First Chapter

Introduction
 Social Stratification
Sociologists speak of social stratification to
describe inequalities among individuals and
groups within human societies.
Social stratification, the term sociologists
apply to the ranking or grading of individuals
and groups into hierarchical layers, represents
structured inequality in the allocation of
rewards, privileges, and resources.
 Social Stratification
 All socially stratified systems share three characteristics:
1. The rankings apply to social categories of people who
share a common characteristics such as gender or
ethnicity. For example, women may be ranked differently
from men.
2. People’s life experiences and opportunities depend heavily
on how their social category is ranked.
3. The ranks of different social categories tend to change
very slowly over time. For example, the earliest human
societies, which were based on hunting and gathering, had
very little social stratification- mainly because there were
few resources to be divided up. The development of
agriculture produced considerably more wealth and, as a
result a great increase in stratification.
 Patterns of Social Stratification
 There are two types of social stratification systems:
open and closed stratification systems.
 Where people can change their status with relative ease,
we refer to the arrangement as an open system. In
contrast, where people have great difficulty in changing
their status, we call the arrangement a closed system. It
is similar to the distinction between ascribed and
achieved statuses.
 Achieved statuses are open to people on the basis of
individual choice an competition and are common in
open stratification systems. Ascribed statuses are
assigned to people by their group or society and are
typical of closed systems. No societies are entirely open
or entirely closed.
 Patterns of Social Stratification
Giddens and associates (2017, pp.193-195)
described the four basic systems of stratification:
slavery, caste, estate, and class.
Slavery is an extreme form of inequality in which
certain people are owned as property by others.
Sometimes slaves have been deprived of almost
all rights by law. Systems of slave labor have
tended to be unstable, because slaves have
historically fought back against their subjugation.
From about the eighteenth century on, many
people in Europe and America came to see
slavery as morally wrong. Today, slavery is illegal
in every country of the world.
 Patterns of Social Stratification
 A caste system is a social system in which one’s social
status is given for life. This means that all individuals
must remain at the social level of their birth throughout
their life time. In this system, social status is based on
personal characteristics- such as perceived race or
ethnicity, parental religion, or parental caste.
 In caste systems, intimate contact with members of
other castes is strongly discouraged. According to
Hindu beliefs, there are four major castes, each roughly
associated with broad occupational groupings.
 The four castes consist of the Brahmins (scholars and
spiritual leaders) on top, followed by the Ksyatriyas
(soldiers, and rulers), the Vaisyas (farmers and
merchants), and the Shudras (labourers and artisans).
 Patterns of Social Stratification
Estates were part of European feudalism. The
feudal estates consisted of strata with differing
obligations and rights towards each other, some of
these differences being established in law. In
Europe, the highest estate was composed of the
aristocracy and gentry. The clergy formed another
estate, having lower status but possessing various
distinctive privileges.
Those in what came to be called the third estate
were the commoners- serfs, free peasants,
merchants, and artisans. A certain degree of
intermarriage and mobility was tolerated between
the estates.
 Patterns of Social Stratification
 The concept of class is most important for analyzing
stratification in industrialized societies. A social class is
a large group of people who occupy a similar economic
position in the wider society. The concept of life
chances, introduced by Max Weber, is the best way to
understand what class means. Life chances are the
opportunities one have for achieving economic
prosperity. For example, a person from a poor
background has less chance of ending up wealthy than
someone from a prosperous one.
 A person born into a caste position has no opportunity
of escaping from it; the same is not true of class.
 Patterns of Social Stratification
 Class systems differ from slavery and castes in four
main respects:
1. Class systems are fluid: The boundaries between
classes are never clear-cut. There are no formal
restrictions on intermarriage between people from
different classes.
2. Class positions are in some part achieved
3. Class is economically based: classes depend on
inequalities in the possession of material resources.
4. Class systems are large-scale and impersonal: class
systems operate mainly through large scale,
impersonal associations such as pay or working
conditions.
 Multidimensional View of
Stratification
Max Weber took a multidimensional view of
stratification an identified three components: class
(economic standing), status (prestige) and party
(power). Each of these dimensions constitutes a
distinct aspect of social ranking.
The economic dimension of stratification
consists of wealth and income. Wealth is based on
what people have, whereas income consists of
what people get. For example, one individual may
receive a high salary, but have little amount of
property.
 Multidimensional View of
Stratification
 Prestige involves the social respect, admiration, and
recognition associated with a particular social status.
Prestige is intangible, something that we carry about in
our heads. In our daily lives we commonly seek to give
prestige a tangible existence through titles, special seats of
honor, emblems and so on. These objects serve as symbols
of prestige.
 Power refers to the ability of individuals and groups to
realize their will in human affairs even if it involves the
resistance of others. Power affects the ability of people to
make the world work on their belief. To gain mastery of
critical resources creates dependency and thus allows one
to gain mastery of people.
 Social Mobility
In many societies individuals or groups can move
from one level (stratum) to another in the
stratification system, a process called social
mobility.
Social mobility can occur in at lest two ways.
First, societies change, altering the division of
labor, introducing new positions, undermining old
ones, and shifting the allocation of resources.
Sometimes such social change occurs because
members of the lower strata resent their exclusion
from higher ranks and work to change the
established social order.
 Social Mobility
Second, social mobility can take place when
shifts occur in the availability of different
types of talent. Although those in the higher
strata may monopolize the opportunities for
training an education, they do not control the
natural distribution of talent and ability. People
often must be recruited from the lower ranks to
perform roles in society that increase their
status.
 Forms of Social Mobility
 Social mobility can take a number of forms. For example,
mobility may be vertical or horizontal. Vertical mobility
involves movement from one social status to another of
higher or lower rank. Vertical mobility may be upward or
downward. For example, it an auto mechanic (prestige
score 40) became a lawyer (prestige score 75), this shift
constitutes upward mobility. On the other hand, if the
auto mechanic became a garbage collector (prestige score
28), this change involves downward mobility.
 On the other hand, horizontal mobility entails movement
from one social status to another of approximately
equivalent rank. For example, if the auto mechanic took a
job as a restaurant manager (score 39), this shifts
represents horizontal mobility.
 Forms of Social Mobility
Mobility also may be intergenerational or intra-
generational. Intergenerational mobility involves a
comparison of the social status of parents and their
children at some point in their respective careers
(e.g., as assessed by the rankings of their
occupations at roughly the same age).
Intra-generational mobility entails a comparison of
the social status of a person over an extended time
period. There are limits to the variety of most
people’s mobility experience. Small moves tend to
be the rule, and large moves the exception.
 Social Inequality
 Social inequality ‘‘is the condition where people have
unequal access to valued resources, services, and
positions in the society’’ (Kerbo, 2003, p. 11).
 Social inequality refers to the uneven distribution of
resources, opportunities, and privileges across different
groups in society.
 Social inequality has been rooted in systems of power and
domination, which have been perpetuated by social,
cultural, and economic structures.
 It manifests in various forms, including income
disparities, unequal access to education, healthcare, and
housing as well as systematic discrimination based on
race, gender, and class.
 Dimensions of Social Inequality
 Social inequality manifests in multiple dimensions, each
shaped by intersecting factors such as class, race,
gender, and geography. Economic inequality, perhaps
the most widely recognized form of inequality, refers to
disparities in income and wealth distribution within a
society. These disparities are often perpetuated by
structural factors such as unequal access to education,
employment opportunities, and social capital.
Moreover, economic inequality intersects with other
forms of inequality, exacerbating social disparities and
hindering upward mobility for marginalized groups.
 In addition to economic inequality, social inequality
encompasses disparities in education, healthcare, housing,
and access to social services.
 Dimensions of Social Inequality
Educational inequality, for example, refers to
differences in academic achievement and
attainment across socioeconomic and
demographic groups. Factors such as inadequate
funding for schools in low-income areas, unequal
access to quality teachers and educational
resources, and systemic barriers to higher education
contribute to persistent educational disparities.
Similarly, healthcare inequality manifests in
differential access to healthcare services, health
outcomes, and health insurance coverage,
disproportionately affecting marginalized
communities.
 Dimensions of Social Inequality
Furthermore, social inequality is perpetuated by
discrimination and prejudice based on race,
ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and other
social identities. Structural racism, for instance,
refers to institutionalized patterns of discrimination
and marginalization experienced by racial and
ethnic minorities in various domains, including
employment, housing, criminal justice, and
healthcare. Gender inequality, likewise,
encompasses disparities in wages, representation in
leadership positions, and access to opportunities and
resources based on gender identity.
 Causes of Social Inequality
Social inequality is the result of complex and
interrelated factors, including historical legacies,
institutional structures, cultural norms, and
individual behaviors. Historical processes such as
colonization, slavery, and imperialism have
contributed to the perpetuation of inequality by
establishing systems of exploitation and domination
that continue to shape social relations today.
Moreover, institutional structures such as
discriminatory laws, policies, and practices
reinforce existing disparities and limit opportunities
for marginalized groups.
 Causes of Social Inequality
Cultural norms and beliefs also play a significant
role in perpetuating social inequality by shaping
attitudes and behaviors towards marginalized
individuals and groups. Stereotypes prejudice, and
implicit biases contribute to discrimination and
exclusion, further entrenching patterns of inequality.
Additionally, individual choices and behaviors,
while influenced by broader social and economic
factors, can perpetuate or challenge existing
inequalities. For example, hiring practices that
favor candidates from privileged backgrounds or
perpetuate gender stereotypes contribute to
disparities in employment opportunities.
 Consequences of Social Inequality
 Social inequality has far-reaching consequences for
individuals, communities, and societies as a whole. At
the individual level, inequality affects life chances
and opportunities, leading to disparities in health,
education, employment, and overall well-being.
Socioeconomic status, for instance, strongly influences
access to quality healthcare, with lower-income
individuals facing greater barriers to medical care and
experiencing higher rates of chronic illness and
mortality. Moreover, educational inequality
perpetuates intergenerational cycles of poverty and
marginalization, limiting social mobility and
perpetuating disparities across generations.
 Consequences of Social Inequality
 At the community level, social inequality contributes
to social fragmentation, distrust, and conflict,
undermining social cohesion and solidarity.
Marginalized communities often face greater
environmental hazards, crime, and violence,
exacerbating their vulnerability and social isolation.
Moreover, unequal access to resources and
opportunities can lead to feelings of resentment and
alienation, fueling social unrest and political instability.
 Moreover, inequality erodes trust in institutions and
undermines faith in the fairness and legitimacy of
the social order, posing a fundamental challenge to
democratic values and principles.
 Relationship between Social
Stratification and Social Inequality
Social stratification is the system or structure. On
the other hand, social inequality is the outcome of
the system.
Social stratification denotes to the ranking of
individuals or groups. In contrast, social
inequality refers to the uneven distribution of
resources within these rankings. In a word, social
stratification implies social inequality; if some
groups have access to more resources than others,
the distribution of those resources is inherently
unequal.
 Relationship between Social
Stratification and Social Inequality
 Social stratification is the structured hierarchy that exist
in a society. Stratification is systematic. It is a social
arrangement patterned socially and historically, which
is rooted in an ideological framework that legitimates
and justifies the subordination of particular groups of
people. It results in inequalities of valued resources
between groups or categories of people. Inequality is
the degree of disparity of this distribution within
society.
 Although the term inequality is used interchangeably
with social stratification, inequality is actually more
specific.
 References
Stolley, K.S. (2005). The Basics of Sociology.
Greenwood Press.
Giddens, A., & Griffiths, S. (2006). Sociology.
Polity.
Hughes, M. & Kroehler, C. (2013). Sociology The
Core. McGraw Hill.
Gunderson, P. (2024). Unveiling the Layers of
Social Inequality: A Multidimensional Analysis.
Journal of International Social Research, 17(111).