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MODULE 1

 Overview of Computer Graphics System

Computer graphics is commonly seen as a computer science branch that deals with the computerized
image fusion theory and technology. As simple as a triangle outline, a computer-generated image
may represent ascene. The computer has become a powerful tool for producing images quickly and
economically.

When a computer is used to create images, the same process is followed as creating images
manually. The process’s primary computational steps give a boost to several important computer
graphics areas.

Also on computers, the term computer graphics covers almost everything. Here in the computer
graphics program’s classroom, we think of computer graphics as drawing images on machines,
often known as rendering. Rendering is everything needed to create an image from a scene. The
images can be photos, sketches, animations, or pictures of items imagined. Or they maybe pictures,
we cannot see directly, like internal body parts.

Computer graphics refers to the creation, manipulation, and representation of visual images or animations
using computers. It involves the use of hardware (like graphics cards and monitors) and software (such as
graphics editing programs or game engines) to generate images, visual effects, and interactive elements.

Computer graphics can be categorized into two main types:

1. 2D Graphics: Flat images or designs like illustrations, icons, and digital photos.
2. 3D Graphics: Three-dimensional models and animations, used in video games, simulations, and movies.

Why do we need computer graphics?

1. Visualization: Computer graphics help us visualize complex data in a more understandable way. For
example, in fields like engineering, medicine, and science, graphics are used to display 3D models,
simulations, and visualizations of data.
2. Entertainment: The film, gaming, and virtual reality industries rely heavily on computer graphics to
create immersive experiences, from realistic environments in movies to interactive characters in games.
3. Design & Art: Graphic design, web design, and digital art all depend on computer graphics to create
visually appealing and functional designs for various digital platforms.
4. Education & Training: Graphics are used in educational software, training simulations, and virtual labs
to enhance learning experiences, making them more engaging and interactive.
5. User Interfaces: Computer graphics are vital in designing graphical user interfaces (GUIs) for
applications, making them intuitive and visually appealing to users.
6. Simulation & Modeling: Graphics are essential in creating simulations for everything from weather
patterns to flight simulations, allowing us to test real-world scenarios in a virtual environment.

.
 “Computer graphics is the use of a computer to define, store, manipulate, interrogate, and
represent the pictorial output.” An image in computer graphics is made up of a number of
pixels.
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Types of Computer Graphics

 There are two kinds of computer graphics are–
 Interactive Computer Graphics
 Non-Interactive Computer Graphics

Interactive Computer Graphics

In interactive computer graphics, users have some controls over the image, i.e., the user can make
any changes to the image produced.

Interactive Computer Graphics involves computer-user two-way communication.

For Example:

 Ping-pong game.
 Drawing on touch screens.
 Display weather forecast or other moving charts/graphs on the screen.
 Animating pictures or graphics in movies.
 Graphics animation in video games.

Working of Interactive Computer Graphics

The modern display of graphics is very simple to build. It is composed of three components:
 Display controller or video controller
 Digital memory or frame buffer
 Television monitor

Display controller or video controller- The display controller is a dedicated hardware block inside:

 GPU (laptops)

1. Its task is to pass Frame Buffer’s contents to the monitor. The display controller reads each
continuous byte of Memoryframe buffer data and converts 0’s and 1’s into appropriate video signals.

In modern computer systems, the display controller is integrated within the graphics card or GPU, rather than
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being a separate hardware unit.

2. Digital memory or frame buffer-This is a place where images and pictures are stored as an array
(matrixof 0 & 1, 0 represents darkness, and 1 represents image or picture). It is also called a frame
buffer.

In today’s term frame buffer is called V-RAM (video RAM) on the graphics card., and it helps to store the image in bit
form. It helps to increase the speed of graphics.

Rendering creates frames; rasterization converts them into pixels.”

Representation of graphics

We can represent the graphics by following two ways:

1. Raster (Bitmap) Graphics

2. Vector Graphics

1. Raster Graphics: In raster graphics, the image is presented as a rectangular grid of colored squares.

Raster images are also called bitmap images. Bitmap images are stored as the collection of small individual
dots called pixels.

Bitmap images require high resolution and anti-aliasing for a smooth appearance.

For example– Paint, Photoshop, etc.

2. Vector Graphics: In vector graphics, the image is represented in the form of continuous
geometricobjects: line, curve, etc.

Vector images are not based on pixel pattern. They use mathematical formulas to draw line and curves.
Thelines and curves can be combined to create an image.

For Example– PowerPoint, Corel Draw, etc.

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Fig: Raster (Composition of Paths) Vector (Composition of Pixels)

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Difference between Raster and Vector Graphics:

Raster Graphics Vector Graphics

Raster images are the collection of the The Vector images are composed
pixel. ofpaths.

Scan conversion is required. Scan Conversion is not required.

Vector Graphics are more costly

Raster Graphics are less costly.
compared to raster graphics.

Raster image takes less space to store. Vector image takes more space.

Raster graphics can draw mathematical Vector graphics can only

curves, polygons, and boundaries. drawcontinuous and smooth lines.

File Extension: .BMP, .TIF, .JPG etc. File Extension: .SVG, .PDF, .AI
etc.

Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures on computer screens with the help of programming.
It involves computations, creation, and manipulation of data. In other words, we can say that
computer graphics is a rendering tool for the generation and manipulation of images.

2) Video Display Device

 Cathode Ray Tube

CRT stands for Cathode ray tube. It is a technology which is used in traditional computer monitor
andtelevision.

Cathode ray tube is a particular type of vacuum tube that displays images when an electron beam
collideson the radiant surface.

The primary output device in a graphical system is the video monitor.

The primary output device in a graphical system is the video monitor. The main element of a video
monitor is the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), shown in the following illustration.
 A CRT is an evacuated glass tube. The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the
heated metal cathode and a control grid.

 Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire, called the filament,
inside the cylindrical cathode structure. This causes electrons to be boiled off" the hot cathode
surface. In the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, the free, negatively charged electrons are then
accelerated toward the phosphor coating by a high positive voltage. The accelerating voltage can
be generated with a positively charged metal coating on the inside of the CRT envelope near the
phosphor screen, or an accelerating anode can be used, as in the following figure.
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 Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by setting voltage levels on the control grid, which is
a metal cylinder that fits over the cathode. A high negative voltage applied to the control grid will
shut OFF the beam by repelling electrons and stopping them from passing through the small hole
at the end of the control grid structure. A smaller negative voltage on the control grid simply
decreases the number of electrons passing through. Since the amount of light emitted by the phosphor
coating depends on the number of electrons striking the screen.

Component of CRT:

 Electron Gun: The electron gun is made up of several elements, mainly a heating filament
(heater)and a cathode.

The electron gun is a source of electrons focused on a narrow beam facing the CRT.

 Focusing & Accelerating Anodes: These anodes are used to produce a narrow and sharply
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focusedbeam of electrons.
 Horizontal & Vertical Deflection Plates: These plates are used to guide the path of the
electron the beam. The plates produce an electromagnetic field that bends the electron beam
through the areaas it travels.
 Phosphorus-coated Screen: The phosphorus coated screen is used to produce bright spots
when thehigh-velocity electron beam hits it.
The operation of CRT is very simple −

 The electron gun emits a beam of electrons cathode rays.

 The electron beam passes through focusing and deflection systems that direct it towards
specifiedpositions on the phosphor-coated screen.
 When the beam hits the screen, the phosphor emits a small spot of light at each position
contactedby the electron beam.
 maintaining the screen picture.
 One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly
directing the electron beam back over the same points. This type of display is called a
refresh CRT.
 The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal cathode and a
control grid (Fig.1.5).
 Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire, called the
filament.
 This causes electrons to be 'boiled off" the hot cathode surface. In the vacuum inside the
CRT envelope, the free, negatively charged electrons are then accelerated toward the
phosphor coating by a high positive voltage.

 It redraws the picture by directing the electron beam back over the same screen points quickly.

There are two ways Random scan and Raster scan by which we can display an object on the screen.
Resolution:
 Resolution is the number of pixels contained on a display monitor, expressed in terms of the
number of pixels on the horizontal axis and vertical axis.
 It can be also referred as maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a
CRT.
 The sharpness of the image on a display depends on the resolution and the size of the monitor.
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Aspect ratio:
 The ratio of vertical points to the horizontal points necessary to produce length of lines in both
directions of the screen is called the aspect ratio.
 An aspect ratio of ¾ means that a vertical line plotted with three points has the same length as a
horizontal line plotted with four points.

3) Raster Scan Display

In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from top to
bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to
create a pattern of illuminated spots.

Picture definition is stored in memory area called the Refresh Buffer or Frame Buffer. This
memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity values are
then retrieved from the refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen one row scan line at a time as
shown in the following illustration.

Each screen point is referred to as a pixel picture element or pel. At the end of each scan line, the
electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin displaying the next scan line.

Scan Line
The frame buffer holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored
intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and "painted" on the screen one row at
a time is called scan line (Fig. 1.7).
Pixel
 Each screen point is referred to as a pixel or pel or picture element.
Intensity range for pixel positions depends on the capability of the raster system
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4) Random Scan /Vector ScanDisplay

In this technique, the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen where the picture is to
be drawn rather than scanning from left to right and top to bottom as in raster scan. It is also called
vector display, stroke-writing display, or calligraphic display.

Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory referred to as the
refresh display file. To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of commands
in the display file, drawing each component line in turn. After all the line-drawing commands are
processed, the system cycles back to the first line command in the list.

Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times each
second.

Application of Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics has numerous applications, some of which are listed below −

 Computer graphics user interfaces GUIs − A graphic, mouse-oriented paradigm which

allows theuser to interact with a computer.
 Business presentation graphics − "A picture is worth a thousand words".
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 Cartography − Drawing maps.
 Weather Maps − Real-time mapping, symbolic representations.
 Satellite Imaging − Geodesic images.
 Photo Enhancement − Sharpening blurred photos.
 Medical imaging − MRIs, CAT scans, etc. - Non-invasive internal examination.
 Engineering drawings − mechanical, electrical, civil, etc. - Replacing the blueprints of the
past.
 Typography − The use of character images in publishing - replacing the hard type of the past.
 Architecture − Construction plans, exterior sketches - replacing the blueprints and hand
drawingsof the past.
 Art − Computers provide a new medium for artists.
 Training − Flight simulators, computer aided instruction, etc.
 Entertainment − Movies and games.
 Simulation and modeling − Replacing physical modeling and enactments.

Refesh CRT

Refreshing in a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display is the process of redrawing the image on the screen
repeatedly to maintain the picture.

The phosphor coating on the CRT screen glows when struck by an electron beam, but the glow fades
quickly. Therefore, the image must be refreshed many times per second.

he refresh rate is the number of times the screen is redrawn per second.

 Measured in Hertz (Hz)

 Example:
o 60 Hz → Screen refreshed 60 times per second
o 75 Hz → Screen refreshed 75 times per second

A higher refresh rate reduces screen flicker and produces a stable image.

5)Color CRT Monitors

A CRT monitor displays colour pictures by using a combination of phosphors that emit
different-colored light. By combining the emitted light from the different phosphors, a range of
colors can be generated.
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A color CRT monitor uses three electron guns placed at the back of the tube. These guns produce electron
beams for the three primary colors:

 Red (R)
 Green (G)
 Blue (B)

The inner surface of the screen is coated with phosphor dots of these three colors. When the electron beams
strike the phosphor dots, they glow and produce colored light. By mixing different intensities of red, green, and
blue, many colors can be displayed.

1. The screen is coated with tiny phosphor dots arranged in groups of three:
o Red phosphor
o Green phosphor
o Blue phosphor
2. Electron beams scan the screen
The beams move line-by-line across the screen.
When the beams hit the phosphor dots, they glow and produce colors.

By combining different intensities of R, G, and B, millions of colors can be displayed.

The two basic techniques for producing color displays with a CRT are
1. Shadow-mask method.
2. The Beam-Penetration method

1. BEAM-PENETRATION METHOD:
The beam-penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used with random- scan
monitors. Two layers of phosphor, usually RED and GREEN, are coated onto the inside of the CRT
screen, and the displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor
layers.

 A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer RED layer.

 A beam of very fast electrons penetrates through the RED layer and excites the inner
GREEN layer.
 At intermediate beam speeds, combinations of red and green light are emitted to show two
additional colors, ORANGE and YELLOW.
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 The speed of the electrons, and hence the screen color at any point, is controlled by the beam-
acceleration voltage.
 Advantage: Beam penetration has been an inexpensive way to produce color in random- scan
monitors,
 Disadvantage: only four colors are possible, and the quality of pictures is not as good as with
other methods.

2. Shadow–Mask Method: It is used with a raster scan monitor for displaying pictures. It has more
rangeof color than the beam penetration method. It is used in television sets and monitors.

Structure:

1. It has three phosphorus color dots at each position of the pixel.

First Dot: Red color

Second Dot: Green
color
Third Dot:
Blue color

1. It has three different guns. Each for one color.

2. It has a metal screen or plate just before the phosphorus screen, named “Shadow-Mask.”
3. It also has a shadow grid just behind the phosphorus coated screen with tiny holes in a
triangularshape.

4.

Working: A Shadow Mask is a metal plate with tiny holes present inside a color monitor.

A Shadow Mask directs the beam by consuming the electrons so that the beam hits only the desired
point and displays a resulting picture.
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It has three different guns. These guns direct their beams to shadow mask, which allows them to
pass. It is a task of a shadow mask to direct the beam on its particular dot on the screen and produce
a picture on the screen.

A Shadow Mask can display a wider range of pictures than beam penetration.

 A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position.
 One phosphor dot emits a RED Light, another emits a GREEN light, and the third emits a BLUE
light.
 This type of CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot, and a shadow-mask grid just
behind the phosphor-coated screen.

 The color variations in a shadow-mask CRT by varying the intensity levels of the three electron
beams.
 By turning OFF the RED and GREEN guns, gets the color coming from the BLUE phosphor.
Other combinations of beam intensities produce a small light spot for each pixel position, since
our eyes tend to merge the three colors into one composite.
 The color depends on the amount of excitation of the red, green, and blue phosphors.
White (or gray) area is the result of activating all three dots with equal intensity.

 DIRECT-VIEW STORAGE TUBES

An alternative method for maintaining a screen image is to “store the picture information inside the
CRT instead of refreshing the screen”. A direct-view storage tube (DVST) “stores the picture
information as a charge distribution just behind the phosphor-coated screen”. Two electron guns are
used in a DVST.

1. Primary gun: It is used to store the picture pattern

2. Flood gun: It maintains the picture display.
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Conceptually the Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) behaves like a CRT with highly persistent phosphor.
Pictures drawn on there will be seen for several minutes (40-50 minutes) before fading. It is similar to CRT as far
as the electronic gun and phosphor-coated mechanisms are concerned. But instead of the electron beam directly
writing the pictures on the phosphor coated CRT screen, the writing is done with the help of a fine-mesh wire grid.
The grid made of very thin, high quality wire, is located with a dielectric and is mounted just before the
screen on the path of the electron beam from the gun. A pattern of positive charges is deposited on the grid and
this pattern is transferred to the phosphor coated CRT by a continuous flood of electrons. This flood of electrons
is produced by a "flood gun".
Just behind the storage mesh is a second grid called the collector. The function of the collector is to
smooth out the flow of flood electrons. Since a large number of electrons are produced at high velocity by the
flood gun, the collector grid, which is also negatively charged reduces, the acceleration on these electrons and the
resulting low velocity flood pass through the collector and get attracted by the positively charged portions of the
storage mesh, but are repelled by the other portions of the mesh which are negatively charged.
Thus, the electrons attracted by the positive charges pass through the mesh, travel on to the
phosphor coated screen and display the picture. Since the collector has slowed the electrons down, they
may not be able to produce sharp and bright images. To overcome this problem, the screen

itself is maintained at a high positive potential by means of a voltage applied to a thin aluminium coating
between the tube face and the phosphor.

The dotted circle on the mesh is created by positive charges the flood of electrons hit the mesh at
all points. But only those electrons that hit the dotted circle pass through and hit the CRT screen. The
negatively charged mesh repels others.

Since the phosphor is of a very high persistence quality, the picture created on the CRT screen
will be visible for several minutes without the need for being refreshed.
Now the problem arises as to how do we remove the picture, when the time for it's erasure or
modification comes up.

The simple method is to apply a positive charge to the negatively charged mesh so that it gets
neutralized. This removes all charges and clears the screen. But this technique also produces a
momentary flash, which may be unpleasant to the viewer.
A DVST monitor has both disadvantages and advantages compared to the refresh CRT.
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Advantages
1. Because no refreshing is needed.
2. Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolutions without flicker.
Disadvantages
1. DVST systems are that they ordinarily do not display color and that selected parts of a picture
cannot he erased.
2. To eliminate a picture section, the entire screen must be erased and the modified picture redrawn.
3. The erasing and redrawing process can take several seconds for a complex picture.
4. For these reasons, storage displays have been largely replaced by raster systems.

 FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS
Although most graphics monitors are still constructed with CRTs, other technologies are emerging that
may soon replace CRT monitors.
The term flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have
1. Reduced volume
2. Weight
3. Power requirements compared to a CRT

 A significant feature of it is that they are thinner than CRTs, and can hang them on walls or wear
them on our wrists.
 Current uses for flat-panel displays include small TV monitors, calculators, pocket video games,
laptop computers, armrest viewing of movies on airlines, as advertisement boards in elevators,
and as graphics displays in applications requiring rugged, portable monitors and pocket notepads.
 Flat-panel displays into two categories:
1. Emissive displays
2. Non-Emissive displays: LCD

Emissive displays (or emitters): These devices that convert electrical energy into light.
Examples:
1. Plasma panels.
2. Light-Emitting Diodes (LED).

 Liquid crystal display (LCD): The LCD depends upon the light modulating properties of
liquid crystals. LCD is used in watches and portable computers. LCD requires an AC power
supply instead of DC, so it is difficult to use it in circuits. It generally works on flat panel
display technology. LCD consumes less power than LED. The LCD screen uses the liquid
crystal to turn pixels on or off. Liquid Crystals are a mixture of solid and liquid. When the
current flows inside it, its position changes into the desired color.
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Working Principle

LCD works using liquid crystals that control light passing through them.

Main Components

 Backlight (usually fluorescent or LED)

 Liquid crystal layer
 Polarizing filters
 Glass panels
 Color filters (Red, Green, Blue)

Working

1. A backlight produces white light.

2. The light passes through a polarizing filter.
3. Liquid crystals twist or untwist when voltage is applied.
4. This controls how much light passes through.
5. The light passes through RGB color filters to create colors.
6. The final image appears on the screen.

Advantages

 Thin and lightweight

 Low power consumption
 Less heat generation
 Good image quality
 No screen burn-in

Disadvantages

 Limited viewing angles

 Lower contrast compared to plasma
 Motion blur in fast-moving image

 Plasma Panels
 A Plasma panel display is a type of flat panel display that uses small cells containing gas to
produce images on the screen.
 Each cell in the display contains neon and xenon gases. When electric voltage is applied, the gas
becomes ionized (plasma) and produces light.
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It is also called gas –discharge displays, are constructed by filling the region between two glass
plates with mixture of gases, usually includes neon.
A series of vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel, and set of horizontal ribbons
is built into other glass panel.
Firing voltage is applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical conductors, the gas at the intersection
of two conductors break down into glowing plasma of electrons and ions.
Picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer, and the firing voltages are applied to refresh the
pixel positions 60 times per second. Alternating current methods are used to provide faster
application of firing voltages and brighter displays.
Disadvantages:
Plasma panel only applicable for monochromatic devices, but systems have been developed for
displaying color and grayscale.
Advantages of Plasma Panels

 High contrast ratio

 Wide viewing angles
 Good color reproduction
 Smooth motion display
 Suitable for large screens

Disadvantages of Plasma Panels

 High power consumption

 Screen burn-in problem
 Heavy and thick
 Produces more heat
 Shorter lifespan compared to LED

 Light Emitting Diode (LED): LED is a device which emits when current passes through it.
It is a semiconductor device. The size of the LED is small, so we can easily make any
display unit by arranging alarge number of LEDs.

 A matrix of diodes is arranged to form the pixel positions in the display, and picture definition is
stored in a refresh buffer.
 Information is read from the refresh buffer and converted to voltage that is applied to the diodes
into light pattern in the display.

LED displays are actually LCD displays that use LED backlighting instead of fluorescent lamps.
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Main Components

 LED backlight
 LCD panel
 Color filters
 Control circuits

Working

1. LEDs produce light behind the screen.

2. The light passes through the LCD panel.
3. Liquid crystals control the amount of light passing through.
4. RGB color filters generate the required color.
5. The image appears on the display.

Advantages

 Very thin and lightweight

 Better brightness
 High contrast ratio
 Energy efficient
 Long lifespan

Disadvantages

 More expensive than LCD

 Viewing angle issues in some models
 Still depends on LCD panel technology

 RASTER-SCAN SYSTEM:
In raster graphics, in addition to the central processing unit, or CPU, a special-purpose
processor, called the video controller or display controller, is used to control the operation of the
display device. Organization of a simple raster system in shown in Fig.1.11.

Fig 1.11 Architecture of a simple raster system

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Video Controller

Fig 1.12 Architecture of raster system with a fixed portion of the system memory

Raster scan is the method or technique of drawing an image.

The System refers to the architecture and the electronic components that process data. It is the "manager" that
tells the screen what to do.

 Job: It takes high-level commands (like "draw a red circle") and translates them into a grid of numbers
(pixels).
 Key Component: The Video Controller or Display Controller.
 Memory: It uses a Frame Buffer (also called Video RAM) to store the intensity or color values for
every single pixel.
 Function: It constantly "refreshes" the display by reading the Frame Buffer and sending those signals to
the screen.

In high quality system, two frame buffers are provided, one for refreshing other for filling intensity
values.

Raster Scan Display (The Hardware/Output)

The Display is the physical device that actually produces the light you see. In older terms, this was a CRT
(Cathode Ray Tube) monitor; today, it refers to the way pixels are addressed on an LCD or LED screen.

A raster scan system is the complete system used to generate raster graphics.

It includes:

 Frame buffer (memory for pixels)

 Video controller
 Raster scan display device
 Graphics processor

The system stores the image in memory and sends it to the display line by line.
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Raster-Scan Display Processor

A raster system containing a separate display processor, sometimes referred to as a
graphics controller or a display coprocessor (Fig 1.13).
Scan Conversion
 Task of the display processor is digitizing a picture definition given in an application program
into a set of pixel-intensity values for storage in the frame buffer. This digitization process is
called scan conversion.
 Display processors are also designed to perform a number of additional operations.
 These functions include generating various line styles (dashed, dotted, or solid), displaying color
areas, and performing certain transformations and manipulations on displayed objects.

Fig 1.13 Raster Graphics System with Display Processor

Run Length Encoding
 Intensity information is to store each scan line as a set of integer pairs.
 One number of each pair indicates an intensity value, and the second number specifies the
number of adjacent pixels on the scan line.
 This technique, called run-length encoding.

Random Scan System

A Random Scan System (also called a Vector Scan System) is a display technique in which the electron
beam draws images directly as lines on the screen instead of scanning the whole screen.

It is mainly used for line drawings such as graphs, maps, and engineering designs.
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Random Scan System Random Scan Display

Feature
The device or monitor that uses the random scan
Meaning A method or technique used to draw images
technique
Controls how the electron beam moves to draw
Function Shows the actual image on the screen
lines
Nature It is a display system/process It is the hardware output device
Example Vector drawing method used in graphics systems Vector monitor used in CAD systems
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 Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys
are alsoavailable for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

Sl. Keys & Description

No.
1 Typing Keys
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give
thesame layout as that of typewriters.
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2 Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a
set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding
machinesand calculators.

3 Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row
atthe top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for
somespecific purpose.
4 Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow
[Link] keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keys
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock,Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse

Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends
corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons.A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used
to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stickhaving a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a
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socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictureson the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocellsensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse.
This isa ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes invarious shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
 25

informationis available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored onthe disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into
binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation
applications.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner ormay be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed
to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Graphics Workstations:
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Generic term for a high-performance desktop computer that is used in the context of CAD
drawings, 3D modelling or video editing. Usually includes one or more 64-bit processors, ultra-fast
drives connected in RAID, one or more tabs graphs of high performance such as NVIDIA Quadro.
Workstation, a high-performance computer system that is basically designed for a single user and
has advanced graphics capabilities, large storage capacity, and a powerful central processing unit. A
workstation is more capable than a personal computer (PC) but is less advanced than a server (which
can manage a large network of peripheral PCs or workstations and handle immense data-processing
and reporting tasks). The term workstation was also sometimes ascribed to dumb terminals (i.e.,
those without any processing capacity) that were connected to mainframe computers.

Their raw processing power allows high-end workstations to accommodate high-resolution or

three-dimensional graphic interfaces, sophisticated multitask software, and advanced abilities to
communicate with other computers. Workstations are used primarily to perform computationally
intensive scientific and engineering tasks. They have also found favour in some complex financial
and business applications. In addition, high-end workstations often serve a network of attached
“client” PCs, which use resident tools and applications to access and manipulate data stored on the
workstation.

GRAPHICS SOFTWARE:

Computer software applications that are used to display, create, and edit computer graphics. While
many types of software will “support graphics”, these programs are usually limited in what they can
do with graphics; for example, word processors can be used to create simple line art or to display
images alongside text, while some spreadsheet and database programs will allow data to be
displayed in the form of graphs and charts but neither type of software will give you the ability to
edit graphics in detail.

Graphics software, however, is capable of editing graphics in a multitude of ways and includes a
number of types of software, including paint programs, illustration and design programs,
photo/image editors, presentation graphics software, animation software, computer aided design
software, and some desktop publishing software. Graphics software can edit bitmap and/or vector
graphics, and can be used to design label templates. Examples of graphics software include
 Adobe Illustrator,
 Photoshop,
 In Design,
 CorelDraw,
 Inkscape,
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 Microsoft Paint
 [Link].

Hard Copy Devices / Printers:

A printer is a peripheral

Raster Graphics Software (Bitmap Graphics)

These work with pixels and are mainly used for photo editing.

Examples:

 Adobe Photoshop: The industry titan. Used for everything from high-end retouching to digital art.
 GIMP: The powerhouse open-source (free) alternative to Photoshop.
 Corel PHOTO-PAINT : Specifically designed to mimic real-world art tools (oil paints, charcoal, etc.).
 [Link]

Uses:

 Photo editing
 Digital painting
 Image retouching

2. Vector Graphics Software

These use mathematical paths instead of pixels, so images can be scaled without losing quality.

Examples:

 Adobe Illustrator : The standard for logo design, icons

 CorelDRAW: laser engraving, screen printing, or embroidery, they are almost certainly using
CorelDRAW
 Inkscape

Uses:

 Logo design
 Icons
 Illustrations

3. 3D Graphics Software

Used for 3D modeling, animation, and rendering.

Examples:

 Blender
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 Autodesk Maya
 3ds Max

Uses:

 Animation
 Game development
 Movie visual effects

4. Simple Drawing Software

Basic tools for drawing and simple image editing.

Examples:

 Microsoft Paint
 Krita

device which is used to represent the graphics or text on paper. The quality ismeasured by its
resolution. The resolution of any printer is measured in dot per inch (dpi).

The printer usually works with the computer and connected via a cable. In present, many digital
devicesupport printer features so that we can use Bluetooth, Wi-fi, and cloud technology to print.

 HARDCOPY DEVICES
PRINTERS
A printer is an electromechanical device which converts the text and graphical documents from
electronic form to the physical form. Generally they are the external peripheral devices which are
connected with the computers or laptops through a cable or wirelessly to receive input data and print them
on the papers. A wide range of printers are available with a variety of features ranging from printing
black and white text documents to high quality colored graphic images.
The quality of pictures obtained from a device depends on dot size and the number of dots per
inch, or lines per inch, that can be displayed. To produce smooth characters in printed text strings,
higher-quality printers shift dot positions so that adjacent dots overlap.
Printers are also classified by the following characteristics: Quality of type and speed.
Quality of type: The output produced by printers is said to be either letter quality or draft quality.

Speed is measured in characters per second (cps) or pages per minute (ppm).

Types of Printers
Some types of printers are:

 Impact Printers
 Non-impact Printers
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Impact Printers
In impact printers, there is a physical contact established between the print head, ribbon, ink-
cartridge, andpaper. The printers hit print head on an ink-filled ribbon than the letter prints on the
paper. Impact printers areworks like a typewriter. Impact printers print the characters by striking them
on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the [Link] of Impact Printers are the following −
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because oftheir ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of pattern
of dots and headconsists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a
 30

character which is whyit is called Dot Matrix Printer. he dot-matrix printer uses print heads containing from
9 to 24 pins. These pins produce patterns of dots on the paper to form the individual characters. The 24 pin
dot-matrix printer produces more dots that a 9 pin dot-matrix printer, which results in much better quality
and clearer characters. The general rule is: the more pins, the clearer the letters on the paper. The pins strike

the ribbon individually as the print mechanism moves across the entire print line in both directions,

i-e, from left to right, then right to left, and so on. The user can produce a color output with a dotmatrix
printer (the user will change the black ribbon with a ribbon that has color stripes). Dotmatrix printers are
inexpensive and typically print at speeds of 100-600 characters per second.

Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

 Daisy Wheel Printers

Daisy-wheel printers In order to get the quality of type found on typewriters, a daisy-wheel impact
printer can be used. It is called daisy-wheel printer because the print mechanism looks like a daisy; at
the end of each “Petal” is a fully formed character which produces solid-line print. A hammer strikes a
“petal” containing a character against the ribbon, and the character prints on the paper. Its speed is slow
typically 25-55 characters per second.

 Drum printer
A drum printer consists of a solid, cylindrical drum that has raised characters in bands on its surface.
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The number of print positions across the drum equals the number available on the page. This number
typically ranges from 80-132 print positions. The drum rotates at a rapid speed. For each possible print
position there is a print hammer located behind the paper. These hammers strike the paper, along the
ink ribbon, against the proper character on the drum as it passes. One revolution of the drum is required
to print each line. This means that all characters on the line are not printed at exactly the same time, but
the time required to print the entire line is fast enough to call them line printers. Typical speeds of drum
printers are in the range of 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Line printers
In business where enormous amount of material are printed, the character-at-a-time printers are too
slow; therefore, these users need line-at-a-time printers. Line printers, or line-at-a-time printers, use
special mechanism that can print a whole line at once; they can typically print the range of 1,200 to 6,000
lines per minute. Drum, chain, and band printers are line-at-a-time printers.
Chain printers
A chain printer uses a chain of print characters wrapped around two pulleys. Like the drum printer, there is
one hammer for each print position. Circuitry inside the printer detects when the correct character
appears at the desired print location on the page. The hammer then strikes the page, pressing the paper
against a ribbon and the character located at the desired print position. An impression of the character is
left on the page. The chain keeps rotating until all the required print positions on the line have filled.
Then the page moves up to print the next line. Speeds of chain printers range from 400 to 2500
characters per minute.

 Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at atime, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 32
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

 Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
charactersto be printed on a page.

Laser printers use buffers that store an entire page at a time. When a whole page is loaded, it will be
printed. The speed of laser printers is high and they print quietly without producing much noise. Many
home-use laser printers can print eight pages per minute, but faster and print approximately 21,000 lines
per minute, or 437 pages per minute if each page contains 48 lines. When high speed laser printers were
introduced they were expensive. Developments in the last few years have provided relatively low-cost
laser printers for use in small businesses.
 33

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

 Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print charactersby spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

One or more nozzles in the print head emit a steady stream of ink drops. Droplets of ink are
electrically charged after leaving the nozzle. The droplets are then guided to the paper by electrically
charged deflecting plates [one plate has positive charge (upper plate) and the other has negative
charge (lover plate)].

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
[Link] printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies
of printing also.

Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer