more ATP (mitochondria).
- Anaerobic: No O₂ → Lactic acid (in muscles), ethanol + CO₂ (in yeast).
- ATP: Energy currency, formed from ADP + Pi.

5. Transportation
In Humans:
- Heart: 4 chambers, double circulation (oxygenated & deoxygenated blood separation).
- Blood: RBCs (O₂), plasma (food, waste), platelets (clotting).
- Blood Vessels:
- Arteries → away from heart.
- Veins → to the heart.
- Capillaries → exchange sites.
- Lymph: Drains excess fluid, carries fats.

In Plants:
- Xylem: Transports water/minerals (roots to leaves).
- Phloem: Transports food (leaves to rest of plant).
- Transpiration: Pulls water upward, cools plant.

6. Excretion
In Humans:
- Organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.
 - Nephrons: Filtration units; filter blood, form urine.

In Plants:
- Waste stored in vacuoles, leaves, or excreted via resins, gums, or into soil.

🃏 FLASHCARDS
● Q: What are life processes?
A: Processes like nutrition, respiration, transport, and excretion needed to maintain life.
● Q: Name the raw materials for photosynthesis.
A: CO₂, H₂O, sunlight, and chlorophyll.
● Q: Define autotrophic nutrition.
A: Organisms make their own food using simple substances like CO₂ and H₂O (e.g., plants).
● Q: What is the function of saliva?
A: Contains amylase to break down starch into sugar.
● Q: Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
A: Aerobic uses oxygen and produces more energy; anaerobic doesn’t use oxygen and produces less energy.
● Q: What is ATP?
A: Energy currency of the cell.
● Q: What is double circulation in humans?
A: Blood passes twice through the heart in one complete cycle.
● Q: What is transpiration?
A: Loss of water vapour from leaves, helps pull water up through the plant.
● Q: What are nephrons?
A: Structural and functional units of the kidney.
● Q: How is food transported in plants?
A: Through phloem, via translocation using energy.

🧪 NUTRITION – Explained in Depth

🌱 What is Nutrition?
Nutrition is the process by which living organisms obtain and utilize food (or nutrients) to get energy for growth,
maintenance, repair, and other life functions.
Every organism needs:
A source of energy for cellular functions
Raw materials for growth and repair of body tissues

🔹 Types of Nutrition
There are two main modes of nutrition:
1. Autotrophic Nutrition
"Auto" = self, "trophic" = nourishment
Organisms make their own food from simple substances like carbon dioxide and water.
Examples:
Green plants
Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria)
🔬 Process: Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare their food using:
Carbon dioxide (from air)
Water (from soil)
Sunlight (as energy)
Chlorophyll (a green pigment)
Equation:
6CO2+6H2O Sunlight
C6H12O6+6O
Chlorophyll

That is:
Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
📌 Steps in Photosynthesis:
Light absorption by chlorophyll.
Splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbon dioxide reduction to form glucose (a carbohydrate).
⚠️Conditions required:
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide
Water
Chlorophyll
🌿 Adaptations in Leaves:
Stomata: tiny pores on leaves for gas exchange.
Guard cells: control the opening/closing of stomata.
Chloroplasts: organelles containing chlorophyll.

2. Heterotrophic Nutrition
"Hetero" = different
Organisms depend on others for food (because they cannot synthesize it themselves).
Examples:
All animals
Fungi
Some bacteria
🔍 Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition:
 Type Description Example

Holozoic Ingest solid food, digest it, absorb nutrients Humans, Amoeba

Saprophytic Feed on dead and decaying matter Fungi, bread mould

Parasitic Feed on living hosts and cause harm Lice, tapeworm, cuscuta

🧫 Nutrition in Unicellular Organisms (e.g., Amoeba)

Uses pseudopodia (false feet) to engulf food → forms a food vacuole.
Inside, enzymes break food into simpler substances → absorbed by cytoplasm.
Waste is thrown out through the surface.

Nutrition in Human Beings

Humans follow holozoic nutrition involving five steps:
1. Ingestion – Taking food in (through the mouth).
2. Digestion – Breaking down complex food into simpler forms using enzymes.
3. Absorption – Nutrients absorbed into blood (mostly in small intestine).
4. Assimilation – Nutrients used by cells for energy, growth, repair.
5. Egestion – Removal of undigested waste (through anus).

🦷 Digestive System Organs & Functions

Organ Function

Mouth Chews food, saliva breaks starch (via amylase)

Oesophagus Pushes food to stomach via peristalsis

Stomach HCl makes acidic, pepsin digests protein

Liver Secretes bile (emulsifies fats, neutralizes acid)

Pancreas Produces enzymes (lipase, trypsin, amylase)

Small intestine Final digestion + absorption via villi

Large intestine Absorbs water, forms feces

Anus Egestion of waste

💡 Enzymes Involved in Digestion:

Enzyme Acts on Product

Salivary amylase Starch Maltose

Pepsin Proteins Peptides

Trypsin Proteins Amino acids

Lipase Fats Fatty acids + Glycerol

Amylase (pancreatic) Starch Glucose

 Enzyme Acts on Product

📎 Key Differences – Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs

Feature Autotrophs Heterotrophs

Food source Make own food Get food from others

Examples Plants, algae Animals, fungi

Energy source Sunlight (photosynthesis) Chemical energy in food

Enzymes for digestion Not needed (usually) Required

Nutrition
├── Autotrophic Nutrition
│ ├── Organisms: Green Plants, Cyanobacteria
│ ├── Process: Photosynthesis
│ │ ├── Raw Materials
│ │ │ ├── Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
│ │ │ ├── Water (H₂O)
│ │ │ ├── Sunlight
│ │ │ └── Chlorophyll
│ │ ├── Steps
│ │ │ ├── Light Absorption by Chlorophyll
│ │ │ ├── Water Splitting (H₂O → H + O₂)
│ │ │ └── CO₂ Reduction → Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
│ │ └── Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
│ └── Adaptations: Stomata, Guard Cells, Chloroplasts
│
└── Heterotrophic Nutrition
├── Types
│ ├── Holozoic
│ │ ├── Example: Humans
│ │ └── Process: Ingestion → Digestion → Absorption → Assimilation → Egestion
│ ├── Saprophytic
│ │ └── Example: Fungi (bread mould, mushrooms)
│ └── Parasitic
│ └── Example: Lice, Tapeworm, Cuscuta
├── Human Digestive System
│ ├── Organs
│ │ ├── Mouth: Saliva (Amylase)
│ │ ├── Stomach: HCl, Pepsin, Mucus
│ │ ├── Small Intestine: Absorption via Villi
│ │ ├── Liver: Bile (Fat Emulsification)
│ │ └── Pancreas: Trypsin, Lipase, Amylase
│ └── Enzymes
│ ├── Salivary Amylase: Starch → Sugar
│ ├── Pepsin: Proteins → Peptides
│ ├── Trypsin: Proteins → Amino Acids
│ └── Lipase: Fats → Fatty Acids + Glycerol

Nutrition – Chapter 5: Life Processes (Class 10)

What is Nutrition?
Nutrition is the process by which living organisms obtain and utilize food (or nutrients) to get energy for growth,
maintenance, repair, and other life functions.
Types of Nutrition
1. Autotrophic Nutrition:
- Organisms make their own food from simple substances like carbon dioxide and water.
 - Examples: Green plants, Cyanobacteria.

2. Heterotrophic Nutrition:
- Organisms depend on others for food.
- Examples: Animals, fungi, some bacteria.
Autotrophic Nutrition: Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make their food using carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, and
chlorophyll.
Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Steps:
1. Light absorption by chlorophyll
2. Splitting of water into H and O
3. CO₂ reduction to form glucose
Photosynthesis Conditions and Adaptations
Required: Sunlight, CO₂, H₂O, chlorophyll
Adaptations:
- Stomata: pores for gas exchange
- Guard cells: control opening/closing
- Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll
Heterotrophic Nutrition Types
1. Holozoic – Ingest, digest, absorb (e.g., humans)
2. Saprophytic – Absorb nutrients from dead matter (e.g., fungi)
3. Parasitic – Live on/in host and harm it (e.g., tapeworm, lice)
Nutrition in Unicellular Organisms (Amoeba)
Amoeba uses pseudopodia to engulf food into a food vacuole where enzymes break down food. Nutrients are
absorbed and waste expelled.
Nutrition in Human Beings
Steps: Ingestion → Digestion → Absorption → Assimilation → Egestion
Organs involved: Mouth, Oesophagus, Stomach, Liver, Pancreas, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Anus
Functions of Digestive Organs
- Mouth: Chewing, saliva (amylase)
- Stomach: HCl + pepsin digest proteins
- Liver: Bile emulsifies fats
- Pancreas: Trypsin, lipase, amylase
- Small Intestine: Final digestion & absorption (villi)
- Large Intestine: Absorbs water
- Anus: Egestion
Digestive Enzymes
Salivary amylase – Starch → Maltose
Pepsin – Proteins → Peptides
Trypsin – Proteins → Amino acids
Lipase – Fats → Fatty acids + Glycerol
Amylase (pancreatic) – Starch → Glucose
Comparison Table: Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs
Autotrophs:
- Make own food
- Use sunlight
- E.g., Plants
 Heterotrophs:
- Depend on others
- Use enzymes
- E.g., Animals

Respiration
├── Types
│ ├── Aerobic
│ │ ├── O₂ used
│ │ ├── Mitochondria
│ │ ├── Products: CO₂ + H₂O
│ │ └── ~38 ATP
│ └── Anaerobic
│ ├── No O₂
│ ├── Cytoplasm
│ ├── Products: Lactic acid / Alcohol + CO₂
│ └── ~2 ATP
├── ATP (Energy)
│ ├── ADP + Pi → ATP
│ └── Powers cell activities
├── Human Respiration
│ ├── Air pathway: Nostrils → Alveoli
│ ├── Alveoli: Gas exchange
│ └── Haemoglobin: O₂ carrier
└── Other Organisms
├── Fish: Gills
├── Insects: Tracheae
├── Frogs: Lungs + skin
└── Plants: Stomata & lenticels

🚚 TRANSPORTATION – In Depth (Class 10 Science, NCERT)

🔹 Why is Transportation Important?

Multicellular organisms have specialized systems to:
Deliver oxygen and nutrients to all cells.
Remove wastes like CO₂ and urea.
Diffusion alone is too slow and inefficient in complex organisms.

🫀 Transportation in Human Beings

🧬 1. The Circulatory System
Components:
Heart: Pumps blood.
Blood vessels: Arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Blood: Transports substances.
Lymph: Extra fluid drainage system.

❤️2. The Human Heart

A muscular organ with 4 chambers:
Left Atrium, Right Atrium (upper)
Left Ventricle, Right Ventricle (lower)
Valves prevent backflow.
🔁 Double Circulation:
1st loop: From heart → lungs → heart (oxygenation)
2nd loop: From heart → body → heart (supply)
Purpose: Keep oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood separate
More efficient in mammals and birds (warm-blooded)

🩸 3. Blood Components

Component Function

Plasma Liquid part; transports nutrients & waste

RBCs Carry oxygen (via haemoglobin)

WBCs Fight infections (immunity)

Platelets Help in blood clotting

🩻 4. Blood Vessels

Type Description

Arteries Carry blood away from heart (oxygenated)

Veins Carry blood towards heart (deoxygenated)

Capillaries Thin vessels for exchange of gases and nutrients

🧪 5. Blood Pressure
Systolic (heart contracts): ~120 mm Hg
Diastolic (heart relaxes): ~80 mm Hg
Measured by: Sphygmomanometer

🌊 6. Lymph (Tissue Fluid)

Formed by plasma leaking into tissues.
Drains back into veins via lymph vessels.
Transports fats, WBCs, and returns proteins.

🌿 Transportation in Plants
🌱 1. Why is Transport Needed?
Roots absorb water & minerals.
Leaves do photosynthesis.
Food & water must be moved throughout the plant.

🌊 2. Transport of Water – Xylem

Xylem transports water and minerals upward.
Water moves due to:
Root pressure
Capillary action
Transpiration pull
Transpiration: Loss of water from leaves via stomata
→ creates suction for upward water movement.

🍭 3. Transport of Food – Phloem

Phloem transports food (sugar) in both directions.
Process: Translocation
Uses ATP (energy) to move food from leaves → storage & growth areas.

🪴 4. Comparison: Xylem vs Phloem

Feature Xylem Phloem

Material Water & minerals Food (sugar, amino acids)

Direction Only upward Up & down (bidirectional)

Energy used? No (passive) Yes (requires ATP)

Living cells? Mostly dead Living

📝 Notes – Transportation

🔹 Why is Transportation Important?

Delivers nutrients & oxygen to all cells.
Removes wastes (CO₂, urea).
Diffusion is too slow in complex organisms.

🫀 Transportation in Human Beings

1. Circulatory System
Heart: Pumps blood
Blood: Carries substances
Blood vessels: Arteries, veins, capillaries
Lymph: Drains extra fluid
2. Human Heart
4 chambers: Left/right atrium, Left/right ventricle
Valves: Prevent backflow
Double Circulation:
Heart → Lungs → Heart
Heart → Body → Heart
3. Blood Components

Component Function

Plasma Transports nutrients/wastes

RBC Carries oxygen (haemoglobin)

WBC Fights infections

Platelets Helps in clotting

4. Blood Vessels

Type Function

Arteries Carry blood away from heart

Veins Carry blood toward heart

Capillaries Site of exchange (thin walls)

5. Blood Pressure
Systolic: 120 mm Hg (heart contracts)
Diastolic: 80 mm Hg (heart relaxes)
Tool: Sphygmomanometer
6. Lymph
Leaked plasma fluid from blood
Drains into veins
Transports fats, returns proteins

🌿 Transportation in Plants
1. Need for Transport
Roots absorb water/minerals
Leaves do photosynthesis
Needs connectivity to function
2. Xylem – Water Transport
Direction: Upward only
Mechanisms:
Root pressure
Capillary action
Transpiration pull
Transpiration: Loss of water via stomata
3. Phloem – Food Transport
Direction: Bidirectional
Transports: Glucose, amino acids
Requires energy (ATP)
Process: Translocation
4. Comparison Table

Feature Xylem Phloem

Transports Water & minerals Food (sugar, amino acids)

Direction Upward only Both directions

Cells Dead Living

Energy Use Passive Active (uses ATP)

🧠 Mind Map: Transportation

Transportation
├── Humans
│ ├── Circulatory System
│ │ ├── Heart (4 chambers)
│ │ ├── Blood (RBC, WBC, Plasma, Platelets)
│ │ ├── Blood Vessels (Arteries, Veins, Capillaries)
│ │ └── Lymph
│ ├── Double Circulation
│ └── Blood Pressure (Systolic/Diastolic)
│
└── Plants
├── Xylem (Water transport)
│ ├── Root Pressure
│ ├── Capillary Action
│ └── Transpiration Pull
└── Phloem (Food transport)
├── Translocation
└── ATP used

🚽 EXCRETION – In Depth (Class 10 Science, NCERT)

🔹 What is Excretion?
Excretion is the biological process of removing harmful metabolic waste products from the body.
🧪 Metabolic wastes include:
Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
Urea
Uric acid
Excess water & salts
🧍‍♂️Different organisms use different methods for excretion.

🧍 Excretion in Human Beings

🧠 Organs of the Excretory System:
Kidneys (2)
Ureters (2)
Urinary bladder (1)
Urethra (1)
🔬 Structure of a Nephron (Kidney Unit)
Functional unit of the kidney.
Millions present in each kidney.
🌀 Parts:
Bowman's capsule: Cup-like structure.
Glomerulus: Cluster of capillaries inside the capsule.
Tubule: Long tube where filtration & reabsorption occur.

🔁 How Urine is Formed (3 Steps)

Filtration:
Blood is filtered in the glomerulus.
Water, salts, glucose, urea pass into Bowman’s capsule.
Reabsorption:
Useful substances (like glucose, water) reabsorbed in tubule.
Secretion:
Final urine formed → moves into collecting duct → ureter → bladder.
Normal adult produces 1–2 L of urine per day.

💉 Artificial Kidney (Dialysis)

Used when kidneys fail.
Blood is filtered using a dialysis machine.
Works using semi-permeable membranes and dialysing fluid.

🌿 Excretion in Plants
Plants don’t have a specialized excretory system. Instead, they use simpler methods:

Method Description

Stomata / lenticels CO₂, O₂ removed via diffusion

Transpiration Removes excess water

Storage in vacuoles Wastes stored in cell organelles

Leaf fall Old leaves store waste → fall off

Resins, gums Stored in old xylem tissues

Some wastes are expelled into

Excrete into soil
surrounding soil

🔄 Comparison: Human vs Plant Excretion

Feature Humans Plants

Kidneys, ureters, bladder,

Organs No organs
urethra

Main waste Urea, CO₂, excess water O₂, CO₂, resins, excess water

Method Filtration via nephrons Diffusion, storage, leaf fall,

 Feature Humans Plants

transpiration

📝 Printable Notes – Excretion (Class 10 Science)

🔹 What is Excretion?
Excretion is the process of removing harmful metabolic waste from the body.
Examples of Wastes:
Urea
CO₂
Excess water
Salts

🧍‍♂️Excretory System in Humans

Main Organs:
Kidneys – filter blood and form urine
Ureters – transport urine to bladder
Urinary bladder – stores urine
Urethra – excretes urine out of body

🔬 Structure of a Nephron (Functional Unit of Kidney)

Glomerulus: network of capillaries inside Bowman’s capsule
Bowman’s capsule: cup-like structure
Tubule: reabsorbs useful substances

💧 Steps of Urine Formation

Filtration: Blood filtered in glomerulus → waste + water enter nephron.
Reabsorption: Useful substances (like glucose, amino acids, water) reabsorbed.
Secretion: Remaining waste forms urine.

🧪 Artificial Kidney (Dialysis)

Used when kidneys fail.
Blood passed through semi-permeable tubes in a machine.
Waste diffuses into a dialysing fluid.
Purified blood is returned to body.

🌱 Excretion in Plants
Plants don’t have kidneys. Instead, they:
Release CO₂ and O₂ via stomata/lenticels.
Lose excess water via transpiration.
Store waste in vacuoles or old leaves.
Excrete gums and resins in dead xylem.
Some waste is expelled into soil.

🧾 Human vs Plant Excretion

Feature Humans Plants

Kidneys, ureters, bladder,

Organs No special organs
urethra

Main O₂, CO₂, water, resins, leaf

Urea, CO₂, water
wastes litter

Mechanis Filtration, reabsorption, Diffusion, transpiration, leaf

m secretion fall

🧠 Mind Map – Excretion

Excretion
├── Humans
│ ├── Organs: Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Urethra
│ ├── Nephron (Functional Unit)
│ │ ├── Glomerulus
│ │ ├── Bowman's Capsule
│ │ └── Tubule
│ ├── Process:
│ │ ├── Filtration
│ │ ├── Reabsorption
│ │ └── Secretion
│ └── Artificial Kidney (Dialysis)
│ └── Blood filtered outside body
│
└── Plants
├── No organs
├── Stomata / Lenticels – Gas release
├── Transpiration – Water removal
├── Vacuoles – Store waste
├── Leaf fall – Removes stored waste
└── Resins & gums – In old tissues

🧪 Chapter 5 – Life Processes (Class 10 Science)

📚 Full Summary + Practice Questions

🔹 1. Life Processes
All activities that maintain life: Nutrition, Respiration, Transportation, Excretion.
Require energy, mostly from food (glucose).

🔹 2. Nutrition
Autotrophs: Make their own food (e.g., plants via photosynthesis).
Heterotrophs: Depend on others (e.g., humans).
Human digestion: Ingestion → Digestion → Absorption → Assimilation → Egestion

🔹 3. Respiration
Breakdown of glucose to release ATP (energy).
Aerobic respiration: O₂ present → CO₂ + H₂O + 38 ATP.
Anaerobic respiration: No O₂ → Lactic acid or Alcohol + CO₂ (less ATP).

🔹 4. Transportation
Humans: Blood (RBC, WBC, Plasma, Platelets), Heart (double circulation), Blood vessels.
Plants: Xylem (water upward), Phloem (food both ways), Transpiration pull, Translocation.
Lymph: Returns leaked fluid, transports fats.

🔹 5. Excretion
Humans: Kidneys form urine (Nephrons), Excrete urea, CO₂.
Urine formation: Filtration → Reabsorption → Secretion
Plants: Excrete via stomata, lenticels, vacuoles, leaf fall, resins.

📝 Sample Paper – Life Processes

🔸 A. Multiple Choice Questions (1 mark each)
ϕ Which of the following is not a life process?
a) Respiration b) Reproduction c) Excretion d) Digestion
ϕ The basic functional unit of kidney is:
a) Alveoli b) Nephron c) Villi d) Ureter
ϕ Which part of the plant transports water?
a) Phloem b) Xylem c) Root hair d) Stomata
ϕ Which process helps pull water upwards in plants?
a) Photosynthesis b) Translocation c) Transpiration d) Respiration

🔸 B. Very Short Answer Questions (1–2 marks)

ϕ Name the pigment involved in photosynthesis.
ϕ What is the role of saliva in digestion?
ϕ Define transpiration.
ϕ What is double circulation?

🔸 C. Short Answer Questions (3 marks)

 ϕ Explain the process of urine formation.
ϕ Compare xylem and phloem.
ϕ Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration with examples.
ϕ Describe the human heart with a labelled diagram (to be drawn).

🔸 D. Long Answer Questions (5 marks)

ϕ Describe the process of digestion in human beings.
ϕ Explain transportation in humans, including the role of blood, heart, and blood vessels.
ϕ Draw and label the structure of nephron. Explain its function.

A. MCQs

b) Reproduction – It’s not necessary for individual survival.

b) Nephron – It's the functional unit of the kidney.
b) Xylem – It conducts water from roots to other parts.
c) Transpiration – Pulls water up due to evaporation.

B. Very Short Answers

Chlorophyll
Saliva contains amylase which begins starch digestion in the mouth.
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plant leaves.
Double circulation means blood passes through the heart twice in one complete cycle – once for oxygenation and
once to supply the body.

C. Short Answers
Urine formation:
Filtration in glomerulus
Reabsorption of glucose, water, etc. in tubule
Secretion of wastes into collecting duct → ureter → bladder
Xylem: Dead cells, transports water, one way (upward)
Phloem: Living cells, transports food, both directions
Aerobic: O₂ present → CO₂ + H₂O + 38 ATP (e.g. humans)
Anaerobic: No O₂ → Lactic acid or Alcohol + CO₂ (e.g. yeast, muscles)
Draw human heart (show 4 chambers, valves, double circulation)
Describe its function: pumps blood, separates oxygenated & deoxygenated blood.

D. Long Answers
Digestion in humans:
Mouth: amylase
Stomach: pepsin, HCl
Small intestine: bile (liver), enzymes (pancreas), absorption (villi)
Large intestine: water absorption
Anus: egestion
Transportation:
Blood components
Heart structure & function
Arteries, veins, capillaries
Double circulation explained
Nephron Diagram:
Label: Glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, tubule, collecting duct
Function: Filter blood, reabsorb nutrients, form urine