Module 4 – Angle Modulation

BECE304L – Analog Communication

Systems

Dr. A. Christina Josephine Malathi

School of Electronics Engineering
Department of Communication Engineering
VIT University.

1
Syllabus

2
 Angle Modulation
• Angle Modulation is the process of varying angle of the high frequency
carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the low
frequency message signal

• Amplitude of the carrier signal is maintained constant

• Advantages:
• Noise immunity
• Improved SNR
• Improved system fidelity
• Efficient use of transmitted power

• Disadvantages:
• High bandwidth
• Less coverage area
• Transmitting and receiving circuits are complex
 Definition of angle Modulation
• Angle – Frequency and phase

• The angle modulated wave is mathematically expressed as

s(t)  Ac cos[i (t)]      (1)
• AC - Amplitude of the carrier signal
• θi(t) – Angle of modulated sinusoidal carrier

• If θi(t) increases monotonically with time over an interval range from t

to (t+Δt), the average frequency is given as

i (t  t) i (t)      (2)

f f (t) 
2t
 Definition of angle Modulation
• The instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated signal is
1 di (t)
f i (t)       (3)
2 dt
• The angle modulated signal is interpreted as a rotating phasor of
length Ac and angle θi(t)

• The angular velocity of phasor is dθi(t)/dt rad/s

• The angle θi(t) of an unmodulated carrier is

i (t)  2fct  c      (4)

• The corresponding phasor rotates with a constant angular velocity

of 2πfc and the constant Фc is the value of θi(t) at t=0
Types of Angle modulation
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Phase Modulation is the process of varying phase angle of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the low frequency message signal

• θi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

i (t)  2fct  k p m(t)      (5)
• Where kp is the phase sensitivity of the modulator (rad/v)

• The phase modulated signal is given as

 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Phase Modulation is the process of varying phase angle of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the low frequency message signal

• θi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

i (t)  2fct  k p m(t)      (5)
• Where kp is the phase sensitivity of the modulator (rad/v)

• The phase modulated signal is given as

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct  k p m(t)]      (6)
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Phase Modulation is the process of varying phase angle of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the low frequency message signal

• θi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

i (t)  2fct  k p m(t)      (5)
• Where kp is the phase sensitivity of the modulator (rad/v)

• The phase modulated signal is given as

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct  k p m(t)]      (6)
s(t)  Ac cos[2fct  m p cosmt]      (7)
• Modulation index(mp) or Phase deviation(Δθ) m p k pAm (rad )
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying frequency of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the low frequency message signal

• fi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

fi (t)  fc  k f m(t)      (8)
• Where kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hz/v)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying frequency of the high
frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the low frequency message signal

• fi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)

fi (t)  fc  k f m(t)      (8)
• Where kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hz/v)

• Integrating Eq.(8) w.r.t to time and multiplying the result by 2π, we get
i (t)  2   fi (t)dt
 Frequency Modulation (FM)

• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying frequency of the high

frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the low frequency message signal
• fi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)
fi (t)  fc  k f m(t)      (8)
• Where kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hz/v)
• Integrating Eq.(8) w.r.t to time and multiplying the result by 2π, we get
i (t)  2   fi (t)dt
t

i (t)  2fct  2k f  m( )d      (9)

0
• The frequency modulated signal in time domain is given as
 Frequency Modulation (FM)

• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying frequency of the high

frequency carrier signal inaccordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the low frequency message signal
• fi(t) is varied linearly with respect to the message signal m(t)
fi (t)  fc  k f m(t)      (8)
• Where kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hz/v)
• Integrating Eq.(8) w.r.t to time and multiplying the result by 2π, we get
i (t)  2   fi (t)dt
t

i (t)  2fct  2k f  m( )d      (9)

0
• The frequency modulated signal in time domain is given as
t

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct  2k f  m( )d ]      (10)

0
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message signal
•The frequency modulated signal in time
domain is given as
• t

• s(t)  Ac cos[2fct  2k f  m( )d ]      (1)

• 0

•The above equation is nonlinear function of

message signal
•The analysis of FM signal is much more
difficult than AM signal
•Consider a sinusoidal message signal
defined as
Frequency modulation by single frequency message signal

• The frequency modulated signal in time domain is given as

t

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct  2k f  m( )d ]      (1)

0

• The above equation is nonlinear function of message signal

• The analysis of FM signal is much more difficult than AM signal
• Consider a sinusoidal message signal defined as
m(t)  Am cos 2fmt      (2)
• The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is given as
Frequency modulation by single frequency message signal

• The frequency modulated signal in time domain is given as

t

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct  2k f  m( )d ]      (1)

0

• The above equation is nonlinear function of message signal

• The analysis of FM signal is much more difficult than AM signal
• Consider a sinusoidal message signal defined as
m(t)  Am cos 2fmt      (2)
• The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is given as
fi (t)  fc  k f Am cos 2fmt
fi (t)  fc  f cos 2fmt      (3)
FrequencyDeviation f  k f Am (Hz)
 Frequency modulation by single frequency message signal

• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as

 Frequency modulation by single frequency message signal

• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as

i (t)  2   fi (t)dt
Frequency modulation by single frequency message signal

• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as

i (t)  2   fi (t)dt

i (t)  2fc t  f sin 2fmt      (4)

fm
Frequency modulation by single frequency message signal

• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as

i (t)  2   fi (t)dt

i (t)  2fc t  f sin 2fmt      (4)

fm
• The modulation index is defined as
  f
fm
i (t)  2fct   sin 2fmt      (5)
• The FM signal is given as
Frequency modulation by single frequency message signal

• Using Eq.(3), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is given as

i (t)  2   fi (t)dt

i (t)  2fc t  f sin 2fmt      (4)

fm

• The modulation index is defined as

  f
fm
i (t)  2fct   sin 2fmt      (5)
• The FM signal is given as
VFM (t)  Ac cos[2fct   sin 2fmt]      (6)
Generation of FM using phase modulator
Generation of PM using frequency modulator
Waveform of FM and PM signal
 Types of FM

• Narrow Band FM (NBFM)

• Modulation index is small (β<<1)

• Frequency deviation is small( ≈ 20 Hz)

• Wide Band FM (WBFM)

• Modulation index is large (β>>1)

• Frequency deviation is large ( ≈ 75 kHz)
 Narrow Band FM

• The FM signal is defined as

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct   sin 2fmt]      (1)
• Expanding Eq.(1), we get (cos(a+b)=cosacosb-sinasinb)
 Narrow Band FM

• The FM signal is defined as

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct   sin 2fmt]      (1)
• Expanding Eq.(1), we get
s(t)  Ac cos 2fct cos[ sin 2fmt]  Ac sin 2fct sin[ sin 2fmt]    (2)
• As modulation index β is small, we may use the following
approximations:
 Narrow Band FM

• The FM signal is defined as

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct   sin 2fmt]      (1)
• Expanding Eq.(1), we get
s(t)  Ac cos 2fct cos[ sin 2fmt]  Ac sin 2fct sin[ sin 2fmt]    (2)
• As modulation index β is small, we may use the following
approximations: cos[ sin 2f t]  1
m
sin[ sin 2fmt]   sin 2fmt
• Now Eq.(2) becomes
 Narrow Band FM

• The FM signal is defined as

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct   sin 2fmt]      (1)
• Expanding Eq.(1), we get
s(t)  Ac cos 2fct cos[ sin 2fmt]  Ac sin 2fct sin[ sin 2fmt]    (2)
• As modulation index β is small, we may use the following
approximations: cos[ sin 2f t]  1
m
sin[ sin 2fmt]   sin 2fmt
• Now Eq.(2) becomes
s(t)  Ac cos 2fct  Ac sin 2fct sin 2fmt    (3)
• Eq.(3) defines the approximate form of NBFM signal produced by
sinusoidal message signal
 Narrow Band FM

• Expanding Eq.(3), we get

s(t)  Ac cos 2f ct  1 Ac{cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ] cos[2 ( fc  f m )t]}   (4)
2
 Narrow Band FM

• Expanding Eq.(3), we get

s(t)  Ac cos 2f ct  1 Ac{cos[2 ( f c  f m )t]  cos[2 ( fc  f m )t]}   (4)
2
• The above equation is somewhat similar to AM signal
s(t)  Ac cos 2f c t  1 mAc{cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ] cos[2 ( fc  f m )t]}   (5)
2
 Narrow Band FM

• Expanding Eq.(3), we get

s(t)  Ac cos 2f ct  1 Ac{cos[2 ( f c  f m )t]  cos[2 ( fc  f m )t]}   (4)
2
• The above equation is somewhat similar to AM signal
s(t)  Ac cos 2f c t  1 mAc{cos[2 ( f c  f m )t]  cos[2 ( fc  f m )t]}   (5)
2

• The difference between the two signals is the algebric sign of the lower
side frequency in the narrow band FM is reversed

• The NBFM signal requires the same transmission bandwidth of the AM

signal (2fm)
Phasor diagram of NBFM and AM
 Phasor diagram of NBFM and AM

• In NBFM, the resultant phasor has same amplitude of the carrier

phasor but out of phase w.r.t it

• In AM, the resultant phasor has different amplitude of the carrier phasor
but always inphase w.r.t it
 Narrow Band FM
s(t)  Ac cos 2fct  Ac sin 2fct sin 2fmt    (3)

• Ideally FM signal contains constant envelope

• But here the FM signal produced differs from ideal condition
• The envelope contains a residual amplitude modulation and varies in time
• For a sinusoidal message signal, the angle θi(t) contains harmonic distortion in
the form of third and higher harmonics of fm
• By restricting   0.3 , the effect of residual AM and harmonic distortion
can be limited to negligible levels
 Wide Band FM

• The FM signal is defined as

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct   sin 2fmt]      (1)
• Eq.(1) is non-periodic unless the carrier signal frequency fc is an
integral multiple of the message signal frequency fm
• Assume the carrier signal frequency fc is large
• Rewriting Eq.(1) by using complex representation of band-pass signals,
we get
 Wide Band FM

• The FM signal is defined as

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct   sin 2fmt]      (1)
• Eq.(1) is non-periodic unless the carrier signal frequency fc is
an integral multiple of the message signal frequency fm
• Assume the carrier signal frequency fc is large
• Rewriting Eq.(1) by using complex representation of band-pass
signals, we get

s(t)  Re[ Ac exp( j2fct  j sin 2fmt)]

s (t) exp( j2fct)]    (2)

s(t)  Re[~
• where ~s(t) is the complex envelope of the FM signal defined as
 Wide Band FM
• The FM signal is defined as
• s(t)  Ac cos[2fct   sin 2fmt]      (1)
• Eq.(1) is non-periodic unless the carrier signal frequency fc is an
integral multiple of the message signal frequency fm
• Assume the carrier signal frequency fc is large, we get

• Rewriting Eq.(1) by using complex representation of band-pass signals,

s(t)  Re[ Ac exp( j2fct  j sin 2fmt)]
s(t)  Re[~s (t) exp( j2fct)]    (2)
• where ~s(t) is the complex envelope of the FM signal defined as
s (t)  A exp[ j sin 2fmt]    (3)
~

• ~s (t) is a periodic function of time with fundamental frequency f m

Wide Band FM
 Wide Band FM
s (t)  A exp[ j sin 2f t]    (3)
~
c m

• Expand ~s(t) in the form of complex Fourier series is given as


~s(t)  c n exp[ j2nfmt]    (4)
n

• Cn – Complex Fourier coefficient

 Wide Band FM
s (t)  A exp[ j sin 2f t]    (3)
~
c m

• Expand ~s(t) in the form of complex Fourier series is given as


~s(t)  c n exp[ j2nfmt]    (4)
n

• Cn – Complex Fourier coefficient

1
2 fm

cn  fm  ~s (t) exp( j2nf t)dt    (5)

1
m


2 fm

• Sub Eq.(3) in Eq.(5)

 Wide Band FM
s (t)  A exp[ j sin 2f t]    (3)
~
c m

• Expand ~s(t) in the form of complex Fourier series is given as


~s(t)  c n exp[ j2nfmt]    (4)
n

• Cn – Complex Fourier coefficient

1
2 fm

cn  fm  ~s (t) exp( j2nf t)dt    (5)

1
m


2 fm

• Sub Eq.(3) in Eq.(5)

1
2 fm

cn  Ac fm exp( j sin 2f t  j2nf t)dt    (6)

m m
1

2 fm
 Wide Band FM

• Define a new variable, x  2fmt,

dx  2fmdt
• Now the limits become
 Wide Band FM

• Define a new variable, x  2fmt,

dx  2fmdt
• Now the limits become
1
when t , x   ,
2 fm
1
when t ,x 
2 fm
• Rewrite Eq.(6),
 Wide Band FM

• Define a new variable, x  2fmt,

dx  2fmdt
• Now the limits become
1
when t , x   ,
2 fm
1
when t ,x 
2 fm
• Rewrite Eq.(6), 
Ac
2 
cn  exp[ j( sin x  nx)]dx    (7)

• The integral on the right side of the equation except the scaling factor is
recognized as nth order Bessel function of the 1st kind and argument β.
This function is defined by Jn(β)
 Wide Band FM
1 
2 
J n ( )  exp[ j( sin x  nx)]dx    (8)


• Now Eq.(7) is reduced to

 Wide Band FM
1 
2 
J n ( )  exp[ j( sin x  nx)]dx    (8)


• Now Eq.(7) is reduced to

cn  Ac J n ( )    (9)
• Sub Eq.(9) in Eq.(4)
 Wide Band FM
1 
2 
J n ( )  exp[ j( sin x  nx)]dx    (8)
 

• Now Eq.(7) is reduced to ~s(t)   c n exp[ j2nfmt]    (4)

cn  Ac J n ( )    (9) n

• Sub Eq.(9) in E~q.(4) 

~s (t)  A
c 
J n ( ) exp[ j2nf t]    (10)
n
m

• Sub Eq.(10) in Eq.(2)

s (t) exp( j2fct)]    (2)
s(t)  Re[~

s(t)  Ac .Re[  J n ( ) exp[ j2 ( fc  nfm )t]    (11)

n
 Wide Band FM
1 
2 
J n ( )  exp[ j( sin x  nx)]dx    (8)


• Now Eq.(7) is reduced to

cn  Ac J n ( )    (9)
• Sub Eq.(9) in E~q.(4) 
s (t)  Ac J ( ) exp[ j2nf t]    (10)

n
n m

• Sub Eq.(10) in Eq.(2)


s(t)  Ac .Re[  J n ( ) exp[ j2 ( fc  nfm )t]    (11)
n

• Interchanging the order of the summation and evaluation of the real

part in the R.H.S,
 Wide Band FM

s(t)  Ac J n ( ) cos[2 ( fc  nfm )t]    (12)
n

• Eq.(12) is the Fourier series representation of the single tone FM signal

for an arbitrary value of β

• By taking Fourier transform, Eq.(12) becomes

 Wide Band FM

s(t)  Ac J n ( ) cos[2 ( fc  nfm )t]    (12)
n

• Eq.(12) is the Fourier series representation of the single tone FM signal

for an arbitrary value of β

• By taking Fourier transform, Eq.(12) becomes


A
S( f )  c
2
J n ( )[ ( f  fc  nfm )   ( f  fc  nfm )]    (13)
n

Put 𝑛 = 0,
𝐴c
⟹𝑠 𝑓 = 𝐽0  𝛿 𝑓 —𝑓c + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓c
2
 Wide Band FM

Spectrum of WBFM:
Put 𝑛 = 1,
𝐴c
𝑠 𝑓 = 𝛿 𝑓 — 𝑓c + 𝑛𝑓m + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓c + 𝑛𝑓m
2 1 β
𝐽

Put 𝑛 = —1,
𝐴c
𝑠 𝑓 = 𝐽 β 𝛿 𝑓 — 𝑓c + 𝑛𝑓m + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓c + 𝑛𝑓m
2 –1

𝑠 (𝑓)
𝐴c 𝐴c
𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 0 2 0
𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c
2 𝐽–1 β 𝐽1 β 2 𝐽–1 β 𝐽 β
2 1
2

 fc  fm  fc  fc  fm 0 fc  fm fc fc  fm  f
Bessel function Jn(β) vs Modulation index β
 Properties of Bessel function J (β) n

1. J n ( )  (1)n J n ( )
for all values of n both positive and negative

2. For small values of β

J 0 ( )  1

J 1 ( )  
2
J n ( )  0, n  2

3. J 2
n ( )  1
n
Bessel table (n vs β)
 Observations from Bessel function analysis

• The spectrum of FM signal consists of a carrier component and an

infinite set of side frequencies locate symmetrically on either side of the
carrier at frequency separations of fm, 2fm, 3fm,…..

𝑠 (𝑓)
𝐴c 𝐴c
𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 0 2 0
𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c
2 𝐽–1 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 1 2 –1 2 1

 fc  fm  fc  fm  fm 0 fc  fm fc fc  fm  f
 Observations from Bessel function analysis

• The spectrum of FM signal consists of a carrier component and an

infinite set of side frequencies locate symmetrically on either side of the
carrier at frequency separations of fm, 2fm, 3fm,…..
• For small values of β less than unity, only the Bessel coefficients J0(β)
and J1(β) have significant values – Carrier and single pair of side
frequencies fc+/-fm – NBFM

𝑠 (𝑓)
𝐴c 𝐴c
𝐽 β 𝐽0 β
2 0 2
𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c
2 𝐽–1 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 1 2 –1 2 1

 fc  fm  fc  fm  fm 0 fc  fm fc fc  fm  f
 Observations from Bessel function analysis

• Unlike AM, the amplitude of the carrier component varies with β. The
average power of the FM signal can be determined as
1 2  2
P  Ac  J n ( )
2 n
1 2
P Ac
2
𝑠 (𝑓)
𝐴c 𝐴c
𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 0 2 0
𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c 𝐴c
2 𝐽–1 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β 𝐽 β
2 1 2 –1 2 1

 fc  fm  fc  fm  fm 0 fc  fm fc fc  fm  f
 Observations from Bessel function analysis

• Unlike AM, the amplitude of the carrier component varies with β. The
average power of the FM signal can be determined as
1 2  2
P  Ac  J n ( )
2 n
1 2
P Ac
2
𝐴C 2
Sideband power, 𝑃SB = 𝐽12 β + ⋯ + 𝐽n 2 β + 𝐽–1 2 β + ⋯ + 𝐽–n 2 β
2
𝐴C 2
2 2 2
= 2 𝐽1 β + ⋯ + 𝐽n β = 𝐴C 2 𝐽1 2 β + ⋯ + 𝐽n β
2

Total modulated power, 𝑃T = 𝑃C + 𝑃SB

 Transmission bandwidth of FM
signals
• Theoretically, an FM signal consists of infinite number of side
frequencies so the bandwidth required to transmit such signals is
infinite

• Practically, the FM signal is limited to finite number of side frequencies

with specified amount of distortion
 Carson’s rule

• Carson rule gives the approximate value of transmission bandwidth of

FM signal irrespective of the modulation index

BT  2f  2 f m  2f (1 1 )


 Transmission bandwidth of FM
signals
• Bandwidth in WBFM:
• WBFM contain  sidebands (spectral components).
• Max. theoretical bandwidth in WBFM =  (Max. Practical BW = 200 KHz
with 20 KHz guardbands).
• In WBFM, carrier power 𝑃C and sideband power 𝑃SB are dependent on
modulation index β.
• In WBFM, only significant sidebands are transmitted.
• A significant side band have amplitude  1% of unmodulated carrier
amplitude.
𝑆𝑓 𝐴c
2 𝐽0 β

1% of Ac 𝐽0 β
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 2

—𝑓c 𝑓c →𝑓
 Universal curve for evaluating the 1% bandwidth of FM wave
• Carson’s rule is simple to use, but it does not always provide a good estimate
of the bandwidth

• Define the transmission bandwidth as up to the band which is greater than

1% of the carrier amplitude.

• The transmission bandwidth is defined as

BT  2nmax fm

• nmax is the largest value of n that satisfies |Jn(β)>0.01|

• The value of n varies with the modulation index and can be determined
from the tabulated values of Bessel function
Universal curve for evaluating the 1% bandwidth of FM
wave
Bandwidth in WBFM:
1% Bandwidth:
In this method of BW measurement, the no. of spectral components included
in WBFM signal is such that the amplitude of last spectral components is at
least 1% amplitude of the carrier signal.

𝐴c
2 𝐽0 β

1% of Ac 𝐽0 β
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ 2

1% BW

• The transmission bandwidth is defined as

BT  2nmax fm
Universal curve for evaluating the 1% bandwidth of FM
wave
Bandwidth in WBFM:
1% Bandwidth:
In this method of BW measurement, the no. of spectral components included in WBFM
signal is such that the amplitude of last spectral components is at least 1% amplitude of
the carrier signal.
Bessel table (n vs β)
 Using the table in the previous page, we can draw the universal curve
which normalizes the bandwidth with respect to the frequency deviation.

Universal curve for evaluating the 1% bandwidth of

FM wave
 Deviation ratio and Percentage
modulation
• Deviation ratio is defined as the ratio of the maximum frequency
deviationΔf to the maximum modulating signal frequency fm

D  fmax
fmmax

• Percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of the actual frequency

deviationΔfact to the maximum frequency deviationΔfmax.

% modulation  factual
fmax
 Problems

• An FM wave is represented by the equation

VFM (t)  20 cos[8 106 t  9sin 2 103 t]

• Calculate the frequency deviation, bandwidth using carson’s rule and

the average power
 Problems

• In India, the maximum value of frequency deviation is fixed at 75 KHz for

commercial FM broadcasting by radio. If we take modulating frequency
is 15 KHz, which is typically the maximum audio frequency of interest in
FM transmission, find the deviation ratio and compare the bandwidth
obtained using Carson rule and universal curve method.
 Problems

• In India, the maximum value of frequency deviation is fixed at 75 KHz for

commercial FM broadcasting by radio. If we take modulating frequency
is 15 KHz, which is typically the maximum audio frequency of interest in
FM transmission, find the deviation ratio and compare the bandwidth
obtained using Carson rule and universal curve method.

• The typical bandwidth required is 200 KHz for each FM transmitter. So,
Carson rule underestimates the bandwidth by 10%
Bessel table (n vs β)
 Generation of FM signal

• Indirect method – Modulating wave is first used to produce NBFM

signal and frequency multiplication is used to increase the frequency
deviation to desired level
• Direct method – Carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with
the input baseband signal
Armstrong method
 Armstrong method

• The message signal is integrated and used to phase modulate a

crystal controlled oscillator
• In order to minimize the distortion, phase deviation or modulation index
is kept small (β<0.3)
• The NBFM signal is multiplied in frequency using frequency multiplier
to produce to WBFM signal
 Armstrong method

• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator

 Armstrong method
• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator
t

s1 (t)  Ac cos[2f1t  2k f  m(t)dt]      (1)

0
 Armstrong method

• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator

t

s1 (t)  Ac cos[2f1t  2k f  m(t)dt]      (1)

0

• f1 – Frequency of the crystal controlled oscillator

• kf – Frequency sensitivity (constant)
• For a sinusoidal modulating wave, the output s1(t) is given as
 Armstrong method

• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator

t

s1 (t)  Ac cos[2f1t  2k f  m(t)dt]      (1)

0

• f1 – Frequency of the crystal controlled oscillator

• kf – Frequency sensitivity (constant)
• For a sinusoidal modulating wave, the output s1(t) is given as
s1(t)  Ac cos[2f1t  1 sin 2fmt]      (2)
• The phase modulator output is multiplied ‘n’ times in frequency by
using frequency multiplier to produce the desired WBFM wave
 Armstrong method
• Let s1(t) denotes the output of the phase modulator
t

s1 (t)  Ac cos[2f1t  2k f  m(t)dt]      (1)

0

• f1 – Frequency of the crystal controlled oscillator

• kf – Frequency sensitivity (constant)
• For a sinusoidal modulating wave, the output s1(t) is given as
s1(t)  Ac cos[2f1t  1 sin 2fmt]      (2)
• The phase modulator output is multiplied ‘n’ times in frequency by
using frequency multiplier to produce the desired WBFM wave
s(t)  Ac cos[2nf1t  n1 sin 2fmt]      (3)
 Armstrong method

• In case of sinusoidal modulating wave

 Armstrong method

• In case of sinusoidal modulating wave

s(t)  Ac cos[2fct   sin 2fmt]      (4)
fc  nf1   n1

• Frequency multiplier n1 shifts the NBFM to WBFM

• Frequency translator will not change the frequency deviation, it only
shifts the FM signal to either upwards and downwards in the spectrum
• Frequency multiplier n2 is used to increase the Δf and fc
 Advantages and Diadvantages of
Indirect Method
• As crystal oscillators are used for obtaining the carrier
frequency, it (the carrier frequency) is very stable.

• Since the narrowband FM is generated by a phase

modulator, a long chain of frequency multipliers will have to
be used to bring the frequency deviation to the required level.
 Varactor diode modulator

• Direct method for FM signal generation

• Carrier signal frequency is directly varied in accordance with the input
baseband signal using Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
• Capacitor or inductor of the oscillator tank circuit is varied according to
the amplitude of the message signal
 Varactor diode modulator

• Varactor or Varicap means variable capacitor diode

• Specially fabricated PN junction diode used as a variable capacitor in
reverse biased condition
• Varactor diode is used to produce a variable reactance and it is placed
across the tank circuit
 Circuit operation

• Capacitor c isolates the varactor diode from the oscillator

• The effective bias to varicap is given as
 Circuit operation

• Capacitor c isolates the varactor diode form the oscillator

• The effective bias to varicap is given as
Vd  V0 Vm cosmt      (1)
 Circuit operation

• Capacitor c isolates the varactor diode form the oscillator

• The effective bias to varicap is given as
Vd  V0 Vm cosmt      (1)
• Increase in the modulating signal amplitude results in the increase in
the carrier frequency
 Circuit operation

• The capacitance of the diode is given as

k
Cd       (2)
Vd
• k – Proportionality constant
• Vd – Total voltage across the diode in reverse bias condition
 Circuit operation

• The capacitance of the diode is given as

k
Cd       (2)
Vd
• k – Proportionality constant
• Vd – Total voltage across the diode in reverse bias condition
• The total capacitance of the tank circuit is C0 + Cd
• The instantaneous frequency of oscillation is given as
 Circuit operation

• The capacitance of the diode is given as

k
Cd       (2)
Vd
• k – Proportionality constant
• Vd – Total voltage across the diode in reverse bias condition
• The total capacitance of the tank circuit is C0 + Cd
• The instantaneous frequency of oscillation is given as
1
fi 
2 L(C0  Cd )
 Circuit operation

• The capacitance of the diode is given as

k
Cd       (2)
Vd
• k – Proportionality constant
• Vd – Total voltage across the diode in reverse bias condition
• The total capacitance of the tank circuit is C0 + Cd
• The instantaneous frequency of oscillation is given as
1
fi 
2 L(C0  Cd )
1
fi 
2 L(C 0  kVd1/ 2 )
• The oscillator frequency depends on message signal
 Reactance tube modulator

• I b  Id

• X c  R

• Direct method for FM signal generation

• FET reactance modulator behaves as reactance across terminal AB
• The terminal AB is connected across the tuned circuit of the
oscillator
• The varying voltage of the message signal changes the
reactance across the terminals
• The change in reactance can be inductive or capacitive
 Expression for equivalent
capacitance
• Gate voltage
V
Vg  Ib R  R    (1)
R  jX
c
 Expression for equivalent
capacitance
• Gate voltage
V
Vg  Ib R  R    (1)
R  jX
c
• If Xc >> R
V
Vg  Ib R  R    (2)
 jX c
 Expression for equivalent
capacitance
• Gate voltage V
Vg  Ib R  R    (2)
 jX
c
• Drain current
Id  gmVg    (3)
• Sub Eq.(2) in (3)
 Expression for equivalent
capacitance
• Gate voltage V
Vg  Ib R  R    (2)
 jX
c
• Drain current
Id  gmVg    (3)
• Sub Eq.(2) in (3)
RV
Id  gm    (4)
 jX c

• Assuming Ib<<Id and the impedance between the terminals AB is

 Expression for equivalent
capacitance
• Gate voltage V
Vg  Ib R  R    (2)
 jX
c
• Drain current
Id  gmVg    (3)
• Sub Eq.(2) in (3)
RV
Id  gm    (4)
 jX c

• Assuming Ib<<Id and the impedance between the terminals AB is

Z  V    (5)
Id
• Sub Eq.(4) in (5),
 Expression for equivalent
capacitance

Z   jXc    (6)
gm R
• The impedance is clearly a capacitive reactance
Xc
Z  X eq 
gm R
 Expression for equivalent
capacitance

Z   jX c    (6)
gm R
• The impedance is clearly a capacitive reactance
Xc
Z  X eq 
gm R
1
Z
2fCgm R
 Expression for equivalent
capacitance

Z   jX c    (6)
gm R
• The impedance is clearly a capacitive reactance
X
Z  X eq  c
gm R
1 1
Z Z
2fCgm R 2fCeq

Ceq  g m RC    (7)
 Observations on equivalent capacitance
• Ceq depends on the device transconductance gm
• Ceq can be set any original value by adjusting R and C values
• If Xc>>R is not satisfied, then Z is not purely reactive and it has some
resistive in it
• In practice Xc=nR at carrier frequency (5<n<10)
1
Xc   nR
2fC
 Observations on equivalent capacitance
• Ceq depends on the device transconductance gm
• Ceq can be set any original value by adjusting R and c values
• If Xc>>R is not satisfied, then Z is not purely reactive and it has some
resistive in it
• In practice Xc=nR at carrier frequency (5<n<10)
1
Xc   nR
2fC
1
C
2fnR
 Observations on equivalent capacitance
• Ceq depends on the device transconductance gm
• Ceq can be set any original value by adjusting R and c values
• If Xc>>R is not satisfied, then Z is not purely reactive and it has some
resistive in it
• In practice Xc=nR at carrier frequency (5<n<10)
1
Xc   nR
2fC
1
C
2fnR
gm
Ceq     (8)
2fn
Comparison of AM, FM,
PM
Comparison of AM, FM,
PM
Comparison of AM, FM,
PM
Comparison of AM, FM,
PM
Comparison of AM, FM,
PM
Comparison of WBFM and
NBFM
Comparison of WBFM and
NBFM
 What is a Demodulator?

• Demodulation is the act of extracting the original

information-bearing signal (modulating signal) from a
modulated carrier wave.

• A demodulator is an electronic circuit used to

recover the information content from the modulated
carrier wave.

12
8
 What is FM Demodulator

• An electronic circuit in which frequency variations of

modulated signals are converted to amplitude
variations first, with the help of tuned circuit

• And then original information is extracted with the

AM demodulation techniques say diode detector.

12
9
 Types of FM Demodulators

FM
Demodulation

Direct Indirect
• Slope Detector Phase Lock Loop(PLL)
• Balanced Slope Detector
• Foster-Seeley Phase Discriminator
• Ratio Detector

13
0
 Basic FM Demodulator

Frequency TUNED Amplitude

Variations CIRUIT Variations

NOTE: Amplitude Variations are added to wave

according to frequency variations, and frequency
variations remain present in wave.

13
1
Basic FM Demodulator

FM
Wave

Output
of Tuned
Circuit

13
2
 Basic FM Demodulator

• The most basic circuit employed as FM demodulator

is parallel tuned LC circuit, often known as slope
detector.

• The carrier frequency should fall on one side of

resonant frequency and

• The entire frequencies should fall on linear region of

transfer curve of tuned circuit.

13
3
 Slope Detector
Tank Circuit Envelope Detector Circuit

FM
Source Detector
Output

Voltage versus Frequency Curve

13
4
Transfer Output
Curve

Slope Detector
Transfer
Characteristics
13
5
Transfer Output
Curve

Slope Detector Transfer

Characteristics

13
6
 SLOPE Detector

• The output is then applied to a diode detector

with RC load of suitable time constant.

• The circuit is, in fact, identical to that of AM

detector.

13
7
 Advantages of Slope Detector

• Simple- can be used to provide FM

demodulation when only an AM
detector is present.

• Enables FM to be detected
without any additional circuitry.

13
8
 Limitations of Slope Detector

• It is inefficient, as it is linear in very limited frequency

range.

• It reacts to all amplitude changes.

• It is relatively difficult to tune, as tuned circuit must

be tuned to different frequency than carrier
frequency.

13
9
Balanced Slope Detector

14
0
 Balanced Slope Detector

• This circuit uses two slope detectors, connected in

back to back fashion, to opposite ends of center-
tapped transformer.

• And hence fed 1800 out of phase. 14

1
• The top secondary circuit is tuned above the IF by an amount
f, and bottom circuit is tuned below IF by f.

• Each circuit is connected to diode detectors with suitable RC

loads.

• The output is taken across series combination of loads, so that

it is sum of the individual outputs. 14
2
 Balanced Slope Detector

15V
Output of T’ at fc+f
(+10 to +15V)
10V
Output of T’ at fc-f
(+5 to +10V)
5V

-5V
Output of T’’ at fc+f
(-5 to -10V)
-10V
Output of T’’ at fc-f
(-10 to -15V)
-15V
14
3
 Balanced Slope Detector
• When input frequency = fc
– Then output of T’(+Ve)= output of T’’ (-Ve)
– So sum of outputs of T’ and T’’ = Zero
• When input frequency = fc+f
– Then output of T’(+Ve) > output of T’’ (-Ve)
– So sum of outputs of T’ and T’’ = +Ve
• When input frequency = fc-f
– Then output of T’(+Ve) < output of T’’ (-Ve)
– So sum of outputs of T’ and T’’ = -Ve

14
4
Combined Transfer Curve

Useful Range

14
5
 Balance Slope Detector- Advantages

• This circuit is more efficient than simple slope

detector.

• It has better linearity than the simple slope detector

 Balance Slope Detector- Drawbacks

• Even more difficult to tune, as there are three

different frequencies to be tuned.

• Amplitude limiting still not provided.

• Linearity, although better than single slope detector,

is still not good enough.

14
7
 Foster-Seeley (Phase) Discriminator

• In this all the tuned circuits are tuned to the

same frequency.

• Balanced Slope Detector circuit with some

changes is used.

• This circuit yields far better linearity than

slope detection.
1
4
8
Phase Discriminator

1
4
9
 Phase Discriminator

The capacitances Cc,C1 and C2 are chosen such that they are short
circuits for the IF center frequency.

The IF signal is fed directly across L3. VL3 VIN

Incoming IF is inverted 180 degree by T1 and divided equally between
La and Lb.
So Voltage across diode= VIN + Secondary Voltage/2 4
 At Resonant Frequency

When IF center frequency (fc)=fo, then secondary current Is is in

phase with Secondary voltage Vs and 180o out of phase with VL3.

VLa and VLb are 180o out of

phase with each other and
90o out of phase with VL3.

1
5
1
 At Resonant Frequency

VD1=VL3+VLa and VD2=VL3+VLb

The voltages across the diodes D1 and D2 are equal.

Therefore, I1 and I2 are equal.

C1 and C2 charge to equal
Magnitude voltages except
With opposite polarities

Vout=Vc1-Vc2=0V 1
5
2
 IF goes above Resonance
If IF(fc)>fo then XL>XC, the
secondary tank circuit impedance
becomes inductive.

Is lags Vs by some angle θ which is

proportional to the magnitude of
the frequency deviation.

The vector sum of voltage across

D1>D2

C1 charges and C2 discharges and

Vout=Vc1-Vc2=+ve Voltage
1
5
3
 IF goes below Resonance
If IF(fc)<fo then XL<XC, the
secondary tank circuit
impedance becomes capacitive.

Is leads Vs by some angle θ

which is proportional to the
magnitude of the frequency
deviation.

The vector sum of voltage

across
D1<D2
C1 discharges and C2 charges
and
Vout=Vc1-Vc2= -ve Voltage 8
Vector Diagrams

15
5
Voltage Vs Frequency Response

15
6
 Phase Discriminator
• It is much easier to align, as there are now two tuned
circuits and both are tuned to the same frequency.

• Linearity is quite better, as circuit relies less on

frequency & more on primary-secondary phase
relation, which is quite linear.

• Only drawback is, there is no provision for amplitude

limiting.

15
7
 Ratio- Detector

• Ratio detector demodulator is modified Foster-

Seeley circuit in order to incorporate amplitude
limiting.

• In Foster-Seeley discriminator the sum of voltages

VD1+VD2 should remain constant.

• Their difference should vary due to variation in input

frequency.

15
8
 Ratio-detector

• But practically speaking any variation in the

amplitude of input signal, also has impact on
sum of VD1+VD2, leading to distortion.

• Ratio-detector circuit eliminates this variation

of VD1+VD2, and performs the function of
amplitude limiter also.

15
9
 Ratio-Detector

Changes made in Foster-Seeley discriminator:

• One of The diodes has been reversed.

• A large capacitor has been placed between

points, from where output was taken.

16
0
Ratio-Detector

16
1
 Ratio-Detector

As with foster seeley discriminator, a ratio detector has a single

tuned circuit in the secondary.(operation is similar ).

Diode D2 is reversed so that current can flow around the

outermost loop of the circuit.
16
2
 Ratio-Detector

After several input cycles , shunt capacitor Cs charges to

approximately the peak voltage across the secondary winding of
T1.

The time constant for Rs and Cs is sufficiently long so that rapid

changes in the amplitude of the input signal, have no effect on
the average voltage across Cs. 16
3
 Ratio-Detector

C1 and C2 charge and discharge proportional to frequency

changes in the input signal and are relatively immune to
amplitude variations.

At Resonance, the output voltage is divided equally between C1

and C2 and redistributed as the input frequency is deviated
above and below resonance. 18
 Ratio-Detector

At resonance ,Vout is not equal to 0V, but rather to one half of

the voltage across the secondary windings of T1.

16
5
Voltage Vs Frequency Response

16
6
 Ratio-Detector Advantages

• Amplitude limiting is possible.

• Linearity is quite good as compared to others.
So quite often used in high quality receivers.

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 Ratio-Detector Dis-advantages
• Under critical noise conditions, such as satellite
receivers, where demodulator noise performance
becomes very significant, even this demodulator is
found wanting.

• Under these conditions more advanced

demodulators such as Phase Locked Loop are used.

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