NUCLEAR ENERGY

Fission is the process that occurs when a neutron collides with the
nucleus of certain of the heavy atoms, causing the original nucleus to
split into two or more unequal fragments which carry off most of the
energy of fission as kinetic energy. This process is accompanied by the
emission of neutron and gamma rays.
Promptfission gamma rays carry off
about 7 MeV/fission, with individual
photon energies ranging from less
than 0.5 MeV to greater than 1.5
MeV
Prompt-fission neutrons. These are
produced as a result of the fissioning of a
fissile material and, as in the case of
prompt gamma rays, are considered to
be emitted coincidentally with the fission
process
The materials used to decelerate fast neutrons to thermal energy levels
are called moderators. Effective and efficient moderators must slow the
fission neutrons, in the 1- to 2- MeV range to thermal energy at about
0.025 eV to less that 0.1 eV

A chain reaction is that process in which the number of neutrons keeps

on multiplying rapidly (in geometrical progression) during fission till
whole of the fissionable material is disintegrated. The chain reaction will
become self-sustaining or self propagating only if, for every neutron
absorbed, at least one fission neutron becomes available for causing
fission of another nucleus. This condition can be conveniently expressed
in the form of multiplication factor or reproduction factor of the system
which may be definded as
Thermal utilization factor
The thermal utilization factor, f, is the factor describing how effectively
thermal neutrons are absorbed by the fuel, or how well they are utilized
within the reactor. This factor is defined as the ratio of the probability that a
neutron will be absorbed in the fuel to the probability that the neutron will
be absorbed in all the material that makes up a core. It is described by the
following equation:

Since the fuel number density decreases slowly over core life and the umber
of nonfission neutron absorbers increases, f will decrease. The absorbers are
functions of core power history, core age, and power level. A typical value for
thermal utilization factor is 0.799.
Requirements of fission process The requirements of fission process may
be summed up as follows :
1. The neutrons emitted in fission must have adequate energy to cause
fission of another nuclei.
2. The produced number of neutrons must be able not only to sustain the
fission process but also to increase the rate of fission. Certain loss of
neutrons during the process is also to be accounted.
3. The process must be followed by the liberation of energy.
4. It must be possible to control the rate of energy liberation i.e., the rate
of fission by some means
non-fission capture in the fuel material, capture in the fuel container
(cladding), core structural materials, moderator and coolant, and leakage
of neutrons from the core

The minimum quantity of fuel required for any specific reactor system is
called the ‘critical mass’ and the size associated with this mass is called
the ‘critical size’.

‘Nuclear Fusion’ is the process of combining or fusing two lighter nuclei

into a stable and heavier nuclide. In this case also, large amount of
energy is released because mass of the product nucleus is less than the
masses of the two nuclei which are fused.
Fuel material
(i) Natural uranium with U235 contents (occurs in nature)
(ii) Enriched uranium with more than 0.71 of U235
(iii) Pu239, Pu241 or Pu239 (man made)
(iv) U–233 (man made)
availability economically the fuels used in reactors are uranium,
plutonium and thorium. U235 is easily available in natural uranium (i.e.,
0.7%) and its content increases upto 90% in enriched uranium
Moderator
(i) Water (H2O)
(ii) Heavy water (D2O)
(iii) Graphite
(iv) Beryllium or beryllium oxide
(v) Hydrocarbons or hydrides.
A moderator’s function is to absorbs the part of the kinetic energy of the
neutrons. The neutrons collide directly with the moderator and thus slowed
down. No ideal moderator is available in nature or has been produced
artificially. The light weight nuclei materials are not suited at all as a
moderator because they do not possess the property of absorption of
neutrons. Light water, heavy water and graphite are the most common
moderators used in reactors
Nuclear Breeding
In nuclear reactors, as fuel is spent, neutrons are released. A single
neutron for every fission event is necessary to sustain the reaction, i.e.
to cause another fission event. However, as many fission reactions
release more than one neutron, it is possible for the other neutrons to
cause more fission events, as in conventional nuclear power plants and
also nuclear weapons. These neutrons can also be absorbed by non-
fissile isotope atoms, causing them to transmute to a higher isotope.
This higher isotope atom then undergoes beta-decay to form a fissile
isotope atom. The number of fissile isotope atoms generated per fission
event is known as the breeding ratio . A breeding ratio of greater than
unity implies that for every fission reaction, more than one fissile atom
can be generated, and the fuel can be bred from non-fissile material.
Nuclear reactors are being developed to make use of this to breed fissile
material from relatively much more abundant materials.
General components of a nuclear reactor and materials

For explanation refer the pdf uploaded to google classroom

Pressurized water reactor
Boiling water reactor
Sodium graphite reactor/Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors
sodium works as a coolant and graphite works as moderator
Sodium boils at 880°C under atmospheric pressure and freezes at 95°C.
Hence sodium is first melted by electric heating system and be
pressurised to about 7 bar. The
The primary circuit has liquid sodium

The secondary circuit has an alloy of

sodium and potassium in liquid form
Fast Breeder reactor
Homogeneous graphite reactor

RBMK a Graphite cooled channel reactor.

gas cooled reactor coolant used can be air, hydrogen, helium or carbon dioxide.
Moderator used is graphite
problem of corrosion is reduced much in
such reactors
There are two principal types of gas cooled
reactors developed for centre station service and
these are :
(i) The gas cooled, graphite moderator reactor
(GCGM)
(ii) The high temperature gas cooled reactor
(HTGC).
Both types are graphite moderated. The former
(GCGM) uses natural uranium fuel while the latter
(HTGC) employs highly enriched uranium carbide
mixed with
thorium carbide and clad with graphite.
The coolant pressure and temperature in GCGM
are about 7 bar 336°C respectively, for HTGC, there
figures are 15 to 30 bar and 700°C to 800°C.
Shielding :
Shielding is necessary in order to :
(i) protect the walls of the reactor vessel from radiation damage, and
also to
(ii) protect operating personnel from exposure to radiation

The first known as thermal shield is provided through the steel lining,
while the other called external or biological shield is generally made of
thick concrete surrounding the reactor installation.
The effectiveness of a nuclear shield against gamma rays approximately
depends upon its mass. A heavy material like lead will be a more effective
shield per unit weight, than a light element such as carbon. On the other
hand, light elements, particularly hydrogen are much more effective per unit
weight than heavy elements for fast neutron shielding. Concrete is a material
that offers a compromise between these two extreme characteristics of
shielding material for both gamma rays and fast neutrons. It is a material
which has low cost and is easily available

The actual design of the shield, however, involves the following

considerations :
(i) The total amount of radiation produced in the reactor.
(ii) The amount of radiation that can be permitted to leak through the shield.
(iii) The shielding properties of material
 Radiation hazard
At high doses, ionizing radiation can cause immediate damage to a person’s body, including,
at very high doses, radiation sickness and death. At lower doses, ionizing radiation can
cause health effects such as cardiovascular disease and cataracts, as well as cancer. It
causes cancer primarily because it damages DNA, which can lead to cancer-causing gene
mutations.
The radioactive isotopes released in nuclear power plant accidents include iodine-131 (I-
131), cesium-134 (Cs-134), and Cs-137. In the most severe kinds of accidents, such as the
Chernobyl accident in 1986, other dangerous radioactive isotopes, such as strontium-90 (Sr-
90) and plutonium-239, may also be released.
Human exposure to I-131 released from nuclear power plant accidents comes mainly from
consuming contaminated water, milk, or foods. People may also be exposed by breathing
dust particles in the air that are contaminated with I-131.
Inside the body, I-131 accumulates in the thyroid gland, which is an organ in the neck. The
thyroid gland uses iodine to produce hormones that control how quickly the body uses
energy. Because the thyroid does not distinguish between I-131 and nonradioactive iodine,
the thyroid gland will accumulate either form. Exposure to radioactive iodine may increase
the risk of thyroid cancer for many years
Exposure to Cs-134 and Cs-137 can be external to the body or internal.
External exposure comes from walking on contaminated soil or coming
into contact with contaminated materials at nuclear accident sites.
Internal exposure can come from breathing particles in the air that
contain Cs-134 and Cs-137, such as dust originating from contaminated
soil, or ingesting contaminated water or foods. Because Cs-134 and Cs-
137 do not become concentrated in a particular tissue, the ionizing
radiation that it releases can expose all tissues and organs of the body.