Russia by 1924 - Timeline & Summary

Under Lenin's leadership, the Bolshevik government had secured control

over the Russian Empire. 1922 was a significant year in the Bolshevik
consolidation of power. After the Russian Civil War, Lenin established a
communistdictatorship. Lenin refused to share power and used
repression to eliminate his enemies. As a result, Lenin developed an
autocratic and centralised government.
In December 1922, Lenin led the creation of the Soviet Union, or the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). This was a formal union
between Russia, Belorussia, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia
under communist rule. The USSR created a constitution that promised
human rights for its people. In reality, the Soviet people did not have
these rights.
When Lenin died in 1924 after years of ill health, it left a significant
power vacuum in the USSR.
Death of Lenin, 1924
• From mid-1921, Lenin's health declined
He survived an assassination attempt in 1918
▪ Fanya Kaplan, a member of the SRs, shot Lenin twice outside a factory in Moscow
▪ One of the lead bullets was lodged in Lenin's head. It was slowly poisoning his brain
He suffered a massive stroke in May 1922
• From then until his death in January 1924, Lenin became increasingly paralysed
Another stroke in March 1923 left Lenin unable to speak
From this point, he was unable to lead the Bolshevik Party actively
• Lenin died on 21st January 1924
The Bolsheviks embalmed Lenin's body and created a mausoleum

Lenin's Testament
• Between late 1922 and early 1923, Lenin dictated his last will
It stated Lenin's aims for the Bolshevik Party after his death
It would become a controversial document
What did Lenin Say about Trotsky?
"[Trotsky] is personally perhaps the most capable man in the present C.C. [Central Committee], but he has
displayed excessive self-assurance and shown excessive preoccupation with the purely administrative side of the
work"
What Does this Mean?
• Lenin believed that Trotsky was a capable member of the party
• However, he thought Trotsky was:
Overconfident and arrogant
Too focused on paperwork rather than leading the party
What did Lenin Base his Opinion on?
• Lenin had given a lot of power to Trotsky
Trotsky had proved in the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War that he was a capable
member of the Bolshevik Party
• Trotsky was a gifted orator and writer
As a result, many party members believed that Trotsky was arrogant
Trotsky believed he was more intelligent and more devoted to communism than many Bolsheviks
• Trotsky was Jewish
Although Trotsky did not practice Judaism, it turned many of the party against him
What did Lenin Say about Stalin?
"Comrade Stalin, having become Secretary-General, has unlimited authority concentrated in his hands, and I am
not sure whether he will always be capable of using that authority with sufficient caution"
"Stalin is too rude... That is why I suggest that the comrades think about a way of removing Stalin from that
post and appointing another man in his stead who [is] more tolerant, more loyal, more polite and more
considerate to the comrades"
What Does this Mean?
• Lenin believed that Stalin could not be trusted with power
• Stalin came across as rude, disloyal, unpolite and argumentative with his colleagues
What did Lenin Base his Opinion on?
• Stalin had risen quickly through the Bolshevik Party
Stalin had little to no role in the October Revolution
Lenin gave Stalin the position of Commissar for Nationalities in November 1917
Stalin made his reputation during the Russian Civil War. Lenin appointed Stalin as a Political Commissar
to several generals
In 1921, Stalin became General Secretary of the Bolshevik Party
• Lenin became suspicious of Stalin
Stalin built a support base in the party that was loyal to him
Lenin viewed Stalin as cruel and uneducated
▪ Stalin came from Georgia, which Lenin viewed as an inferior nationality
• Stalin's anger became a serious issue
In March 1923, Lenin discovered that Stalin had shouted at Lenin's wife on the telephone
▪ Lenin saw this as an unforgivable act
Another stroke left Lenin unable to remove Stalin as General Secretary

Contenders by 1924
• After Lenin's death, the party became divided between the left-wing and the right-wing
Left-wing beliefs
Right-wing beliefs
Believed in War Communism
Believed in the New Economic Policy
Favoured the 'permanent revolution'. This stated that the USSR needed to spread communism across
the world. This wasunpopular with the party
Favoured 'Socialism in One Country'. This wanted to strengthen communism in the USSR before
pursuing global communism. This was popular with the party
• The main contenders for Lenin's position can be divided in this way:

• Lenin did not name a successor

The left and right of the Bolshevik
Party fought in a power struggle
The result of the power struggle
would give the USSR a leader

How did Stalin Become Leader?

• Stalin played a clever political game to
become the leader of the USSR
• By December 1929, Stalin was the
undisputed leader of the USSR
Why Did Stalin Launch the Purges?

Why were the Purges so Damaging to the USSR? - Summary

Historians consider Stalin as one of the most ruthlessdictators in the 20th century. It is estimated that over 20
million Soviet people died during Stalin's rule. This is more than the amount of people killed under Hitler's regime.
The purges are a significant factor as to why so many people died in the USSR.
Stalin's paranoia fuelled millions of political attacks. These arrests and assassinations affected all areas of society,
from senior Bolsheviks to the working classes. Many people did not commit the crimes that the state accused
them of. The state either forced confessions through torture or decided they were guilty through state-decided
verdicts in show trials.
The purges had significant impacts on the USSR. People lived in constant fear and many citizens worked
themselves to death to avoid punishment. Soviet industry struggled as trained workers were victims of the
purges. The Soviet economy relied on the quantity, rather than the quality, of products. The purges also
weakened the USSR. By the start of the Second World War, the Red Army had few experienced military leaders.

Political Motives
Securing Power
• Stalin became the leader of the USSR through a power struggle
This created many enemies for Stalin
• Stalin became paranoid
By the mid-1930s, Stalin believed that many party members wanted to overthrow him
▪ He distrusted anyone with previous links to Lenin or Trotsky
▪ He aimed to use any means to eliminate them as a threat to his leadership
Stalin wanted to establish a strong dictatorship
▪ He did not want any opposition to the government
▪ He wanted to ensure that all Soviet citizens had total loyalty to him by using fear tactics
Sergei Kirov
• Kirov was a senior politician in the USSR
Kirov became a Politburo member in 1930
• In 1934, a man named Leonid Nikolayev assassinated Kirov
Many historians believe that Stalin organised the assassination
▪ Kirov wanted to reform Stalin's harsh economic policies
• Stalin used Kirov's assassination to launch the Great Purge
Stalin claimed the event had uncovered an anti-Stalinist conspiracy
This triggered the Moscow Trials Trials(opens in a new tab)
, which accused the following rivals of treason
▪ Kamenev
▪ Zinoviev
▪ Bukharin
▪ Rykov
Historians state that the men agreed to these forced confessions after interrogation and torture

Economic Motives
• Stalin tried to implement rapid industrialisation in the USSR
He stated that the USSR needed to 'catch up' industrially with the West
• The purges helped Stalin with his economic aims because:
Stalin could arrest and murder people who missed their production targets
▪ The state accused many people of beingsaboteurs
The fear of the purges forced people to work harder
▪ This meant that the USSR could make significant economic progress
Stalin could gain free labour
▪ Those arrested in the GULAG system had to do forced labour
 What Groups were Targeted in the Purges?

Around 70% of the Central Committeemembers in 1934 were arrested and shot. Stalin removed older
Party Members
Bolshevik members on the left and right of the party through show trials. The party encouraged
members to denounce other members

Stalin charged leaders of national republicswith treason. Four out of five regional Party secretaries
Nationalities and thousands of lesser officials lost positions. Around 350,000 minorities, including 140,000 Polish
people, were put on trial

Stalin heavily attacked the armed forces. Eight senior generals and three out of five marshals were shot.
Armed forces
By the end of Stalin's regime, all three armed forces had lost about 50% of their officers

By 1938, Stalin turned against the NKVD. He blamed them for excessive arrests. In reality, he believed
NKVD the NKVD knew too much. Stalin tried and executed Yagoda, the head of the NKVD, and 23,000 officers

Managers,
engineers andMany educated people lost their positions. Some of these were executed. A large amount of the
scientists intelligentsia fled to the West

Peasants and
industrial It is difficult to determine how many working-class people were victims of the purges. Kulaks
workers represented around 50% of all the arrests and executions in this period

Relatives of theAnyone related to or associated with victims of the purges were vulnerable. Their connection to
purged 'enemies of the state' meant that the state could arrest, deport or shoot them

The Great Terror (Yezhovshina) 1936-1938

• Kirov's assassination triggered the Great Terror (known in Russian as the Yezhovshina)
Many historians believe that it ended in 1938
Other historians state that it did not officially end until Trotsky's assassination
Trotsky's Assassination
• Trotsky was a serious threat to Stalin
The Moscow Trials sentenced Trotsky to deathdespite not being there
▪ He no longer lived in the USSR
▪ He travelled to several countries before settling in Mexico
Trotsky wrote many articles against Stalin
• In 1940, Trotsky was assassinated
A Spanish communist named Ramón Mercader murdered Trotsky with an ice pick in his house
The Soviet government refused to take responsibility for Trotsky's murder
Purges After the Great Terror
• After the Great Terror, purges continued to happen
Stalin's leadership sent three million people into the GULAG system and murdered roughly 750,000 people
• These purges had a significant impact on the Second World War
In the first few months of Operation Barbarossa, the USSR suffered significant defeats
Young military leaders eventually led to the USSR's victory over Germany
Stalin's Methods to Control the Soviet Union
Did Stalin Rule by Fear or Love? - Summary
Stalin ruled the USSR primarily through fear rather than love. He created a cult of personality and used
propaganda to portray himself as a popular leader. However, his regime relied upon repression,
intimidation and violence.
Stalin also employed fear tactics to limit dissent. The state arrested people with no evidence of a crime,
found them guilty in show trials and placed them into forced labour camps or executed them. These
methods instilled a climate of fear. It ensured compliance with the regime's policies.
Stalin's propaganda machine portrayed him as a beloved fatherly figure and saviour of the Soviet people.
The reality was that he ruled through fear and the elimination of perceived enemies.
The NKVD
• Communist Russia had a secret police
From 1917 to 1922, it was called the Cheka
From 1922 to 1934, it was called the OGPU
• The NKVD was formed in 1934
It combined all forms of the military and general police force into one organisation
Its full name was the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs
What was the Role of the NKVD?
• The government tasked the NKVD with eliminating political enemies
It carried out the Great Purges for Stalin
It did not need evidence or witnesses to make an arrest
From 1935, they could prosecute children as young as 12 as adults

What Tactics did the NKVD use?

• If workers broke workplace rules, they could face:
Fines
Being fired from their job
• The NKVD used even harsher tactics to maintain control

The GULAG System

• The GULAG system was created in 1919
GULAG is an acronym that translates to the Chief Administration of
Corrective Labour Camps
It was an organisation of forced labour camps, which were called lagery
in Russian
The state placed many of the lagery in Siberia
The secret police administrated the system
• The GULAG aimed to:
Severely punish criminals
Deter other citizens from committing crimes
Provide the state with free labour
Prisoners in the GULAG System
• A range of people were prisoners in the GULAG system, including:
Political opponents
Kulaks and NEPmen
Workers accused of sabotaging
Members of the military
Artists who broke censorship
What were Conditions Like in the GULAG System?
• The lagery had terrible living conditions
Prisoners lived in overcrowded wooden lodges
There was little sanitation
▪ Diseases spread in these conditions
There was no heating
▪ Many people died from the cold conditions of Siberia
• The prisoners completed forced physical labour
Prisoners had to meet production targets
▪ These were unattainable
▪ Many prisoners died of overworking
• The camp rationed food for prisoners
Prisoners received more rations if they completed more work
If a prisoner did not meet their targets, the prisoner received less rations
▪ Prisoners died of starvation
Show Trials
• A show trial was a staged, public trial with a predetermined outcome
In the Great Purge, Stalin placed high-profile Bolsheviks in show trials
The NKVD tortured suspects so they would confess, even if they did not commit the crime
The state ensured the judge knew the sentence before the trial

The Trial of 16 The Trial of 17

1936 1937
• Disrupting Five-Year Plans • Disrupting Five-Year Plans
• The murder of Kirov • The murder of Kirov
16 people, including Zinoviev and Kamenev • Plotting to overthrow the government
• Guilty Party officials
• All 16 people were executed • Guilty
• 13 people were executed
• Four people were sent into the GULAG system
The Trial of 21
1938
• Disrupting Five-Year Plans
• The murder of Kirov
• Plotting to overthrow the government
21 people, including Bukharin and Yagoda, the head of the NKVD
• Guilty
• All 21 people were executed
• Bukharin spoke out about the corruptionof the trial
Propaganda and the Cult of Stalin
• The Bolsheviks knew the importance of propaganda
The party used propaganda posters in the tsaristregime to win support
• The Soviet government heavily censored information
The communist newspaper Pravda was the only legal newspaper in the USSR
Western radio stations were banned
The government controlled public events to ensure that the USSR looked good
• Stalin relied on propaganda to:
Create portraits, photographs and statues across the USSR of Stalin as:
▪ A god-like figure
▪ 'Uncle Joe' and the father of the USSR
Spread Stalin's image and ideas across the USSR
▪ Parades celebrating the October Revolution and May Day occurred annually
▪ Participants held images of Stalin or performed in front of him in the Red Square, Moscow
Re-write history
▪ The government edited photographs to remove Bolshevik Party members considered 'enemies of the state'
under Stalin's regime
▪ History textbooks wrote Lenin and Stalin, rather than Trotsky, as the key figures in the October Revolution

Culture in Stalin's Regime

• Stalin believed that controlling Soviet culture was important
He wanted all artists, writers and musicians to strengthen, not challenge, the state
Culture could be far-reaching and powerful in changing the opinions of Soviet citizens
 How Complete was Stalin's Control by 1941?

Arguments for Stalin's Complete Control of Russia

Arguments Against Stalin's Complete Control of Russia

Why Did Stalin Introduce the Five-Year Plans?

How Important were the Five-Year Plans - Summary
The Five-Year Plans were pivotal in shaping the economy and society of the USSR under Stalin's rule.
Stalin aimed to rapidly industrialise the nation and achieve specific economic goals within five-year intervals. These plans
played a significant role in transforming the USSR from an agricultural society into a major industrial power.
Stalin focused on the development of heavy industry, infrastructure and agriculture. This resulted in impressive
advancements in sectors such as steel production and transportation. However, the plans also resulted in high social
and human costs, including forced labour, famine and political repression. The government set unrealistic and
unachievable targets that could never be met.
Overall, while the Five-Year Plans helped to modernise the Soviet Union, their implementation came with significant
costs.
 Reasons for the Five-Year Plans
• The Five-Year Plans aimed to rapidly industrialise the USSR
• Stalin introduced the concept in 1928
There were many motivations behind the Five-Year Plans

Details of Stalin's Five-Year Plans

• Stalin created Gosplan to organise the Five-Year Plan
Gosplan stood for 'State Committee for Planning'
It set targets for:
▪ Each region
▪ Each factory
▪ Each manager
▪ Each worker
Targets were ambitious and usually unachievable
• Stalin utilised foreign help and investment from countries like Britain
and the USA to help
• In Stalin's regime, there were three Five-Year Plans

The First Five-Year Plan

1928-1932
Targets - To develop heavy industry such as coal, iron, steel and electricity
Increase production by 300%
Outcomes - The building of steelworks such as Magnitogorsk. Coal and iron
output doubled Targets were unrealistic so they could not be met. There was a
shortage of skilled workers
The Second Five-Year Plan
1933 - 1937
Target - To focus on lighter industries such as chemicals, railways and communication To further develop heavy industry
Outcomes - The Moscow Railway was completed. However, targets were still too unrealistic and output was of
poor quality Heavy industry production more than doubled
The Stakhanovite Movement
• The movement began during the second Five-Year Plan in 1935
• Its name came from Aleksei Stakhanov
Stakhanov reportedly mined 102 tons of coal in less than 6 hours (14 times his quota) on 31 August 1935
• The communist government embraced Stakhanov's achievement
Stakhanov travelled the country as a national celebrity
The government gave Stakhanov a home, extra pay and more holiday
The government organised contests all over the country to find the best worker in each industry
• The publicity attracted people to follow Stakhanov's example
On 1 February 1936, Nikita Izotov reportedly mined 640 tons of coal in a single shift
Stakhanovites were located in multiple industries in towns and the countryside
• Stakhanov and his followers likely did not achieve these levels of output
It only increased expectations and pressure on workers and managers

The Third Five-Year Plan

1938 - 1941
Target - To mechanise and improve agriculture To produce some consumer goods
Outcomes - There was a lack of good managers and specialists due to Stalin's purges
The Second World War meant the plan had to be abandoned
Why Did Stalin Introduce Collectivisation?
How Significant was Collectivisation for the USSR? - Summary
Collectivisation was a significant policy created by Stalin in 1928. It aimed to combine individual farms into collective farms.
The state owned and managed some of these farms. This policy had several significant impacts on the USSR.
Economically, collectivisation aimed to increase agriculturalproductivity. By creating large farms, peasants could use modern
resources and farming techniques. However, the forced collectivisation led to widespread resistance among peasants.
Peasants destroyed crops, livestock and infrastructure. Collective farms were also poorly run and inefficient. These factors
led to widespread famine and food shortages, particularly in Ukraine (the famine in Ukraine was called the Holodomor).
Collectivisation consolidated Stalin's control over agricultural communities. It began the process of dekulakisation. This
eliminated the influence of wealthy kulaks, who were seen as a threat to the socialist state. Collectivisation strengthened
the state's grip on the ruralpopulation.
Socially, collectivisation resulted in the suffering of millions of peasants. The state forcibly relocated peasants, causing the
loss of their land. Peasants who resisted collectivisation faced punishment. The policy disrupted traditional rural communities
and led to social unrest.
 Reasons for Collectivisation
• While the Five-Year Plans focused on rapid industrialisation, collectivisation
aimed to improve agricultural output
• Stalin introduced the concept in 1928
There are many motivations behind collectivisation
How did Collectivisation Work?
• Stalin was forced to introduced collectivisation in two stages:
Stage One
Increase the mechanisationof farming and bring the peasants under government
control
Stage Two
The slowing down of collectivisation and the introduction of machine tractor stations
(MTS)

The Process of Collectivisation

What Issues did Collectivisation Cause?

• The state forced peasants to collectivise
Richer and poorer peasants resented the government for forcing them to leave their home
• Peasants continued to rebel
Peasants destroyed crops and animals rather than hand them over to the government
• Collectivisation had damaging impacts on Ukraine
Ukraine was a profitable agricultural region of the USSR
▪ It grew a vast amount of grain
Ukraine fought back against collectivisation
▪ Ukraine had a strong cultural and national identity
The government punished Ukrainian peasants
▪ They violently repressed the peasants who refused to collectivise
▪ In 1932, they increased the government quotafor grain despite there being a poor harvest
The government caused the 'Holodomor'
▪ This means 'death by hunger'
▪ The government took all food from peasants who could not meet their quota
How Successful were Stalin's Economic Changes?
Were Stalin's Economic Policies a Success? - Summary
Stalin's economic policies in the USSR aimed to rapidly industrialise the country and build a socialist society. These policies,
including the Five-Year Plans and collectivisation, had both successes and failures.
One success of Stalin's economic policies was the rapid industrialisation of the USSR. This industrialisation laid the foundation
for the USSR to become a major world power. It allowed the USSR to survive the challenges of the Second World War.
Another success was the modernisation of agriculturethrough collectivisation. Collectivisation eventually increased
agricultural productivity. This contributed to the USSR's ability to feed its growing urban workforce.
However, Stalin's economic policies also had significant failures and shortcomings. The rapid pace of industrialisation led to
poor-quality products and shortages of consumer goods. Workers often faced harsh working conditions and low living
standards. Collectivisation resulted in widespread famine and suffering.
 Successes of Stalin's Economic Policies

Successes of the Five-Year Plans

The USSR increased its industrial output to levels comparable to the West. It was the second-largest producer of steel in
1940
Stalin abandoned the third Five-Year Plan to focus on rearmament. The industrialisation allowed the USSR to rearm quickly
and fight in the Second World War
The state invested some money to improve living standards in industrial towns. By the third Five-Year Plan, there were so
consumer goods for Soviet citizens
Successes of Collectivisation
By 1940, grain production increased to 95 million tons. In 1928, the USSR produced 73 million tons. New farming techniqu
and technology aided this
Stalin succeeded in dekulakisation. He eliminated kulaks as a class by 1934
Industrial workers had more food. The USSR managed toexport 1.69 million tons of grain in 1933. The profit of this
was used to hire foreign experts and machinery
Weaknesses of Stalin's Economic Policies
Weaknesses of the Five-Year Plans
The Five-Year Plans focused on speed rather than efficiency. Making products quickly resulted in a large amount of
waste. Products were often of poor quality when compared to Western products
Rapid industrialisation was dangerous. Workers died or became injured on state-funded projects. In the first five
years of building Magnitogorsk, 10,000 people died
Stalin used the Five-Year Plans as a political punishment. Prisoners in the GULAG system completed manual labour
and had production targets. About ten million workers were deported from the USSR as political opponents
Weaknesses of Collectivisation
The peasants had no choice but to collectivise. They protested by burning crops or killing livestock. As a result,
nearly ten million kulaks were executed or removed from their land
The pressure of collectivisation worsened agricultural conditions. Famines in Stalin's regime killed nearly 13 million
people
Peasants became reliant on the state. The state paid peasants poorly for their crops or gave them low wages.
Peasants only had one acre of land for personal use. Before collectivisation, peasants had an average of 13.5 acres