BIOLOGY

Chapter 6

PROTISTS

Detailed Study Notes • Sections 6.1 – 6.5

6.1 General Characteristics of Protists

6.1.1 General Characteristics

Protists are a diverse and largely unicellular group of eukaryotic organisms that do not fit neatly into the
plant, animal, or fungal kingdoms. They represent one of the earliest branches of eukaryotic life and
occupy almost every moist habitat on Earth.

Core Defining Features

• Eukaryotic – possess a true membrane-bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Mostly unicellular – a few are colonial or multicellular (e.g., kelp).
• Mostly microscopic – visible only under a microscope; some algae are macroscopic.
• Aquatic or moist habitats – found in freshwater, marine, soil, and moist terrestrial environments.
• Diverse nutrition – autotrophic (photosynthesis), heterotrophic (ingestion/absorption), or mixotrophic.
• Reproduction – asexual (binary fission, budding, spore formation) and/or sexual (conjugation, syngamy).
• Locomotion – via flagella, cilia, pseudopodia, or non-motile (some algae).
• No embryonic development – unlike plants and animals, protists lack embryo stages.
• No specialized tissues – all functions performed at the cellular level.
• Cell wall – present in some (algae: cellulose or silica; diatoms: silica frustules), absent in others.

Cellular Organization
• Cytoplasm divided into outer ectoplasm (gel-like) and inner endoplasm (fluid-like) in many species.
• Contractile vacuoles present in freshwater forms for osmoregulation.
• Food vacuoles for intracellular digestion in heterotrophic forms.
• May possess chloroplasts (in algae), mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ER, ribosomes.
• Pellicle (flexible protein layer) present in euglenoids instead of a rigid cell wall.
 6.2 Diversity Among Protists

6.2.1 Evolution of Diversity Among Protists

Protists evolved approximately 1.5–2 billion years ago from prokaryotic ancestors through the process of
endosymbiosis. The diversity we observe today arose through billions of years of independent evolutionary
lineages.

Key Evolutionary Events

• Primary endosymbiosis – an ancestral eukaryote engulfed a cyanobacterium, which became the
chloroplast (in green algae and plants).
• Secondary endosymbiosis – a eukaryote engulfed a green or red alga, producing complex plastids seen
in dinoflagellates, euglenoids, and diatoms.
• Mitochondrial origin – engulfment of an alpha-proteobacterium gave rise to mitochondria in aerobic
protists.
• Diversification of locomotion – evolution of flagella, cilia, and pseudopodial movement opened different
ecological niches.
• Horizontal gene transfer – exchange of genes between early eukaryotes accelerated metabolic and
structural diversity.
• Adaptation to environments – colonization of marine, freshwater, soil, and parasitic lifestyles drove
independent evolution of features.

6.2.2 Protists as a Polyphyletic Group

Modern molecular phylogenetics has demonstrated that protists do not form a single, natural
(monophyletic) group. Instead, they constitute a polyphyletic assemblage — organisms grouped
together by superficial similarities (eukaryotic, not plant/animal/fungus) rather than shared common
ancestry.

Monophyletic Paraphyletic Polyphyletic

Multiple unrelated ancestors

One ancestor; all descendants One ancestor; some descendants
converging on similar traits (e.g.,
included (e.g., Mammals) excluded (e.g., Reptiles)
Protists)

Evidence Supporting Polyphyly

• rRNA sequencing shows protists belong to multiple distinct supergroups: Excavata, SAR,
Archaeplastida, Amoebozoa, Opisthokonta.
• Euglenoids are more closely related to trypanosomes (animal parasites) than to algae.
• Diatoms and brown algae share ancestry with oomycetes (water molds), not green algae.
• Amoebozoa (e.g., slime molds) are the sister group to animals + fungi, not to other 'protists'.
• The term 'Protista' is a grade, not a clade — it is a convenient grouping, not a phylogenetic one.
• Six major supergroups of eukaryotes replace the old Kingdom Protista in modern classification.
 6.3 Animal-like Protists (Protozoa)

6.3.1 Classes of Animal-like Protists

Animal-like protists, collectively called protozoa, are heterotrophic unicellular eukaryotes. They are
classified based on their mode of locomotion and life cycle features.

● Class 1: Flagellates / Zooflagellates (Zoomastigophora)

Key Features Additional Details

• Move using one or more whip-like flagella. • Flagella arise from basal bodies (kinetosomes).
• Mostly parasitic; some free-living. • Mitochondria modified into kinetoplast in some (e.g.,
• No cell wall; body covered by pellicle. Trypanosoma).
• Reproduce asexually by longitudinal binary fission. • Some are mutualistic (e.g., wood-digesting
• Examples: Trypanosoma, Giardia, Leishmania, flagellates in termite gut).
Trichomonas. • Lack plastids – purely heterotrophic.

● Class 2: Sarcodina / Rhizopoda (Amoeboids)

Key Features Additional Details

• Move and feed using pseudopodia (false feet). • Reproduce by binary fission.
• No fixed body shape – cytoplasm flows to extend • Some form silica or calcium carbonate shells
pseudopodia. (tests/frustules).
• Feed by phagocytosis (engulfing food particles). • Foraminifera shells accumulate as limestone.
• Examples: Amoeba proteus, Entamoeba histolytica, • Radiolarians form beautiful silica skeletons.
Arcella, Radiolaria, Foraminifera. • Contractile vacuole in freshwater forms for
osmoregulation.

● Class 3: Ciliata / Ciliophora (Ciliates)

Key Features Additional Details

• Move and feed using numerous short hair-like cilia. • Sexual reproduction by conjugation (exchange of
• Most complex protozoa structurally. micronuclei).
• Possess two nuclei: macronucleus (metabolic) and • Asexual reproduction by transverse binary fission.
micronucleus (genetic/reproduction). • Possess an oral groove / cytostome for food
• Examples: Paramecium, Stentor, Vorticella, ingestion.
Balantidium. • Trichocysts – defensive organelles discharged as
threads.
• Pellicle covers the body; alveoli beneath it.

● Class 4: Suctoria (Suctorians)

 Suctoria – Features
• Adult form is sessile (attached to substrate by a stalk) and lacks cilia.
• Young forms (larvae) possess cilia for dispersal.
• Feed using hollow, knobbed tentacles that capture and suck cytoplasm from prey (ciliates).
• Prey paralysed by toxicysts in tentacles.
• Reproduce asexually by budding; sexual reproduction by conjugation.
• Examples: Acineta, Podophrya, Ephelota.
• Found attached to aquatic substrates, plants, and other animals.

● Class 5: Sporozoa / Apicomplexa (Sporozoans)

Key Features Additional Details

• All are obligate intracellular parasites. • Sporozoites are the infective stage.
• No locomotory organelles in adult stage. • Transmission often via vectors (mosquitoes, ticks)
• Possess an apical complex – specialized or contaminated food/water.
organelles for host cell penetration. • No contractile vacuole.
• Complex life cycle with alternation of asexual • Produce resistant oocysts/spores for transmission.
(schizogony/merogony) and sexual (gametogony) • Cause serious diseases: malaria, toxoplasmosis,
phases. cryptosporidiosis.
• Examples: Plasmodium, Toxoplasma,
Cryptosporidium, Babesia.

6.3.2 Ecological Roles of Animal-like Protists

Ecological Role Description Examples

Nutrient Cycling Consume bacteria and release nutrients (N, P) in forms Amoebae, ciliates in soil
usable by plants and other organisms – 'microbial loop'.

Predation on Bacteria Bacterivorous protozoa control bacterial populations, Paramecium, Amoeba

preventing overgrowth and maintaining microbial
community balance.

Predation on Protists Larger protozoa prey on smaller ones, regulating protist Didinium preying on Paramecium
community structure.

Food Source Protozoa are consumed by small invertebrates, Ciliates eaten by copepods
zooplankton, and larval fish, forming key links in food
webs.

Soil Health Protozoa in the rhizosphere stimulate plant growth by Flagellates, naked amoebae
mineralising nutrients and controlling harmful bacteria.

Symbiotic Relationships Some live mutualistically in host guts aiding digestion; Flagellates in termite gut
others are commensals.

6.3.3 Common Pathogenic Animal-like Protists

Several protozoa cause significant human diseases. Below is a comprehensive overview:
 Organism Disease Transmission Key Symptoms & Notes

Entamoeba histolytica Amoebic Dysentery Faeco-oral route; Bloody diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, liver
(Sarcodina) (Amoebiasis) contaminated food/water abscess. Trophozoites invade intestinal wall.
Cysts are infective stage. Treatment:
metronidazole.

Plasmodium spp. (P. Malaria Female Anopheles Cyclic fever, chills, anaemia, splenomegaly.
falciparum, P. vivax mosquito bite P. falciparum causes cerebral malaria (most
etc.) (Apicomplexa) lethal). Life cycle: liver stage (schizogony) →
RBC stage → gametocytes → mosquito.

Trypanosoma brucei African Sleeping Bite of tsetse fly Stage 1: fever, headache, joint pain. Stage 2:
(Flagellate) Sickness (Glossina spp.) CNS invasion → confusion, sleep cycle
(Trypanosomiasis) disruption, coma, death if untreated. Variable
surface glycoprotein allows immune evasion.

Giardia lamblia Giardiasis Faeco-oral; cysts in Explosive, foul-smelling diarrhoea, bloating,

(Flagellate) contaminated water malabsorption, weight loss. Trophozoites
attach to duodenal wall via adhesive disc.
Common in travellers. Treatment: tinidazole.

Leishmania spp. Leishmaniasis Bite of sandfly Three forms: cutaneous (skin ulcers),
(Flagellate) (Phlebotomus) mucocutaneous (facial lesions), visceral /
Kala-azar (organ enlargement, fever,
anaemia – potentially fatal).

Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis Undercooked meat; cat Usually asymptomatic in healthy adults.
(Apicomplexa) faeces; congenital Dangerous in immunocompromised and
foetus (congenital defects: hydrocephalus,
blindness). Definitive host: cat.
 6.4 Plant-like Protists (Algae)

6.4.1 Salient Features of Plant-like Protists

Plant-like protists (algae) are photosynthetic eukaryotes ranging from microscopic unicellular forms to
large multicellular seaweeds. They contain chlorophyll and other pigments and produce organic matter
through photosynthesis.

Group Pigments Cell Wall Storage Habitat Examples

Euglenoids Chl a, b; No cell wall; Paramylon Freshwater; Euglena, Phacus

(Euglenophyta) carotenoids pellicle (protein) (β-1,3-glucan) moist soil

Dinoflagellates Chl a, c; Cellulose Starch, oils Marine, Ceratium, Noctiluca,

(Dinophyta) peridinin armoured plates freshwater Gonyaulax
(golden-brown) (theca)

Diatoms Chl a, c; Silica frustule (two Chrysolaminar Marine, Navicula, Pinnularia,

(Bacillariophyta) fucoxanthin valves: epitheca + in, oils freshwater, moist Cyclotella
(golden-brown) hypotheca) soil

Brown Algae Chl a, c; Cellulose + alginic Laminarin, Marine (cold Fucus, Laminaria,
(Phaeophyta) fucoxanthin acid mannitol waters) Sargassum, Macrocystis

Red Algae Chl a, d; Cellulose + agar/ Floridean Marine Chondrus, Gracilaria,

(Rhodophyta) phycoerythrin, carrageenan starch (tropical/deep) Porphyra
phycocyanin

Green Algae Chl a, b; Cellulose (in most) Starch Freshwater, Chlamydomonas,

(Chlorophyta) carotenoids marine, terrestrial Volvox, Spirogyra, Ulva,
Cladophora

Additional Notes on Each Group

Euglenoids
• Mixotrophic – photosynthesise in light; heterotrophic in dark.
• Two flagella emerge from a flask-shaped reservoir.
• Eyespot (stigma) detects light for phototaxis.
• No sexual reproduction known – asexual by longitudinal binary fission.
• Ancestor of euglenoids acquired chloroplast via secondary endosymbiosis of a green alga.

Dinoflagellates
• Two flagella: one transverse (in girdle groove) for spinning, one longitudinal for forward motion.
• Responsible for bioluminescence in marine water (Noctiluca).
• Toxic species (Gonyaulax, Karenia) cause harmful algal blooms (red tides).
• Endosymbiotic Symbiodinium (zooxanthellae) live inside corals providing nutrition.
• Some lack plastids and are purely heterotrophic.
 Diatoms
• Cell wall (frustule) made of hydrated silica (SiO■) in two overlapping halves.
• Among the most abundant photosynthesisers on Earth – responsible for ~20% of global oxygen.
• Diatomaceous earth (fossilised frustules) used in filtration, insecticides, abrasives.
• Move by secreting mucilage through raphe (slit in cell wall).
• Reproduce sexually when cell size decreases to minimum by binary fission.

Brown, Red & Green Algae

• Brown algae: largest and most complex; kelp forests are entire ecosystems; produce alginic acid used in
food/industry.
• Red algae: deepest growing algae (phycoerythrin absorbs blue-green light penetrating deep water);
produce agar & carrageenan.
• Green algae: most closely related to land plants (share Chl a & b, starch, cell wall); ancestral to
embryophytes.
• Life cycles: isomorphic alternation of generations (Ulva), heteromorphic (many), or predominantly haploid
(Chlamydomonas).

6.4.2 Importance of Plant-like Protists

Role / Impact Details

Primary Producers Phytoplankton (diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae) form the base of aquatic food webs,
converting CO■ into organic matter via photosynthesis. Diatoms alone produce ~25% of
Earth's oxygen.

Carbon Cycling Algae fix vast quantities of atmospheric CO■. Dead algae sink, sequestering carbon in ocean
sediments (biological carbon pump).

Algal Blooms Excess nutrients (eutrophication from agricultural runoff) trigger explosive algal growth.
Consequences: oxygen depletion (hypoxia/dead zones), toxin production (harmful algal
blooms / HABs), fish kills, disruption of food webs.

Food Industry Nori (Porphyra) eaten in Japan; Spirulina as protein supplement; agar (from Gelidium) used in
microbiological media, food gelling; carrageenan in dairy products, cosmetics; alginate in ice
cream, pharmaceuticals.

Biofuel Production Microalgae (e.g., Chlorella, Nannochloropsis) accumulate lipids that are converted to
biodiesel. Advantages: high yield per area, can grow on wastewater, do not compete with food
crops.

Industrial Uses Diatomaceous earth in filters, swimming pool purification, insecticide fillers. Beta-carotene
from Dunaliella as food colourant and antioxidant.

Coral Reef Support Zooxanthellae (symbiotic dinoflagellates) provide >90% of coral's energy needs through
photosynthesis. Coral bleaching occurs when zooxanthellae are expelled due to thermal
stress.
 6.5 Fungi-like Protists

6.5.1 Salient Features of Fungi-like Protists

Fungi-like protists absorb nutrients from dead or living organic matter (osmotrophic / saprotrophic),
resemble fungi in appearance, but differ fundamentally in cell biology and life cycles. Major groups: Slime
Molds (Myxomycota) and Water Molds (Oomycota).

Slime Molds Water Molds

• Slime Molds (Myxomycota) • Water Molds (Oomycota)
• Plasmodial slime molds: vegetative stage is a • Filamentous, absorb nutrients from decaying
multinucleate plasmodium (naked, streaming organic matter or parasitise plants/animals.
mass). • Cell walls contain cellulose (not chitin like true
• Cellular slime molds (Dictyosteliomycota): individual fungi).
amoeboid cells aggregate when starved. • Produce biflagellate zoospores for asexual
• Move by cytoplasmic streaming; engulf bacteria and dispersal in water.
organic particles (phagocytosis). • Sexual reproduction produces thick-walled
• Produce stalked fruiting bodies (sporangia) oospores.
bearing haploid spores. • Examples: Saprolegnia, Phytophthora, Pythium,
• Examples: Physarum, Fuligo, Dictyostelium. Albugo.

6.5.2 Life Cycles

A. Life Cycle of Plasmodial Slime Mold (Myxomycota) – e.g., Physarum

① Spore germination: Under moist conditions, haploid spores germinate to produce flagellated swarm
cells or amoeboid myxamoebae.
② Fusion (syngamy): Two compatible myxamoebae fuse (plasmogamy + karyogamy) forming a diploid
zygote.
③ Plasmodium formation: Zygote undergoes repeated mitosis WITHOUT cytokinesis → multinucleate
diploid plasmodium. Moves via cytoplasmic streaming (up to 1 m/day). Feeds on bacteria, yeast,
decaying matter.
④ Unfavourable conditions: Plasmodium migrates to exposed surface → transforms into sporangia
(stalked fruiting bodies).
⑤ Meiosis: Inside sporangia, diploid nuclei undergo meiosis producing haploid spores enclosed in a
wall.
⑥ Spore dispersal: Spores released by wind/rain; cycle repeats.

B. Life Cycle of Water Mold (Oomycota) – e.g., Saprolegnia / Phytophthora

① Vegetative growth: Diploid hyphae (coenocytic) grow and absorb nutrients by secreting enzymes.
② Asexual reproduction – Zoosporogenesis: Hyphae form zoosporangia at tips. Contents cleave
into numerous biflagellate zoospores (primary: pear-shaped, lateral flagella; secondary:
kidney-shaped, anterior tinsel + posterior whiplash flagella). Zoospores swim to new host and encyst.
③ Sexual reproduction – Oogenesis: Antheridium (■) grows alongside oogonium (■). Fertilisation
tubes penetrate oogonium; nuclei migrate to fuse with oospheres forming diploid oospores.
④ Oospore germination: Thick-walled oospores survive unfavourable conditions. On germination,
produce zoosporangia or hyphae directly.
6.5.3 Contribution to Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling

Decomposition
• Saprotrophic nutrition: secrete extracellular enzymes (cellulases, proteases, lipases) to break down dead
plant and animal matter.
• Water molds (Saprolegnia, Pythium) decompose dead aquatic organisms (leaves, fish, insects).
• Slime molds engulf and digest bacteria, fungal spores, and organic particles in soil.
• Breakdown of complex polymers (cellulose, lignin, proteins) into simpler molecules.

Nutrient Cycling
• Release of inorganic nutrients (N, P, K, S) from organic matter makes them available for plant uptake.
• Slime molds in soil microbiome regulate bacterial populations, indirectly affecting nitrogen mineralisation.
• Water molds contribute to decomposition of woody debris in aquatic ecosystems, returning carbon to the
water column.
• Oomycetes as pathogens (e.g., Phytophthora in potato blight) cycle nutrients from living plants into the
ecosystem.
• Important role in litter decomposition in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
6.5.4 Justifying Classification by Comparison
The three groups of protists are compared with their counterpart kingdoms to justify their classification as
'animal-like,' 'plant-like,' and 'fungi-like.'

Feature Animal-like True Plant-like True Plants Fungi-like True Fungi

Protists Animals Protists Protists

Nutrition Heterotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic (p Autotrophic ( Absorptive Absorptive

(ingestion) (ingestion) hotosynthesis) photosynthesi heterotrophic heterotrophic
s)

Cell Wall Absent Absent Present (cellul Present Present Present

(pellicle only) ose/silica) (cellulose) (cellulose in (chitin)
Oomycota)

Locomotio Flagella, cilia, Muscle Non-motile Non-motile Non-motile Non-motile

n pseudopodia contraction (mostly) (except
zoospores)

Body Org. Unicellular Multicellular; t Uni/multi-cellul Multicellular; Uni-/coenocyti Multicellular

issues/organs ar; no true tissues c filaments hyphae +
tissues present mycelium

Reproducti Asexual/sexual Sexual; Asexual/sexual Sexual; Spores; zygos Spores; sexu

on ; no embryo embryo ; no embryo embryo pores/oospore al/asexual
formed formed s

Key — True tissues, — True vascular — Chitin wall,

Difference embryo, tissue, not cellulose;
from gastrulation embryo, no motile
Protist cuticle spores

Why Protists are NOT animals, plants, or fungi

• vs Animals: Protozoa lack true tissues, organ systems, and embryonic development. They are unicellular;
animals are multicellular with differentiated tissues.
• vs Plants: Algae lack true roots, stems, leaves, vascular tissue, cuticle, and do not form embryos protected
by maternal tissue.
• vs Fungi: Fungi-like protists (Oomycota) have cellulose cell walls (not chitin), produce biflagellate motile
spores, and are diploid throughout most of their life cycle.
• Unifying protist features: All are eukaryotic; most unicellular; absence of complex differentiated tissues;
simple or absent embryology.

End of Chapter 6 – Protists • All learning objectives (6.1.1 – 6.5.4) covered