COURSE TITLE : ENGINEERING MATERIALS

COURSE CODE : GET 202

COURSE UNIT : 3 UNITS
INSTRUCTOR : Dr. T.S. OGEDENGBE
CONTACT : [Link]@[Link]; +2347032251004

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 MODULE 2
ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE,
CRYSTALS, METALLIC STATE

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 CLASS LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, students are expected to be able to
• define the following;
• Atoms, crystals, crystalline materials, solids and crystallography.
• briefly explain the following;
• Lattice, Mono-atomic Lattice, Poly-atomic Lattice.
• explain crystal systems.
• explain electronic configuration.
2.1 Introduction
• Atom: Atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element. An atom consists of very small
nucleons which in turn compose of neutron, proton and electron moving around it.
• Crystals: A crystal is a solid composed of atoms, ions and molecules arranged in a systematic
geometric pattern. While crystal structure is the manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are
spatially arranged.
• Crystalline materials: Is one in which the atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic array over
a large atomic distance; that is, long range order exists, such that upon solidification, the atoms will
position themselves in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern, in which each atom is bonded to its
nearest neighbor atom.
• Crystallography: Crystallography is a branch of science in which the internal structures of
crystals, their properties, external or internal symmetries of crystals are studied.
• Solid: It is one of the three states of matter, in which atoms are closely packed as compared to gas
and liquid. The atoms in a solid are not stationary but are vibrating around fixed points, giving rise
to the orderly arrangement of crystals structures.
• Crystalline (Atoms arranged in regular pattern)
• Amorphous (Atoms arranged in irregular pattern)
• Combination of the two
• Lattice
• Is the arrangement of atoms or group of atoms in a crystal
• 3-D array of points coinciding with atom positions
• When atoms, ions or molecules are arranged or positioned at lattice points a crystal structure is
obtained
• These atoms or groups of atoms are commonly referred to as points within a crystal lattice site
• Note that these points don't tell you the position of an atom in a crystal. They are simply points
'in space' oriented in such a way to build a lattice structure.
Classification of lattice
This classification is based on the kind of atoms present in the face within a lattice
structure
• Monoatomic: This is when there are only one type of atom to make a face
• Polyatomic: This is when lattice contains more than one type of atom to make a face.

Atoms arrange themselves in distinct pattern in space called a space lattice. Space lattice is the three
dimensional network of imaginary lines connecting the atoms, so arranged that its divides space
into equal volumes with no space excluded.
CRYSTAL
• X-ray studies reveal that atoms in crystalline materials are arranged in a regular three-dimensional
repeating pattern known as Lattice Structure.
• The Lattice Structure is depicted by a network of lines, dividing the space into equal volumes.
• The point of intersection are known as lattice points and atoms are positioned around this point

• Unit Cell
• Basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure and defines the crystal structure by virtues
of it geometry and the atoms within
• Subdivision of the structure into small repeat entities and when repeated in all directions gives rise to
lattice structure
2.2 Crystal System
We have two ways of describing a particular structure (cubic and hexagonal)
and there are seven set of axes which are used and known as the seven crystal systems
• Cubic
a = b = c, α = β = γ = 90o
• Tetragonal
a = b ≠ c, α = γ= 90o = β Cubic Triclinic
Hexagonal
• Orthorhombic
a ≠ b ≠ c, α = γ = β = 90o
• Rhombohedral
a = b = c, α= β = γ≠ 90o
• Hexagonal Tetragonal Rhombohedral
a = b ≠ c, α = β = 90 o, γ = 120o
• Monoclinic
a ≠ b ≠ c, α = γ = 90o ≠ β
• Triclinic
Fig. 2.1: A Unit Cell
a ≠ b ≠ c, α ≠ γ ≠ β ≠ 90o Orthorhombic Monoclinic
2.3 Metallic crystals
2.3.1 Principal Metal Crystal Structures are
Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Structure e.g Cu, Ag, Al, Ni, Pb etc.
Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure e.g Mo, Cr etc.
Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) e.g. Mg, Zn, Ti, Cd, Zr etc
❖Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure e.g W, Mo, Cr etc.
• One atom in the centre of the cube and an atom each at all the corners.
• The corner atom is shared by other adjoining body center cubes.
• The unit cell of BCC structure contains 2 atoms
• Lattice constant “a” (the edge length of the unit cell) is related to the atomic
radius (half the distance between the centers of the neighboring atoms).

• Atomic packing factor is 0.68

• Coordination number is 8

❖Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Structure e.g Cu, Ag, Al, Ni, Pb etc.
• An atom at each corner of the cube and one atom at the intersection of the
diagonals of each of the six faces of the cube.
• The unit cell contains 4 atoms
• Atomic packing factor is 0.74
• Coordination number is 12
• Lattice constant “a” is related to the atomic radius “r” by
Fig. 2.3: FCC Diagram

❖ Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) e.g. Mg, Zn, Ti, Cd, Zr.

•The top and bottom places of the unit cell consist of six atoms that form regular hexagons
and surround a single atom in the center. Additional three atoms were found at the plane
between the top and bottom planes. Also an atom each is located at the centers of both top
and bottom faces. Equivalent of six (6) atoms are contained in each unit cell.
• The APF and coordination number are similar to that of FCC and they are 12 and 0.74,
respectively.

Fig. 2.4: HCP Diagram

• Note: Atomic packing factor (APF) is
calculated using the expression below:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

APF = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Note: The APF calculation has been done

in class
ATOMIC MODEL
Quantum Mechanics: Set of principles and laws that governs the systems of
atomic and subatomic entities. One early outgrowth of quantum mechanics
was the simplified Bohr atomic model, in which electrons are assumed to
resolve around the atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position of any
particular electron is more or less well defined in terms of its orbital.

• This Bohr model was eventually found to have some significant

limitations because of its inability to explain several phenomena
involving electrons. A resolution was reached with a wave-mechanical
model, in which the electron is considered to exhibit both wavelike and
particle-like characteristics.

With this model, an electron is no longer treated as a particle moving in a

discrete orbital; but rather, position is considered to be the probability of an
electron’s being at various locations around the nucleus. In other words,
position is described by a probability distribution or electron cloud.
Quantum Number
• Electron are characterized by four parameters called quantum numbers.
• Quantum number dictate the number of states within each subshell.
• The principal quantum number is related to the distance of an electron from the nucleus, or its position.
• The second quantum number signifies the subshell which is denoted by a lower case letter—an S,P, D, F
• For an s subshell, there is a single energy state, whereas for p, d, and f subshells, three, five, and seven
states exist, respectively.
 Electronic Configuration
• The electron configuration or structure of an atom represents the manner in which these states are occupied.
• First, the valence electrons are those that occupy the outermost filled shell. These electrons are extremely
important; as will be seen, they participate in the bonding between atoms to form atomic and molecular
aggregates. Furthermore, many of the physical and chemical properties of solids are based on these valence
electrons.
• In addition, some atoms have what are termed ‘‘stable electron configurations’’; that is, the states within the
outermost or valence electron shell are completely filled. Normally this corresponds to the occupation of just
the s and p states for the outermost shell by a total of eight electrons, as in neon, argon, and krypton; one
exception is helium, which contains only two 1s electrons. These elements (Ne, Ar, Kr, and He) are the inert,
or noble, gases, which are virtually unreactive chemically.
• Some atoms of the elements that have unfilled valence shells assume stable electron configurations by gaining
or losing electrons to form charged ions, or by sharing electrons with other atoms. This is the basis for some
chemical reactions, and also for atomic bonding in solids.
2.4 Atomic Bonding in Solids
• Primary Interatomic Bond
• Ionic Bond
• Covalent Bond
• Metallic Bond
• Secondary Bonding
The types of secondary bonding we have are:
• Van Der waal’s Bonding
• Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
• Polar Molecular Induced Dipole Bond
• Permanent Dipole Bonds
REVISION QUESTIONS
• Define the following;
• Atoms, crystals, crystalline materials, solids and crystallography.
• briefly explain the following;
• Lattice, Mono-atomic Lattice, Poly-atomic Lattice.
• explain the following crystal systems with the aid of appropriate
sketches; FCC, BCC and HCP
• explain electronic configuration.
• What is valence electron.

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END OF MODULE 2

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