Physics - Electromagnetism
Lecture Notes | Spring 2026
Comprehensive Class Notes
Table of Contents
1. Electric Charge and Coulomb's Law
2. Electric Fields
3. Gauss's Law
4. Electric Potential
5. Current and Resistance
6. Magnetic Fields and Forces
1. Electric Charge and Coulomb's Law
Fundamental properties of electric charge:
- Charge is quantized: Q = ne, where e = 1.602 x 10^{-19} C
- Charge is conserved: total charge in an isolated system remains constant
- Two types: positive and negative. Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
Coulomb's Law: The electrostatic force between two point charges q1 and q2 separated by distance r:
F = k * |q1| * |q2| / r^2
where k = 1/(4*pi*epsilon_0) = 8.99 x 10^9 N*m^2/C^2
and epsilon_0 = 8.85 x 10^{-12} C^2/(N*m^2) is the permittivity of free space.
The force is directed along the line connecting the two charges. It is attractive for opposite charges and
repulsive for like charges.
Superposition Principle: The total force on a charge due to multiple other charges is the vector sum of the
individual forces:
F_total = F_1 + F_2 + ... + F_n
Example: Three charges q1, q2, q3 at positions r1, r2, r3. The force on q1:
F_on_q1 = F_{21} + F_{31}
where F_{21} is the force on q1 due to q2, and F_{31} is the force on q1 due to q3.
Continuous charge distributions:
- Linear charge density: lambda = dQ/dL (C/m)
- Surface charge density: sigma = dQ/dA (C/m^2)
- Volume charge density: rho = dQ/dV (C/m^3)
For continuous distributions, replace the sum with an integral:
F = k * q * integral of (dQ / r^2) * r_hat
2. Electric Fields
The electric field E at a point in space is defined as the force per unit positive test charge:
E = F / q_0 (N/C or V/m)
For a point charge Q:
E = k * Q / r^2 * r_hat
directed radially outward for positive Q, inward for negative Q.
Electric field lines:
- Start on positive charges, end on negative charges
- The tangent to a field line gives the direction of E at that point
- The density of field lines is proportional to |E|
- Field lines never cross
- The number of field lines leaving/entering a charge is proportional to |Q|
Electric field due to common charge configurations:
Electric Dipole (charges +q and -q separated by distance d):
- On the axis (far field): E ~ 2kp/r^3 where p = qd is the dipole moment
- On the perpendicular bisector: E ~ kp/r^3
- The dipole moment vector p points from -q to +q
Infinite line of charge (linear density lambda):
E = lambda / (2*pi*epsilon_0*r) directed radially from the line
Infinite plane of charge (surface density sigma):
E = sigma / (2*epsilon_0) directed perpendicular to the plane
Note: the field is uniform — independent of distance from the plane!
Ring of charge (radius R, total charge Q, on the axis at distance x):
E_x = kQx / (x^2 + R^2)^{3/2}
Disk of charge (radius R, surface density sigma, on the axis):
E_x = (sigma / 2*epsilon_0) * [1 - x / sqrt(x^2 + R^2)]
Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field:
F = qE (constant) => a = qE/m (constant)
The particle undergoes uniform acceleration, analogous to projectile motion in gravity.
3. Gauss's Law
Electric flux through a surface: Phi_E = integral of E . dA
For a uniform field and flat surface: Phi_E = E * A * cos(theta)
where theta is the angle between E and the surface normal.
Gauss's Law: The total electric flux through any closed surface equals the enclosed charge divided by
epsilon_0:
Phi_E = integral_closed of E . dA = Q_enclosed / epsilon_0
This is always true, but only useful when the charge distribution has sufficient symmetry to simplify the integral.
Strategy for applying Gauss's Law:
1. Identify the symmetry (spherical, cylindrical, or planar)
2. Choose a Gaussian surface matching that symmetry
3. On this surface, E is either constant and parallel to dA, or perpendicular to dA
4. Evaluate the integral and solve for E
Applications:
Spherical symmetry (point charge or sphere of charge):
Gaussian surface: concentric sphere of radius r
E * 4*pi*r^2 = Q_enc / epsilon_0
=> E = Q_enc / (4*pi*epsilon_0*r^2)
For a uniformly charged insulating sphere (radius R, total charge Q):
Outside (r > R): E = kQ/r^2 (same as point charge)
Inside (r < R): E = kQ*r/R^3 (increases linearly with r)
Cylindrical symmetry (infinite line or cylinder of charge):
Gaussian surface: coaxial cylinder of radius r and length L
E * 2*pi*r*L = Q_enc / epsilon_0
For an infinite line charge (lambda): E = lambda / (2*pi*epsilon_0*r)
For a conducting cylinder: E = 0 inside, E = lambda/(2*pi*epsilon_0*r) outside
Planar symmetry (infinite plane of charge):
Gaussian surface: "pillbox" (cylinder with faces parallel to the plane)
2*E*A = sigma*A / epsilon_0
=> E = sigma / (2*epsilon_0)
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium:
- E = 0 inside the conductor
- Any excess charge resides on the surface
- E just outside the surface is perpendicular to it: E = sigma/epsilon_0
- The surface is an equipotential
4. Electric Potential
Electric potential energy: U = k*q1*q2/r (for two point charges)
Electric potential V is the potential energy per unit charge:
V = U / q_0 (units: Volts = J/C)
For a point charge Q: V = kQ/r
Relationship between E and V:
E = -dV/dr (in 1D)
E = -grad(V) = -(dV/dx, dV/dy, dV/dz) (in 3D)
The electric field points from high potential to low potential.
Potential difference (voltage):
Delta V = V_B - V_A = -integral_A^B E . dl
The work done by the electric force on a charge q moving from A to B:
W = q * (V_A - V_B) = -q * Delta V
Equipotential surfaces:
- Surfaces of constant V
- Always perpendicular to electric field lines
- No work is done moving a charge along an equipotential
- Conductors are equipotentials in electrostatic equilibrium
Potential due to multiple charges (superposition):
V = k * sum(qi / ri)
Note: potential is a scalar — no vector addition needed!
Potential due to continuous distributions:
V = k * integral of dQ/r
Energy stored in a charge configuration:
For assembling n point charges: U = (1/2) * sum_{i != j} k*qi*qj/r_{ij}
Capacitance: C = Q / V (units: Farads = C/V)
Parallel plate capacitor:
C = epsilon_0 * A / d
where A = plate area, d = separation
Energy stored in a capacitor:
U = (1/2)*C*V^2 = (1/2)*Q^2/C = (1/2)*Q*V
Energy density of the electric field:
u = (1/2)*epsilon_0*E^2 (J/m^3)
Dielectrics: Inserting a dielectric (insulating material) between capacitor plates:
C_new = kappa * C_0
where kappa > 1 is the dielectric constant
The electric field inside is reduced: E = E_0 / kappa
5. Current and Resistance
Electric current I is the rate of flow of charge:
I = dQ/dt (units: Amperes = C/s)
Conventional current flows in the direction positive charges would move (opposite to electron flow).
Current density J: current per unit cross-sectional area:
J = I/A = n*e*v_d
where n = number density of charge carriers, e = electron charge, v_d = drift velocity
Drift velocity is surprisingly slow (typically ~10^{-4} m/s) because electrons undergo many collisions with the
lattice.
Ohm's Law (microscopic): J = sigma * E
where sigma is the conductivity of the material.
Ohm's Law (macroscopic): V = IR
where R is the resistance (units: Ohms)
Resistance of a uniform conductor:
R = rho * L / A
where rho = resistivity (Ohm*m), L = length, A = cross-sectional area
Temperature dependence of resistivity:
rho(T) = rho_0 * [1 + alpha * (T - T_0)]
where alpha is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
For metals: alpha > 0 (resistance increases with temperature)
For semiconductors: alpha < 0 (resistance decreases with temperature)
Power dissipated in a resistor:
P = IV = I^2*R = V^2/R (units: Watts)
Resistors in series: R_total = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
Same current through each; voltage divides.
Resistors in parallel: 1/R_total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ... + 1/Rn
Same voltage across each; current divides.
Kirchhoff's Rules:
1. Junction Rule (conservation of charge): sum of currents entering = sum leaving
2. Loop Rule (conservation of energy): sum of voltage changes around any closed loop = 0
6. Magnetic Fields and Forces
Magnetic fields are produced by moving charges (currents) and exert forces on other moving charges.
Magnetic force on a moving charge:
F=q*vxB
|F| = qvB*sin(theta)
Direction: right-hand rule (perpendicular to both v and B)
Key properties:
- The magnetic force does NO work (always perpendicular to velocity)
- It changes direction of motion but not speed
- A charged particle moving parallel to B feels no force
Motion of a charged particle in a uniform B field:
- Perpendicular to B: circular motion with radius r = mv/(qB)
- Period: T = 2*pi*m/(qB) — independent of speed!
- General case: helical motion (circular + drift along B)
- Applications: mass spectrometers, cyclotrons, magnetic confinement
Force on a current-carrying wire:
F=I*LxB
|F| = ILB*sin(theta)
where L is the length vector in the direction of current flow.
Torque on a current loop (magnetic dipole):
tau = mu x B = NIAB*sin(theta)
where mu = NIA is the magnetic dipole moment, N = number of turns.
This is the principle behind electric motors.
Sources of magnetic fields:
Biot-Savart Law:
dB = (mu_0 / 4*pi) * I * dL x r_hat / r^2
where mu_0 = 4*pi x 10^{-7} T*m/A is the permeability of free space.
Ampere's Law:
integral_closed of B . dl = mu_0 * I_enclosed
Applications of Ampere's Law:
- Infinite straight wire: B = mu_0*I/(2*pi*r)
- Solenoid (interior): B = mu_0*n*I where n = N/L
- Toroid (interior): B = mu_0*NI/(2*pi*r)
Faraday's Law of Induction:
EMF = -d(Phi_B)/dt
where Phi_B = integral of B . dA is the magnetic flux.
The negative sign indicates the induced EMF opposes the change in flux (Lenz's Law).