Food and Fundamentals of Food Processing Chapter 04: Unit Operations in Food Processing Dr Hansal N

Unit Operations in Food Processing

1. Unit Operation

A unit operation is any single operation of a physical nature common to several processes. Each unit
operation is based on well-defined physical properties.

In addition to unit operations of a “physical nature,” chemical and biochemical operations also play a
significant role in the processing of many foods. These include:

• Enzymatic reactions and fermentations

• Chemical additions (preservatives, flavorings, colorants, etc.)

2. Unit Operations Used in Industrial Processes

Six unit operations are commonly employed in industrial processes: mixing, separation, heat transfer,
mass transfer, size adjustment, and flow.

2.1. Mixing

Mixing is the production of a homogeneous mass from two or more components. The two main
objectives of mixing are ingredient incorporation and heat transfer.

The efficiency of mixing depends, among other factors, on mixer design and speed. Different mixer
configurations are used depending on the intended purpose.

2.2. Heat Transfer

Heat transfer refers to the movement of energy in the form of heat to or from a product.

2.2.1. Factors Affecting Heat Transfer

• Heat exchanger design

• Thermal properties of the product (thermal conductivity)
• Density
• Mode of heat transfer (conduction, radiation, convection)
• Viscosity

2.2.2. Heating is used to:

• Destroy microorganisms and ensure product safety

• Extend shelf life through enzyme inactivation
• Improve organoleptic acceptability

2.2.3. Cooling

Cooling primarily serves a preservation function.

2.3. Mass Transfer

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Food and Fundamentals of Food Processing Chapter 04: Unit Operations in Food Processing Dr Hansal N

• Transfer of matter to or from a medium

• Transfer of a chemical compound from one phase to another

Main mechanisms:

• Diffusion: movement from high to low concentration

• Evaporation: liquid → gas

Mass transfer is mainly involved in separation or drying techniques such as absorption, crystallization,
distillation, and freeze-drying.

2.4. Separation

Separation involves dividing components based on a physical property such as size, density, or boiling
point.

• Density: cream separation from milk, sedimentation of solids, bacterial removal from fluids
• Size: membrane filtration, gel filtration, sieving
• Boiling point: distillation

2.5. Size Adjustment

Modification of the size of a product or one of its components:

• Size reduction: chopping, grinding, molding, cutting, slicing, emulsification

• Size increase: aggregation, agglomeration, or gelation (e.g., milk → curd → cheese)

2.6. Flow

Flow refers to the transfer of a fluid from one point to another.

3. Unit Process

A unit process is a simple, specific, and identifiable step in product manufacturing.

Any production system requires a combination of unit processes to transform raw materials into finished
products.

Examples: filtration, cleaning, peeling, slicing, grating, concentration, drying, coating.

Several unit processes involve a combination of more than one unit operation and/or chemical or
biochemical operations.

3.1. Unit Processes Combining Several Unit Operations

• Filtration: flow + separation

• Evaporation: heat transfer + mass transfer
• Pasteurization: flow + heat transfer
• Cheese coagulation: mixing (enzymes or bacteria) + heat transfer + enzymatic reactions or
fermentation + size increase + mass transfer + separation

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Food and Fundamentals of Food Processing Chapter 04: Unit Operations in Food Processing Dr Hansal N

4. Processes in the Food Industry

4.1. Changes Induced by Heating

4.1.1. Desirable Effects

• Destruction of microorganisms
• Enzyme inactivation
• Improvement of color, aroma, taste, and texture
• Improved digestibility

4.1.2. Undesirable Effects

• Nutrient degradation
• Deterioration of sensory attributes

4.2. Thermal Processes by Heat Addition

4.2.1. Blanching

Definition and effects:

Thermal treatment intended to inactivate enzymes responsible for deterioration during storage,
particularly browning and off-flavor development. Treatments vary depending on the product.

Advantages:

• Drying alone does not necessarily inactivate enzymes, which may reactivate upon rehydration
• Freezing does not stop enzymatic reactions
• Enzymatic activity may persist in unblanched products during refrigeration, freezing, or
dehydration

Limitations:

• Limited to fruits, vegetables, and some seafood

• Only reduces vegetative cell populations
• Requires an additional preservation barrier
• Safety depends on the secondary barrier

4.2.2. Pasteurization and Sterilization

• Sterilization: high-temperature treatment (>100°C) capable of destroying all microbial forms,

including bacterial endospores
• Pasteurization: mild heat treatment preserving product quality while reducing microbial load in
heat-sensitive foods (milk, juices, beer, sauces)
o Acts on vegetative forms
o Endospores may germinate if pH permits
o In acidic conditions: stabilizing pasteurization

4.2.3. Concentration and Drying

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Food and Fundamentals of Food Processing Chapter 04: Unit Operations in Food Processing Dr Hansal N

• Drying: almost complete removal of water (e.g., milk powder, instant coffee)
• Concentration: partial removal of water (e.g., condensed milk, syrups)

Objectives:

Drying:

• Stabilize products and extend shelf life

• Produce ingredients for further processing
• Reduce weight and volume

Concentration:

• Extend shelf life

• Reduce weight and volume

4.2.4. Distillation

Physical separation of components in a liquid mixture based on vapor formation through heat supply.

4.2.5. Extrusion Cooking

Extrusion consists of forcing a product through a small opening (die), transforming it structurally.

4.3. Thermal Processes by Heat Removal

Functions of cold in the food industry:

• Cold preservation:
o Maintenance of physical, biological, and chemical stability
o Storage, distribution, and transport
• Cold processing:
o Product treatment (e.g., cooling after cooking, ice cream production, sugar
crystallization, distillation, freeze-drying)

4.4. Processes at Ambient Temperature

4.4.1. Raw Material Preparation

Pre-processing steps:
Harvesting, transport, conveying, pumping, storage

Considerations:

• Maintain sanitary conditions

• Minimize losses
• Preserve raw material quality
• Limit bacterial growth

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Food and Fundamentals of Food Processing Chapter 04: Unit Operations in Food Processing Dr Hansal N

Cleaning methods:
Washing, brushing, air blowing, filtration, steam, magnetic separation, screening

Separation:
Sorting, sieving, manual or mechanical grading, optical sorting, peeling, deboning, trimming

4.4.2. Size Adjustment Processes

Size Reduction

• Solid foods: cutting, slicing, grinding, grating, molding, pulping

• Liquids: emulsification and homogenization

Emulsions:
Dispersions of fine droplets of one immiscible liquid in another (e.g., milk, butter, margarine)

Size Increase

Aggregation, agglomeration, gelation

A gel is a fluid trapped within a rigid structure formed by polymer networks.

4.4.3. Separation and Concentration Techniques

Objectives:

• Concentrate a useful fraction

• Isolate a useful fraction
• Remove an undesirable fraction

Types:

• Solid–solid: peeling, pitting

• Solid–liquid: centrifugation, filtration
• Liquid–solid: centrifugation, filtration
• Liquid–liquid: extraction

4.4.4. Mixing Processes

Factors affecting mixing include product properties, quantities, solubility, temperature, mixer type,
speed, time, and order of addition.

4.4.5. Biological Processes

Includes fermentation and enzymatic techniques.