1. Define pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in communication.
In FM (Frequency Modulation) radio, pre-emphasis and de-emphasis are techniques
used to improve the signal-to-noise ratio, particularly at higher frequencies.
Pre-emphasis boosts the higher modulating frequencies at the transmitter, while de-
emphasis reduces them at the receiver, effectively cancelling out the boost and restoring the
original signal.
This process helps mitigate the impact of noise, which tends to be more prominent at
higher frequencies in FM signals.
2. Define Modulation Index of FM.
In frequency modulation (FM), the modulation index is the ratio of the
frequency deviation of the carrier signal to the frequency of the modulating
(information) signal. It essentially indicates how much the carrier frequency is
being varied by the modulating signal.
Formula:
The modulation index (often denoted as 'm' or 'β') is calculated as:
Code
m = Δf / fm
Where:
Δf: (or δmax) is the frequency deviation: the maximum change in the carrier
frequency from its resting (unmodulated) frequency.
fm: is the modulating frequency: the frequency of the information signal.
3. How many side bands are available in frequency modulated signals?
In Frequency Modulation (FM), an infinite number of sidebands are theoretically
available. However, in practical applications, most of the signal's energy is concentrated in a
finite number of sidebands. These sidebands are located around the carrier frequency at
multiples of the modulating frequency.
4. Mention the need for Modulation.
Modulation is essential in communication systems to enable efficient and reliable
transmission of signals over long distances
Extending Range:
Low-frequency signals,have a limited transmission range. Modulation allows these signals
to be transmitted over much greater distances by "riding" on a higher-frequency carrier
wave.
Antenna Size Reduction:
The size of an antenna required for transmission is directly related to the wavelength of the
signal, hence modulation allows us to use a much smaller antenna for the high-frequency
carrier wave
Reducing Interference:
By using different carrier frequencies, modulation enables multiple signals to be
transmitted over the same channel without interference.
Efficient Use of Bandwidth:
Modulation allows for the efficient allocation of different frequency bands to different users
or services, maximizing the capacity of the communication channel.
5. The tuned circuit of the oscillator in a simple AM transmitter employs a 50 microhenry
(50-µH) coil and a 1-nanofarad (1-nF) capacitor. If the oscillator output is modulated by
audio frequencies up to 10kHz, what is the frequency range occupied by the
sidebands?
6. Derive the equation of an Amplitude Modulation Wave and elaborate the functions of
each component. Draw Frequency Spectrum.
Where ma=(Em/Ec) is the modulation index of AM wave.
The shape of modulated waveform is known as AM envelope.
7. Define Frequency Modulation and derive the equation for FM modulated Signal
Equation (9) is the equtaion of FM wave.
8. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 amperes (8 A) when only the carrier is sent, but
it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find the percentage
modulation. Determine the antenna current when the percent of modulation changes to 0.8.
Solution:
For a single-tone modulation:
Where:
I = antenna current when modulated
Ic = antenna current with unmodulated carrier
m = modulation index (in decimal)
Step 1: Find the modulation index
Given:
Ic = 8 A
I = 8.93 A
Plug into the formula:
Divide both sides by 8:
Square both sides:
Modulation Index Percentage:
% modulation = m × 100 = 70.1%
Step 2: Antenna current when modulation index is 0.8
Use the same formula:
9. Find the carrier frequency, modulating frequency, modulation index and the
maximum deviation of the FM wave represented by the given voltage
equation. What power will this FM wave dissipate in a 10 Ω resistor? V= 12
sin (6×108 t + 5 sin 1250 t).
Solution:
The given FM signal:
V= 12 sin (6×108 t + 5 sin 1250 t)
This is in the standard FM form:
Step 1: Identify Given Values
From the expression:
V= 12 sin (6×108 t + 5 sin 1250 t)
Carrier amplitude Ac=12 V
Carrier angular frequency ωc=6×108 rad/s
Modulating angular frequency ωm=1250 rad/s
Modulation index β = 5
Step 3: Modulation Index β
Given directly in the equation:
β⋅ = 5
Step 4: Maximum Frequency Deviation Δf:
Δf = β⋅fm = 5×199 = 995 Hz
10. Elucidate on the Principle and working of Frequency Division Multiplexing with
detailed Block Diagram.
Definition:
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique where multiple signals are transmitted
simultaneously over a common communication channel by allocating each signal a distinct frequency band.
This allows efficient sharing of the available bandwidth without interference.
Principle of FDM:
1. Signal Separation: Each individual signal (such as voice, data, or video) is modulated onto a
separate carrier frequency.
2. Bandwidth Allocation: The available bandwidth of the communication channel is divided into non-
overlapping frequency bands, with guard bands in between to prevent interference.
3. Multiplexing: The modulated signals are combined using a multiplexer (MUX) and transmitted over
a single channel.
4. Demultiplexing: At the receiver end, a demultiplexer (DEMUX) separates the signals based on their
assigned frequencies, and each signal is demodulated to retrieve the original data.
FDM Transmitter
Input Signals
The system receives multiple independent signals (e.g., voice, data, video).
These signals are usually in baseband (low-frequency) form before modulation.
Modulators
Each input signal is fed into a separate modulator.
The modulator shifts the baseband signal to a higher frequency using a carrier signal.
Types of modulation used:
o AM (Amplitude Modulation) – Used in radio broadcasting.
o FM (Frequency Modulation) – Used in audio/video broadcasting.
o QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) – Used in DSL and cable TV.
Each modulator operates at a different carrier frequency to ensure that signals do not overlap.
Bandpass Filters (BPFs)
After modulation, each signal is passed through a bandpass filter to remove unwanted frequency
components.
These filters ensure that the modulated signals stay within their designated frequency bands and
prevent interference.
Multiplexer (Combiner)
The outputs of all bandpass filters are fed into a multiplexer (MUX).
The multiplexer combines the signals into a single composite signal.
Guard bands (small frequency gaps) are added between adjacent channels to minimize cross-talk
and intermodulation distortion.
Transmission Medium
The amplified FDM signal is transmitted over a suitable medium:
o Coaxial cable (used in cable TV)
o Optical fiber (used in broadband networks)
o Wireless (RF transmission) (used in radio and satellite communication)
FDM Receiver
The composite signal is applied to a group of bandpass filters (BPF).
Each BPF has a center frequency corresponding to one of the carriers. The BPFs have an adequate
bandwidth to pass all the channel information without any distortion.
Each filter will pass only its channel and rejects all the other channels.
The channel demodulator then removes the carrier and recovers the original signal back.
11. Explain the functions of FM Receiver with a neat block diagram. Compare the
performance of FM Receiver with other Receivers
(Refer Annexure)