25-03-2025

Modern Display
Technologies
EE 614

Course Instructor: Dr. Debabrata Sikdar

310, Third Floor, EEE Extension Building
Email: [Link]@[Link]

Teaching Assistants:

Sourodipto Das (Research Scholar)

Tushar Shah (Research Scholar)

Email: [Link]@[Link]
[Link]@[Link]

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Operation Principle of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
 Electrons and holes recombine in a semiconductor, generating photons.
 The emission wavelength depends on the material, active-layer design, and
device structure.
1960s: GaAsP-Based Red LEDs
 Red LEDs manufactured using GaAsP on a GaAs substrate.
 Challenge: Lattice mismatch (GaAs: 5.65 Å, GaAsP: 5.45 Å) → misfit
dislocations → higher non-radiative recombination.
 Increasing phosphorus shifts emission to blue but reduces efficiency due to a
direct-to-indirect bandgap transition at 50% P mole fraction.

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Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
1970s: Isoelectronic Impurity-Enhanced LEDs:
 Introducing impurities (N, Zn:O) into indirect bandgap materials (GaP, GaAsP)
created trap levels, allowing emission in orange, yellow, and green.
1980s: AlGaAs-Based LEDs:
 Advantage: Low lattice mismatch (AlAs: 5.66 Å, GaAs: 5.65 Å) → high-
quality crystalline films → reduced non-radiative recombination.
 Impact: Enabled heterojunctions and quantum wells for better carrier
confinement and emission tuning.
 Limitation: Direct-to-indirect transition occurs at 621 nm when Al content
reaches 45%, restricting AlGaAs/GaAs LEDs to red wavelengths.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
1990s: Introduction of AlGaInP LEDs:
 Key benefits: Lattice matching to GaAs by adjusting Al/Ga ratio.
 Shorter direct-indirect transition wavelength (555 nm; yellow-green),
improving efficiency.
Current Standard: AlGaInP used for long-wavelength (red, orange, yellow) LEDs.
Introduction to Group III-Nitride Materials: GaN, InGaN, and AlGaN are key
Group III-nitride semiconductors used in short-wavelength LEDs.
 They cover the spectrum from UV to blue and green.
Challenges in Group III-nitride LEDs:
 Lattice mismatch (lack of a suitable substrate).
 Difficulties in p-type doping due to hydrogen passivation.
 Indium incorporation issues at high growth temperatures.

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Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:

Figure 5.1: Power efficiencies of LEDs with time for “long wavelength (GaAsP, AlGaAs, and AlInGaP),” and “short
wavelength (nitride)” materials, and for white lighting systems

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Overcoming Growth and Doping Challenges
(i) Lattice Mismatch and Epitaxial Growth
 Issue: No native substrate for III-nitrides (unlike GaAs for III–P LEDs).
 Solution: Low-temperature buffer layer (AlN or GaN) grown on sapphire
(Al₂O₃) substrate to improve epitaxial quality.
(ii) p-Type Doping in Nitride Semiconductors
 Issue: Acceptor dopants (Mg) in GaN are passivated by hydrogen atoms during
growth.
 Solution: High-temperature annealing in nitrogen ambient removes hydrogen,
activating p-type conductivity.

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Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Overcoming Growth and Doping Challenges (contd):
(iii) Indium Incorporation for Blue Emission
 Issue: High vapor pressure of indium at GaN growth temperatures (~1000°C)
makes In incorporation difficult.
 Solution: Redesigning epitaxial growth equipment to improve InGaN film
quality.
 Impact: Enabled high-efficiency blue LEDs, leading to the 2014 Nobel Prize in
Physics for Akasaki, Amano, and Nakamura.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
White Light Generation Techniques
Since GaN-based LEDs emit in the UV or blue range, white light requires color
mixing:
(i) Multi-Color LED Mixing
 Uses red, green, and blue LEDs to create white light.
 Pros: High efficiency, tunable color temperature.
 Cons: Expensive, complex control circuits, potential color shift over time.
(ii) Phosphor-Based Down-Conversion
 A blue or UV LED pumps a phosphor, which absorbs high-energy light and re-
emits yellow/orange light, creating white light.
 Pros: Cost-effective, compact, widely used in commercial LEDs.
 Cons: Some efficiency loss due to Stokes shift (energy loss when converting
blue to longer wavelengths).

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Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Key Factors for High-Performance LEDs
(i) Efficient Carrier Injection & Transport
 Minimizing injection barriers & ohmic losses is crucial.
 p–n diode structures with low resistance are preferred.
 Ohmic contacts are essential for efficient carrier flow, avoiding Schottky
barriers.
(ii) Maximizing Radiative Recombination
 Radiative recombination must be greater than non-radiative recombination.
 Heterojunctions, electron-blocking layers (EBLs), and quantum structures
confine carriers in the active region for higher efficiency.
(iii) Efficient Light Extraction
 Light trapped inside the LED can be lost due to internal reflections.
 Surface texturing, patterned substrates, and transparent contacts improve light
extraction.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Active Layer Engineering for Wavelength Control
 The bandgap of the active layer defines the LED’s emission wavelength.
 Quantum structures allow tuning of the emission spectrum beyond the bulk
bandgap energy.
 Density of States (DOS) in Quantum Structures:
 Bulk semiconductors: Continuous energy states → Broad emission spectrum.
 Quantum Wells, Wires, and Dots: Discrete energy states → Narrower spectral
width, tunable emission.
 Full-Width at Half-Maximum (FWHM) & Temperature Stability:
 Quantum structures modify the FWHM of the emission peak and temperature
dependence of the emission wavelength.
 Quantum dots provide the best spectral purity and stability.

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Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Table- 1. Comparison of Quantum Wells, Wires, and Dots in Light Emission
Structure Effect on Emission Advantages
Confinement in 1 Improved efficiency, wavelength
Quantum Wells(2D)
dimension tunability

Confinement in 2 Further spectral tuning, increased

Quantum Wires(1D)
dimensions radiative recombination

Confinement in all 3 Sharp emission peaks, reduced

Quantum Dots (0D)
dimensions temperature sensitivity

 Carrier confinement (heterojunctions, quantum wells, wires, dots) enhances LED

efficiency and spectral control.
 Future research focuses on quantum-dot LEDs, micro-LEDs, and perovskite-based
LEDs for higher efficiency and better color control.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Photon Extraction & Efficiency Optimization in LEDs
 Once photons are generated in the active layer of an LED, the next challenge is to
efficiently extract them from the semiconductor and radiate them outward.
 Several optical and material-related factors influence the light extraction efficiency.
Challenges in Photon Extraction
(i) Isotropic Emission & Optical Losses
 Spontaneous emission in LEDs is isotropic, meaning photons are emitted in
all directions.
 Photons may experience:
 Absorption by defect states.
 Reabsorption through band-to-band or free carrier absorption.
 Scattering at defects or material interfaces.

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Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Challenges in Photon Extraction (contd):
(ii) Substrate Absorption
 If the substrate has a smaller bandgap than the emitted light, it can absorb
photons.
 Example: GaAs substrate (Eg = 1.424 eV, 870 nm) absorbs infrared and visible
light → up to 50% light loss.
(iii) Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
 When photons travel from a high-refractive-index semiconductor (n ≈ 3.5) into
a low-refractive-index epoxy layer (n ≈ 1.5), they can be totally internally
reflected.
 Critical angle from Snell’s Law ≈ 25° → Light at greater incidence angles is
reflected back into the LED, reducing extraction efficiency.
 Trapped photons may be reabsorbed by defects or the substrate, reducing efficiency.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Improving LED Emission Efficiency
Several techniques help increase light extraction and reduce optical losses:
(i) Surface Texturing & Reflectors
 Disrupts waveguiding effects and redirects light outward.
 Increases scattering, allowing more light to escape.
(ii) Transparent Substrates (e.g., GaP)
 Prevents absorption of emitted photons by the substrate.
 GaP is transparent to visible light, improving external quantum efficiency.
(iii) Transparent Electrodes (e.g., Indium Tin Oxide - ITO)
 Replaces reflective metal electrodes, allowing light to pass through.
 Enhances light extraction efficiency without obstructing emission.

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Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
LED Fabrication & Efficiency Optimization
1. Epitaxial Growth for LEDs
 LPE & VPE: Growth from liquid-phase or gas-phase sources.
 MOCVD: Most common method using organometallic precursors for ultra-thin,
high-quality layers.
 Controls: Doping, defect density, and alloy composition for bandgap tuning.
2. Device Design & Fabrication
 Low Contact Resistance: Thermal annealing minimizes power loss.
 Optimized Contact Layout: Ensures uniform current flow and better light
extraction.
 Etching for Light Extraction: Enhances efficiency but requires post-etch
annealing to prevent defects.

Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
LED Fabrication & Efficiency Optimization (contd):
3. LED Packaging & Thermal Management
 Protection: Shields LEDs from damage and contaminants.
 Light Extraction: Uses reflectors, lenses, and phosphors.
 Heat Dissipation: Heat sinks and conductive materials prevent overheating.

Applications of LEDs in the Display Industry

1) Traffic Signals:
 Higher power efficiency and lower power consumption than incandescent
lamps.
 Longer lifetime reduces maintenance costs.
2) Electronic Signage & Large Displays: Used in very large area displays
(several hundred inches diagonal).

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Light Emitting Diode

Introduction:
Applications of LEDs in the Display Industry (contd):
3) LCD Backlighting:
 Replaces cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), which contain harmful Hg.
 Provides a wider color gamut and better efficiency.
 Offers long lifetime and fast response times.
 High power efficiency and long lifespan.
 Operates at low voltage (<5V), making them safer and easier to use.
4) Micro-LED Technology:
 Uses miniaturized LEDs for high-resolution displays.
 High efficiency, brightness, and fast response for various applications (e.g.,
projectors, watches, TVs).
 Enables flexible, wearable, and stretchable displays by transferring LEDs to
different substrates.

Material Systems
The material system used in an LED plays a crucial role in:
 Emission wavelength (color of light emitted).
 Radiative recombination efficiency (how effectively electrons and holes
recombine to emit photons).
Key factors:
 Epitaxial active layer:
 The light-emitting layer, which determines the bandgap energy and thus the
wavelength of emitted light.
 Can be made of binary, ternary, or quaternary compound semiconductors.
 Direct bandgap materials are preferred for higher efficiency.
 Substrate selection:
 Must be lattice-matched to the epitaxial layer to minimize defects and non-
radiative recombination (which lowers efficiency).

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Material Systems
Direct vs. Indirect Bandgap Materials
 Direct bandgap materials: Efficient radiative recombination → Suitable for
LEDs.
 Indirect bandgap materials: Low photon emission efficiency → Not suitable for
LEDs.
1. Elemental Semiconductors (Group IV) – Indirect Bandgap
 Ge (Germanium), Si (Silicon), C (Diamond) → Not suitable for LEDs.
2. III–V Compound Semiconductors – Direct Bandgap
 Used for LEDs, as they allow direct electron-hole recombination with high
photon emission efficiency.
 Binary compounds (e.g., GaAs, GaP), Ternary compounds (e.g., GaInP,
AlInP) Quaternary compounds (e.g., AlGaInP) forms the basis of LED
materials.

Material Systems
Ternary and Quaternary Compound Semiconductors
 Ternary compounds: Created by alloying two binary
materials (e.g.: GaInP, AlInP).
 Quaternary compounds: Formed by combining two
ternary materials that differ in one atom type
(e.g., AlGaInP).
 Benefit: Enables precise tuning of bandgap and
lattice constant, optimizing emission efficiency and
color range.

• Figure 5.2 shows the relationship between

bandgap, emission wavelength, and lattice
constant for these materials. Figure 5.2: Bandgap and emission wavelength
versus lattice constant for III–V semiconductors of
(a) AlInGa-P and (b) AlInGa-N material systems

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Material Systems
Bandgap Trends & Emission Wavelength
Bandgap vs. Atomic Size
 Bandgap energy (Eg) is higher for smaller atoms due to stronger bonding.
 General trend: As lattice constant increases, bandgap decreases, and emission
wavelength increases.
 Example (Group V elements in III-V compounds):
 GaAs < GaP < GaN → Bandgap increases as atom size decreases (As > P > N).
 InN < GaN < AlN → Bandgap increases as atom size decreases (In > Ga > Al).
Emission Wavelength Control by Material Choice
 As- and P-based semiconductors: Emit in red, orange, yellow, and green regions.
 Nitrides (e.g., GaN, InGaN): Used to achieve shorter wavelengths (blue and UV
emission), due to the smallest Group V atoms (N).

Material Systems
Lattice Matching in LEDs
 Lattice mismatch (Δa/a₀) = The difference in lattice constants between the
substrate and epitaxial layer, normalized to the substrate value.
 Ideal lattice mismatch: ≤ 0.1% for high-quality epitaxial growth.
 Why is lattice matching important?
 This prevents residual strain in the epitaxial layer.
 It reduces formation of dislocations, which increase non-radiative
recombination and decrease efficiency.

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Material Systems
Table- 2. Common Substrate Materials
Substrate Bandgap Pros & Cons

1.424 eV (IR) Lattice-matched to AIGaAs & (AIGa)0.5 In0.5 P, but

GaAs
absorbs visible light, reducing efficiency.

𝐈𝐧𝐏 Low bandgap Not lattice-matched to suitable ternary/quaternary P-

based materials.

High bandgap Not lattice-matched to suitable ternary/quaternary P-

GaP
based materials.

- Used for GaN growth despite lattice mismatch (low-

Sapphire Al2 O3
temperature pre-growth of GaN overcomes this issue).

Material Systems
Direct vs. Indirect Bandgap Materials in LED Efficiency

Figure 5.3: Energy versus momentum curves for semiconductors with (a) direct, (b) indirect, and
(c) near direct-indirect bandgaps

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Material Systems
Direct vs. Indirect Bandgap Materials in LED Efficiency (contd):
 Direct Bandgap Materials: Conduction band minimum and valence band
maximum align in momentum space → Efficient radiative recombination.
 Optical transitions are vertical (photon emission occurs without momentum
change).
 Indirect Bandgap Materials:
 Conduction band minimum does not align with valence band maximum.
 Requires phonons (lattice vibrations) to conserve momentum, reducing
emission efficiency.
 Direct–Indirect Bandgap Transition
 As Al concentration increases in AlGaAs and (InGa)₀.₅Al₀.₅P, a direct-to-
indirect bandgap transition occurs, lowering efficiency.
 No abrupt efficiency drop—some electrons may still occupy indirect states near
the transition region (Boltzmann distribution effect).

Material Systems
Material Choices for Different LED Colors
 (AlGa)₀.₅In₀.₅P LEDs:
 Lattice-matched to GaAs.
 Direct bandgap for red to amber emission.
 To improve external quantum efficiency (EQE), the GaAs absorbing substrate
can be removed and replaced with transparent GaP.
 InGaN LEDs:
 Increasing “In” concentration shifts emission from blue to green.
 Used for shorter wavelength LEDs (high efficiency from blue to green).
 LED Spectrum Coverage:
 III–N (blue-green) + III–P (amber-red) LEDs can cover the entire visible
spectrum.
 Different substrates (sapphire for III–N, GaAs for III–P) make it difficult to
produce broadband white light from a single LED chip.

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Material Systems
White LED Generation Techniques
Since a single LED chip cannot efficiently emit white light, two major techniques are
used:
(i) Multi-LED Assembly
 Advantages:
 Combines red, green, and blue LEDs to create white light.
 Each LED can be optimized individually for efficiency, voltage, and
wavelength.
 Disadvantages:
 Expensive and bulky.
 Color shift issues due to different lifetime performance of each LED over time.

Material Systems
(ii) Phosphor-Coated White LEDs
 Advantages:
 Uses a blue LED with a yellow phosphor coating, which absorbs blue light and
re-emits yellow light, creating white light.
 Compact, cost-effective, and stable color output.
 Disadvantages:
 Lower efficiency than multi-LED systems due to Stokes energy loss (phosphor
emission wavelength is longer than absorption wavelength).
White LED Optimization
 White LEDs must achieve specific CIE coordinates in the chromaticity diagram
to appear as true white.
 High Color Rendering Index (CRI) is required to ensure colors appear natural
under LED lighting.

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Diode Characteristics
Formation of a p–n Junction :
 When p-type and n-type layers contact, a p–n
junction forms.
 Carrier movement:
 Holes diffuse from p-side to n-side.
 Electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side.
 Recombination at the junction creates negative &
positive space charges, forming an internal electric
field (E-field) from n → p. Figure 5.4: Band diagram of a p–n
junction under thermal equilibrium

Diode Characteristics
Depletion Region & Band Bending:
 Depletion region: Nearly free of carriers under thermal equilibrium.
 The Poisson equation relates dopant concentration to built-in voltage.
 Fermi levels align due to band bending at equilibrium.

Forward Bias: Reduces built-in voltage; current flows exponentially above threshold
voltage (Vth ≈ Eg in eV).

Efficiency Loss & Solutions:

 Carrier leakage reduces recombination efficiency.
 Heterojunctions & Electron-Blocking Layers (EBLs) prevent leakage.
 Quantum structures (wells, wires, dots) improve confinement & wavelength
tuning.

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Diode Characteristics: p- and n-Layer

Doping & Carrier Mobility in LEDs
n-Type Doping:
 Group IV (Ge, Si) & Group VI (S, Se, Te)
dopants replace Group III/V atoms.
 Example: Se in GaAs donates an electron,
forming a donor state near the conduction
band.
p-Type Doping:
 Group II (Cd, Zn, Mg, Be) & Group IV (C,
Si) dopants create acceptor states near the
valence band.
 Example: Zn in GaAs replaces Ga, creating
Figure 5.5: Schematic diagram of bonding of
holes in the valence band. GaAs with (a) Se and (b) Zn impurities

Diode Characteristics: p- and n-Layer

Doping & Carrier Mobility in LEDs (contd):
Doping Challenges:
 p-Doping is less efficient (higher ionization energy).
 Impurity contamination (e.g., oxygen in AlGaAs, hydrogen passivation in
nitrides) requires post-annealing.
 Site mismatch issues (e.g., Mg in GaN needs Low Energy Electron Beam
Irradiation (LEEBI) to enhance hole concentration).
Carrier Mobility & Resistance Trade-Off:
 Electron mobility > Hole mobility in III–V compounds (e.g. GaAs: μn = 5000
cm²/V-s, μp = 300 cm²/V-s).
 Higher doping → Lower mobility due to impurity scattering.
 Reducing resistance: Increasing carrier concentration compensates for lower
mobility.

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Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

 In this section, describes two important parameters of the depletion region, the
built-in voltage and the depletion width.
 The built-in voltage originates from the band bending in the depletion region.
 On the other hand, in the p- and n-layers, the band is still flat.
 Assuming that the acceptors and donors are fully ionized, the hole and electron
concentrations can be represented as:
𝐸i − 𝐸Fp 𝐸Fn − 𝐸i
𝑝 = 𝑛i exp = 𝑁A 𝑛 = 𝑛i exp = 𝑁D
𝑘 𝑇 Τ𝑞 𝑘 𝑇 Τ𝑞

where p and n are hole and electron concentrations far away from the
depletion region, respectively.
ni is the intrinsic concentration.
Ei, EFp, and EFn are the Fermi energies of intrinsic, p-doped, and n-doped
layers respectively, in units of eV.

Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Flat Fermi Level:
 In equilibrium (no external bias), the Fermi level
(EF) remains constant throughout the junction.
 However, the conduction band (EC) and valence
band (EV) are at different energy levels in the p-
type and n-type regions.
Band Bending:
 Due to the difference in carrier concentrations, the
bands bend to maintain thermal equilibrium. Figure 5.4: Band diagram of a p–n
 The conduction and valence bands shift relative to junction under thermal equilibrium
the Fermi level on both sides.

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Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Electrostatic Potential (ψp & ψn):
 ψp (in p-region) and ψn (in n-region) represent the electrostatic potential in each
region.
 The potential difference between these regions defines the built-in voltage:
𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝑘𝑇 𝑁
Vbi=ψn−ψp ; 𝜓P = − 𝐸i − 𝐸Fp = −
𝑞
ln A
𝑛i
and 𝜓n = − 𝐸i − 𝐸Fn =
𝑞
ln D
𝑛i

 Therefore; the built-in voltage depends on the acceptor (NA​) and donor (ND)
concentrations:
𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝑁
𝑉bi = 𝜓n − 𝜓p = 𝑞
ln A𝑛2 D ……eq. (1)
i
where, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, and ni is the
intrinsic carrier concentration.
 This built-in potential prevents further diffusion of majority carriers.

Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Effect of Increased Doping:
 Higher dopant concentrations increase built-in voltage (Vbi).
 In LEDs, heavily doped p–n layers reduce resistance and power consumption.
 The Fermi levels in the p- and n-layers shift close to the valence and conduction
bands, respectively.
Forward Bias Condition:
 Applying a voltage V >Vbi reverses the band bending.
 Holes and electrons move freely across the junction, leading to exponential
current increase.
Electrostatic Theory:
𝜌
 Gauss's Law: 𝛻 ⋅ 𝜀𝐸 = 𝜌 and Poisson's Equation: 𝛻 2 𝑉 = − 𝜀
where 𝐸 = Electric field, 𝜖 = Permittivity, 𝜌 = Charge density.

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Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Electric Field Distribution:
 Charge distribution in depletion region:
−𝑞𝑁𝐴 , −𝑥𝑝 < 𝑥 < 0
𝜌(𝑥) = ቊ
+𝑞𝑁𝐷 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑥𝑛

 Maximum Electric Field at the junction:

𝑞 𝑞
𝐸max = 𝜖 𝑁𝐷 𝑥𝑛 = 𝜖 𝑁𝐴 𝑥𝑝
 Total depletion width : 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑊
 The built-in voltage can be given by:
𝑉bi = (1/2)𝐸max 𝑊
or by solving for 𝑊 using above eq. : Figure 5.6: Charge density, electric field and
2𝜀 𝑁A + 𝑁D voltage distribution of an LED under thermal
𝑊= 𝑉bi equilibrium
𝑞 𝑁A 𝑁𝐷

Diode Characteristics: Depletion Region

Effect of Bias on Depletion Region:
 Forward Bias (𝑽) :
 𝑉𝑏𝑖 is reduced to (𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉).
 Depletion width narrows, making carrier movement easier → high current
density.
 Reverse Bias:
 𝑉𝑏𝑖 is increased to (𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉).
 Depletion width increases, blocking carrier flow.
 This causes rectification, allowing current flow in one direction only.

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Diode Characteristics: J–V Characteristics

 Carrier transport in a semiconductor can be divided into carrier diffusion and drift.
 Diffusion means that carriers move from high to low concentration regions.
 Drift current means carrier transport driven by an electric field.
 The total current density is the sum of the electron and hole contributions. Take
the hole current density Jp. This can be described by the expressions:
𝐽p = 𝐽p,diff + 𝐽p,drift

𝐽p,diff = 𝑞Dp (d pΤd 𝑥 ൯

𝐽P,drift = P𝑞𝜇p E
where Jp,diff and Jp,drift are the hole diffusion and drift current densities,
respectively. Dp is called the diffusivity; μp is the hole mobility.

 The hole mobility defined as the velocity (in terms of cm/s) over the electric field (V/cm).

Diode Characteristics: J–V Characteristics

Thermal Equilibrium:
 Hole diffusion (p → n) is balanced by hole
drift (n → p) due to E-field.
 No drift current outside the depletion region
(flat bands).
(a)

Forward Bias Effect:

 Reduces energy band offset q(Vbi−V).
 Diffusion current dominates as carrier
barrier decreases.
 Net current flows from p to n region. (b)
Figure 5.7 Band diagram of a LED under
(a) thermal equilibrium and (b) forward bias

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Diode Characteristics: J–V Characteristics

Carrier Distribution in LED under Forward Bias:
 Minority carrier concentrations (pn, np​) increase near depletion boundary.
 Leads to diffusion current in both layers.
Current Density (J) Approximation:
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛 𝑞 𝑉−𝑉𝑏𝑖
J=𝑞 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁 exp
𝜏𝑝 𝜏𝑛 𝐷 𝑘𝑇

where 𝜏𝑛 , 𝜏𝑝 = minority carrier lifetimes.

 Exponential current increases when 𝑉 > 𝑉𝑏𝑖 .

Threshold Voltage & Photon Emission:

 𝑉𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 ≈ 𝐸𝑔 /𝑞 (energy gap determines LED color). Figure 5.8: Carrier distribution
 The LED emits a photon at a wavelength 𝜆 = ℎ𝑐/𝐸𝑔 under forward bias

Diode Characteristics:
Heterojunction Structures in LEDs
Homojunction LED:
 Uses a single material with a fixed bandgap.
 Recombination zone depends on depletion region width.

Heterojunction LED:
 Composed of different bandgap materials.
 Carrier confinement in the active region enhances recombination efficiency
(IQE increase).

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Diode Characteristics:
Heterojunction Structures in LEDs
Single Heterojunction (SH) LED
 p-layer has a smaller bandgap than the n-layer.
 Band offset effects:
 ΔEv (valence band offset) blocks hole
flow into the n-region.
 ΔEc (conduction band offset) traps
electrons, forming an energy well.
 High carrier concentration near the SH interface
Figure 5.9: Band structures of single-
→ enhanced recombination. heterojunction LEDs

Diode Characteristics:
Heterojunction Structures in LEDs
Double Heterojunction (DH) LED
 Active layer (smallest bandgap) is sandwiched
between two wide-bandgap cladding layers.
 Carrier confinement further increases
recombination rate. Figure 5.15: Band structures of
 Electron Blocking Layer (EBL) prevents double-heterojunction LEDs

electron leakage into the p-side due to higher

electron mobility (μn ≫ μp).

Figure 5.10: Band structures of LED with EBL

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Diode Characteristics:
Quantum-Well, -Wire, and -Dot Structures in LEDs
Quantum Well (QW) LEDs:
 Thin low-bandgap layer (< 20nm) in the active
region defines the emission zone.
 Higher recombination rate (localized electron-hole
interactions).
 Reduces reabsorption probability due to small
bandgap & thin layer.
 Forms quantized energy levels due to layer being Figure 5.11: Band diagram of a
QW structure
smaller than electron/hole de Broglie wavelength.
 Precise emission wavelength tuning by adjusting
QW composition & thickness control.
 Strained layers possible without relaxation due to
ultra-thin nature.

Diode Characteristics:
Quantum-Well, -Wire, and -Dot Structures in LEDs (contd):
Quantum Wires & Quantum Dots (QD):
 Quantum Wires: Carrier confinement in
one dimension (1D).

 Quantum Dots: Carrier confinement in zero

dimensions (0D) → Discrete energy levels.
 Higher recombination efficiency due to
stronger quantum confinement.
 QD formation in nitrides can occur
spontaneously due to In-cluster fluctuations.
 More difficult fabrication (requires high-
resolution patterning & epitaxial regrowth). Figure 5.12: Structures of (a) Quantum Well,
(b) Quantum Wire, and (c) Quantum Dot.

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Light-Emitting Characteristics
Radiative & Non-Radiative Recombination in LEDs
 In Radiative recombination, electron-hole pair emits photons (desired for LEDs).
 In Non-radiative recombination, energy lost due to defects → reduces efficiency.
 Minimizing non-radiative losses:
 High-quality epitaxial layers to reduce defects.
 Annealing to repair damage from fabrication & improves efficiency.
Recombination Process & Light Output:
 Langevin recombination rate ∝ (electron & hole concentrations).
 Injection current & light output follow a near-linear relationship under certain
conditions.
 Emission spectrum depends on DOS (Density of States) in bulk, Quantum Well
(QW), Quantum Wire, Quantum Dot (QD) structures.
 Carrier distribution affects wavelength & spectral width (FWHM).

Light-Emitting Characteristics
Photon Extraction Challenges:
 Total Internal Reflection (TIR): Limits light escape due to high refractive index
(n > 3).
 GaAs substrate absorption in III-P LEDs further reduces efficiency.

Recombination Model
 Radiative Recombination in LEDs involves electrons & holes meeting in the
spatial domain.
 Emission occurs, when carriers recombine and release energy as photons.
 Two-particle process governed by the Langevin formula: 𝑅rad = 𝑟rad 𝑛𝑝
where 𝑅rad is the radiative recombination rate;
n and p are electron and hole concentrations, respectively and
rrad is called the bimolecular recombination coefficient.

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Light-Emitting Characteristics: Recombination Model (contd.)

 When the semiconductor is excited, electrons moves from valance band to the
conduction band, creating holes in the valence band.
 Excess carriers: Equal number of excited electrons & holes → Δ𝑛 = Δ𝑝.
Where Δ𝑛 and Δ𝑝 are excess electron and hole concentrations, respectively.
 For a p-type semiconductor: Majority carriers are holes under thermal
equilibrium, hence: 𝑝0 ≫ 𝑛0 ;
Where 𝑝0 and 𝑛0 are the hole and electron concentrations under thermal
equilibrium, respectively.
Low-Level Excitation ( 𝜟𝒑 ≪ 𝒑𝟎 ) case:
 Radiative recombination rate: 𝑅rad = 𝑟rad 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑟rad 𝑛 𝑝0 + Δ𝑝 ∼ 𝑟rad𝑛𝑝0 = 𝑛/𝜏rad

 Radiative lifetime: 𝜏rad = 1/𝑟rad 𝑝0

 Higher doping →Shorter radiative lifetime → faster recombination.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Recombination Model (contd.)

Non-Radiative Recombination & SRH Theory
 Non-Radiative Recombination:
 Energy relaxation via phonons (lattice vibrations), no light emission.
 Main cause: Defects in the crystal structure introduce trap states in the
bandgap.
 Trap-mediated transitions:
 Electrons/holes jump between bands
via phonons or photons.
Figure 5.13: Non-radiative
 Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH) Recombination: recombination via deep-level traps

 Electrons & holes captured by traps → Recombination occurs.

 Shallow traps: Easily capture electrons, but holes recombine slowly.
 Deep traps (mid-gap): Higher recombination rate, affecting minority carrier
lifetime.

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Light-Emitting Characteristics: Recombination Model (contd.)

Minority Carrier Lifetime & Recombination Rate:
 Non-radiative recombination rate: 𝑅non−rad = 𝑛/𝜏non−rad .
 Total recombination rate:

1 1 𝑛
𝑅 = 𝑅rad + 𝑅non−rad = 𝜏
+𝜏 𝑛= 𝜏
rad non−rad

where 𝑅rad , 𝜏rad and 𝜏non−rad are the radiative recombination rate,
radiative lifetime and the non-radiative lifetime, respectively.
 Minority carrier lifetime: 𝜏 represents the combined effect of radiative &
non-radiative recombination.
 Minority carrier lifetime (𝜏 ) depends on defect density & doping.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: L-J Characteristics

Carrier Continuity Equation
 Describes change in carrier concentration under electrical & optical excitation.
 For electron concentration in a p-type semiconductor under low injection:
𝜕𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽𝑒 𝑛
= + 𝐺0 + 𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑡 −
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏

where 𝑞 = Electron charge; 𝐽𝑒 = Electron current density; 𝜏 = Carrier lifetime;

𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑡 = Excess generation rate from optical excitation and
𝐺0 = Thermal equilibrium generation rate = recombination rate (𝑅0 = 𝑛0 /𝜏 )
 Rewriting the equation in terms of excess carrier concentration (Δ𝑛) :
𝜕Δ𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽𝑒 Δ𝑛
= + 𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑡 −
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏
 It shows how external excitation and current flow affect carrier concentration
over time.

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Light-Emitting Characteristics: L-J Characteristics (contd.)

Steady-State Electrical Pumping in LEDs
 Under steady-state conditions, the continuity equation simplifies to:
1 𝜕𝐽𝑒 Δ𝑛
0= −
𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏

Optical Power Emission in LEDs

 Optical power output ( 𝑃out ) is given by:
Δ𝑛
𝑃out = 𝜂ext 𝑃generated = 𝜂ext ℎ𝜈𝐴 ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑

Where 𝜂ext = Photon extraction efficiency; 𝑃generated = Power generated inside the
LED; ℎ𝜈 = Photon energy; and 𝐴 = Device cross-section area.
 By substituting the relation for 𝐽𝑒 , the equation simplifies to:
ℎ𝜈𝐴 𝜏
𝑃out = 𝜂ext 𝐽𝑒 ( in ) − 𝐽𝑒 ( out )
𝑞 𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑

Light-Emitting Characteristics: L-J Characteristics (contd.)

Impact of Carrier Recombination
 If all injected electrons recombine with an equal number of holes, the equation
simplifies further:
ℎ𝜈 𝜏
𝑃out = 𝜂ext 𝐼
𝑞 𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑
where I (= J*A) is electrical current.
Key Insight: Optical power output is proportional to the electrical current.

Methods to Enhance Optical Power Output

 Increase extraction efficiency 𝜂ext
 Use wide-bandgap materials (higher photon energy, ℎ𝜈 )
 Reduce radiative recombination lifetime (smaller 𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑 )

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Light-Emitting Characteristics: L-J Characteristics (contd.)

Challenges & Solutions for Light Extraction
 Total internal reflection at the semiconductor-air
interface limits efficiency (governed by Snell’s law).

Figure 5.14: Light escape cone of

LED due to the total internal reflection
 Solutions to improve light extraction:
 Corrugated structures: Disrupt planar geometry to enhance light
coupling.
 Die shaping: Redirects light out of the LED.
 Epoxy dome & reflector: Protects the LED and enhances extraction
efficiency.
 Transparent substrates: Replacing optically absorbing GaAs substrates
improves output in group III–P material systems.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Spectral Characteristics

Emission Wavelength of an LED is determined by:
 Product of Density of States (DOS) and number of carriers at each energy level.
 DOS (Density of States):
 Represents the number of available recombination states at a given
energy.
 In a bulk semiconductor, DOS increases from zero at the band edge as
energy increases.
 Carrier Distribution: Decreases exponentially as energy increases.

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Light-Emitting Characteristics: Spectral Characteristics (contd.)

Emission Spectrum Characteristics
 Emission Peak Wavelength: Slightly
shorter than the bandgap wavelength.

 Spectrum Asymmetry:
 Long-wavelength side: Sharp cutoff
due to forbidden states within the
bandgap.
 Short-wavelength side: Smooth tail due
to the exponential carrier distribution. Figure 5.15: Emission spectrum from a LED

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Spectral Characteristics (contd.)

Quantum Well (QW) and Quantum Dot (QD) Structures
 Energy Quantization: Alters the DOS compared to
bulk semiconductors.
 DOS Behaviour:
 Bulk Semiconductor: Continuous increase.
 Quantum Well (QW): Step-function DOS.
 Quantum Dot (QD): Delta-function DOS
(discrete energy levels).
Figure 5.16: DOS of bulk,
 Impact on Emission Spectrum: QW and QD structures
 Narrower Full Width at Half Maximum
(FWHM).
 Wider color gamut (useful for display
applications).

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Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop

Light Output and Current Density
 Light output increases linearly with rising current density as per equation:
ℎ𝜈 𝜏
𝑃out = 𝜂ext 𝐼
𝑞 𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑
 Theoretically, a small LED could achieve high light output by increasing
current indefinitely, but practical limitations exist.
Limitations of High Current Density
 Increased current density raises temperature, reducing LED efficiency.
 Even without temperature effects, efficiency drops at high optical power levels
(e.g., III-N LEDs for general lighting).
 External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) initially rises with current but later
declines. This is the "droop effect”.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop (contd.)

 External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) initially
rises with current but later declines. This is the
"droop effect" (Figure 5.17(a)).

Types of Droop
 Temperature Droop: EQE decreases as
(a)
temperature increases.

 Current Droop: At fixed temperatures,

EQE rises sharply at first but gradually
declines at high current densities.
(b)
Figure 5.17: (a) EQE versus electrical current
for the LED at different temperatures.
(b) Schematic diagram of Auger recombination.

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Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop (contd.)

Carrier Density and Recombination
 At high current densities, excess carrier density surpasses majority carrier
density.
 Recombination rate equation modifies to: 𝑅rad = 𝑟rad𝑛𝑝 = 𝑟rad𝑛 𝑝0 + Δ𝑝 ≈ 𝑟rad 𝑛(Δ𝑝)

𝑅rad ≈ 𝑟rad 𝑛2
Auger Recombination: A multi-electron process observed in semiconductors.
 Energy transfer occurs when an electron relaxes from conduction to valence
band, boosting another electron to a higher energy level (hot electron).
 Energy and momentum conservation require three carriers: an electron, a hole,
and a second electron.
 Under high current conditions, total recombination rate follows:
𝑅rad = 𝐴𝑛 + 𝐵𝑛2 + 𝐶𝑛3 ; where A, Bn, and 𝐶𝑛2 represents
the rates of SRH recombination, radiative recombination, and Auger recombination.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop (contd.)

Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE) Formula:
𝐵𝑛2 𝐵
IQE = 𝐴𝑛+𝐵𝑛2 +𝐶𝑛3 = 𝐴/𝑛+𝐵+𝐶𝑛

 At low current density (small 𝑛 ), SRH recombination dominates, increasing

IQE.
 At high current density (large 𝑛 ), Auger recombination reduces efficiency.
Factors Contributing to Efficiency Droop:
 Electron Leakage: Electrons overflow from the quantum well (QW) region to
the p-side.
 Current Density Distribution: Uneven current flow worsens droop in high-
density regions.

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Light-Emitting Characteristics: Efficiency Droop (contd.)

Strategies to Reduce Efficiency Droop:
1. Lower Current Density in the active region (increase QW thickness and
number).
2. Prevent Electron Leakage with:
 Optimized Electron Blocking Layer (EBL) and improved hole injection.
 Controlled polarization in epi-layers to confine carriers efficiently.
3. Improve Current Spreading to avoid carrier crowding in the lateral direction.

Light-Emitting Characteristics: Device Fabrication

LED Fabrication Process
Epitaxial Growth on a Crystalline Substrate
 Grown on a crystalline substrate using techniques like LPE, VPE, and MOCVD.
 LPE (Liquid Phase Epitaxy): Simple, cost-effective, but limited to lattice-
matched compositions; struggles with thin layers.
 VPE (Vapor Phase Epitaxy): More flexibility in alloy composition;
includes chloride, hydride, and organometallic sub-types.
 MOCVD (Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition): A common VPE
method for precise layer thickness, composition, and doping.
Fabrication of p–n Junction
 Simpler than laser diodes or transistors.
 Requires proper electrode materials, annealing for ohmic contacts, and low serial
resistance.

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Light-Emitting Characteristics: Device Fabrication

LED Fabrication Process (contd.)
Light Extraction & Efficiency Improvements
 Escape Cone Design: Allows light emission from bottom, top, and side walls.
 Chip Shaping & Surface Engineering: Prevents waveguiding light loss.
 Epoxy Encapsulation:
 High refractive index increases critical angle for better light extraction.
 Curved shape improves transition from epoxy to air.

Packaging Process
 Protects LED chips.
 Also; it enhances light extraction, and improves thermal dissipation for high-
power applications.

LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth

Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE) for LED Production
 LPE Process: Uses high-temperature solvent (molten
metal or salt) with different saturated solutions for layer
growth.
 Growth Mechanism: GaAs substrate contacts different
melts, and layers grow under thermal equilibrium as
temperature decreases.
 Control Factors: Layer thickness depends on temperature
difference and contact time; oxidation must be minimized
Figure 5.18: Schematic
during melt transfers. diagram of LPE system.
 Advantages & Limitations: High growth rate (up to 2
μm/min) suits mass production but struggles with thin layer
growth, like quantum wells

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LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth (contd.)

Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE) for LED Growth
 Uses gas sources instead of liquid sources.
 Allows better control over thickness, doping, and multilayer growth.
Types of VPE: distinguished by source materials.

1. Chloride VPE: Uses solid group III sources and gaseous group V sources.
 Chemical reactions shift equilibrium to deposit epitaxial layers.

2. Hydride VPE: Uses gaseous AsH₃ and PH₃ for group V elements.
 More flexible than chloride VPE but involves toxic gases (arsine &
phosphine).

LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth (contd.)

Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE) for LED Growth

Figure 5.19: Schematic diagram of (a) chloride and (b) hydride VPE systems
Advantages:
 Hydride VPE offers more flexibility
 Precise composition and thickness control.
 More flexible than LPE, especially for multilayer growth.
Drawbacks: it involves toxic gases (arsine, phosphine).

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LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth (contd.)

MOCVD (Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition) in LED Fabrication
 MOCVD : Uses metal alkyls (liquids/waxy solids) and hydrides as sources.
 Controlled gas flow allows precise composition and thickness control.
 Enables abrupt junctions, quantum structures, and varied emission wavelengths.
 Growth is non-equilibrium, offering more flexibility but low growth rates
(0.1–10 μm/h).

Figure 5.20: Schematic diagram of MOCVD systems

LED Fabrication Process: Epitaxial Growth (contd.)

MOCVD in LED Fabrication (contd.)
Challenges: High dislocation density (~10⁸ cm⁻²) in
nitride-based materials.
Solutions: Two-flow MOCVD system (horizontal &
vertical gas flow) reduces dislocations.
 Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth (ELOG):
 Uses a patterned rod morphology to (a)

improve film quality.

 Lowers dislocation density (<10⁷ cm⁻²)
but requires extra processing.
 Patterned Sapphire Substrate (PSS):
 Pre-patterned sapphire substrate enhances
lateral growth. (b)
Figure 5.21: (a) Two-flow MOCVD
 Improves film quality and light extraction. systems, and (b) gas flow in this system

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LED Fabrication Process:

Process Flow and Device Structure Design
 Figure 5.22(a), (b) shows typical device
structures of III–P and III–N LEDs,
respectively.
LED Electrode Design and Efficiency
 Carrier Injection & Light Emission:
 Electrons and holes recombine in the
active region, generating photons.
 III–P LEDs emit light from the top,
while III–N LEDs emit from top and (a) (b)
sides. Figure 5.22: Device structures of (a) III-P and
(b) III-N LEDs

LED Fabrication Process:

Process Flow and Device Structure Design
LED Electrode Design and Efficiency (contd.)
Material Choices for Ohmic Contacts:
 III–V (AlInGaP, AlGaAs) LEDs:
 n-type contacts: Au–Ge alloy
 p-type contacts: Au–Zn or Au–Be alloy
 Heavy doping improves conductivity.

 Nitride LEDs (GaN-based):

 n-type contacts: Ti/Al (TiN formation aids conduction).
 p-type contacts: Ni/Au (reduces Schottky barrier).
 Achieving heavily doped p-type layers is difficult.

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LED Fabrication Process:

Process Flow and Device Structure Design
Current Spreading Techniques:
 Challenges:
 Non-uniform hole distribution lowers recombination efficiency.
 Recombination mostly occurs under the opaque metal, blocking light.
 Solutions:
 Increase p-cladding thickness (better current flow, but increases resistance).
 Finger electrode patterns for improved current spreading.
 Transparent/semi-transparent electrodes (e.g., ITO, Ni/Au, Pt) for better
light extraction.
 III–P LEDs need thin GaAs cladding to reduce visible light absorption.

LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Challenges in Light Extraction
 Limited by internal reflection at semiconductor boundaries.
 Photons in III–P devices may be absorbed by the GaAs substrate.
 Metal electrodes can impede light output.

Methods to Enhance Light Extraction:

1. Optimizing Device Shape: Redesigning the LED geometry redirects light for
better extraction.
2. Using Non-Planar Structures: Helps couple out waveguided modes.
3. Package Design Improvements:
 Increases critical angle.
 Redirects light more efficiently.

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LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Methods to Enhance Light Extraction (contd.):
4. Using a Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR):
 Reflects light back into the LED, preventing substrate absorption.
 Acts as a wavelength selector, but adds cost and complexity.
5. Fabricating Transparent Substrates: Prevents photon absorption compared
to traditional GaAs substrates.
Critical Angle & Escape Cone:
 Defined by Snell's Law: Light escapes if emitted within a specific angle.
 For standard materials with refractive indices: Semiconductor (𝑛 ≈ 3.5) and
epoxy resin packaging material (𝑛 ≈ 1.5), the critical angle (θc) is ≈ 25.38°.
 If the substrate absorbs light, the downward escape cone is lost, reducing
efficiency.

LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Enhancing Light Extraction in III–P/GaAs
 Cladding Layer & Substrate:
 Transparent GaP is used for upper
cladding and substrate.
 MOCVD limits cladding thickness to
15 μm, insufficient for full side cone
extraction.
 VPE growth can add an upper
cladding layer up to 50 μm. Figure 5.23: (a) Absorbing substrate with a thin cladding
layer which has one full (upward) plus four partial
 GaAs substrate can be removed via (sidewall) escape-cones, and
etching and replaced with GaP using (b) Transparent substrate with thick cladding layers
which has six large escape-cones.
high-temperature annealing.

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LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Enhancing Light Extraction in III-Nitride LEDs
 Challenges:
 Difficulties in doping technology make thick cladding impractical.
 Internal absorption losses in the active layer reduce emitted light before it
escapes.
 Metal mesh electrodes improve conductivity but block light emission.

LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Enhancing Light Extraction in III-Nitride LEDs
 Flip-Chip Structure:
 Inverted design emits light through
transparent sapphire substrate.
 Improves both conductivity & extraction
efficiency.
 Refractive index difference (GaN: 2.45,
Sapphire: 1.78) leads to total internal
reflection.
 Patterned Sapphire Substrate (PSS)
redirects light to enhance extraction.
Figure 5.24: (a) Mesh electrode providing a metallic
current spreading layer, (b) flip-chip III-nitride LEDs

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LED Fabrication Process:

Light Extraction Efficiency Improvement in LEDs
Enhancing Light Extraction with Structural Modifications
1. Edge Facets & Die Shape Adjustments:
 Side cones extract more light than expected due to imperfect planar
structures.
 Trapezoidal die structures reflect sidewall emission upwards, increasing
efficiency.
2. Reducing Total Internal Reflection:
 Surface roughening causes light scattering instead of reflection.
 Photonic micro- & nanostructures enable diffraction/plasmonic coupling
for better light extraction.
 Processing, cost, and layout remain challenges for integrating advanced
structures.

LED Fabrication Process: Packaging

Main Functions of LED Packaging
1. Protection : Shields LED and electrodes from mechanical and environmental
damage.
2. Improving Optical Extraction Efficiency
 Reflector cup redirects emitted light upwards.
 Epoxy encapsulation designed in hemisphere shape to enhance light extraction.
 High refractive index epoxy (1.5–1.8) minimizes internal reflection losses at
semiconductor-epoxy interface.
3. Heat Dissipation for High-Power LEDs
 Increased current → Higher temperature → Lower efficiency & red-shifted
emission.
 Thermal resistance of packaging must be optimized for high-power applications.
 Direct mounting on a heatsink improves heat dissipation.
 Silicone encapsulant preferred over epoxy due to better thermal stability.

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LED Fabrication Process: Packaging

Main Functions of LED Packaging (contd.)
1. Protection : Shields LED and
electrodes from mechanical and
environmental damage.

2. Optical Efficiency: Reflector cup

redirects light; epoxy encapsulation
enhances extraction.
Figure 5.25: Illustration of a packaged LED
3. Heat Dissipation: Heatsink &
silicone encapsulant improve thermal
management for high-power LEDs.

Applications of LEDs
 Early Applications (1960–1980)
 Limited to indicators, alphanumeric displays, and dot matrix displays.
 Used mainly in consumer products and industrial equipment.
 Emitted only long-wavelength colors (e.g., red) due to material limitations.
 Modern Applications:
 Improved efficiency & wavelength range allow broader applications:
1. Direct-View Displays: Traffic signals, signage, stadium screens—require
high efficiency & accurate color.
2. LCD Backlighting: Replaces CCFLs, offering Hg-free, high color gamut,
long life, and fast response.
3. General Lighting & Reflective Displays: Requires accurate color
rendering (high CRI) & efficiency balance.

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