Chapter 3

Hardware: Input, Processing, Output and Storage Devices

Micaela Eckard

Computer Systems: Integrating the Power of Technology

Hardware components
-Each computer processes its input through one or more central processing units
and
primary storage
-Each Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of 3 elements:
1. The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
2. The Control Unit
3. Register Areas
-The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)- Performs mathematical calculations and
makes
logical comparisons
-The control unit - It sequentially accesses program instructions, decodes them,
and
coordinates the flow of data in and out of the ALU, registers, primary and
secondary
storage, and various output devices
-Registers – They are high-speed storage areas used to temporarily hold small
units
of program instructions and data immediately before, during, and after
execution
by the CPU

Storage (Primary and Secondary)

Primary storage (main memory)

-provides the CPU with a working storage area for program instructions and
data
-It holds program instructions and data immediately before or after the
registers
-The chief feature of main memory is that it rapidly provides the data and
instructions to the CPU

Secondary Storage (Permanent Storage)

-It allows organizations to store large amounts of data and instructions more
permanently than main memory allows
-Compared with main memory, secondary storage offers the advantages of
non-volatility, greater capacity, and greater economy

Hardware Components in Action

Executing any machine level instructions has 2 phases
1. Instruction
2. Execution

During the instruction phase

-Step 1: Fetch instructions – the computer reads the next program instruction
to be executed and any necessary data into the processor
-Step 2: Decode instruction – The instruction is decoded and passes to the
appropriate processor execution unit. Each execution unit plays a different
role.
-Instruction time(I-time) – it is the time it takes to perform the instruction
phase (steps 1&2).

During the execution phase

-Step 3: Execution instruction – the hardware element caries out the
instructions with the instructions and date from the instruction phase
-Step 4: Store results – The results from step 3 are stored in registers or memory
-Execution time (e-time) – it’s the time it takes to complete the execution phase
(steps 3&4)
Execution of an Instruction

Machine Cycle - When completing the instruction phase followed by the

execution phase

Pipelining – A CPU operation in which multiple execution phases are performed

in a single machine-cycle

Processing and Memory Devices: Power, Speed and Capacity

Processing Characteristics and Functions:

Machine Cycle Time:

-Time it takes to execute an instruction
-Time is measured in
1. Nanoseconds (one-billionth of a second)
2. Picoseconds (one-trillionth of a second)
3. Also measured by how many instructions are executed in one second
-Called MIPS: millions of instructions per second

Clock Speed
-Predetermined rate a CPU produces a series of electronic pulses
-Effects machine cycle time
-Often measured in megahertz (MHz, millions of cycles per second) or gigahertz
(GHz, billions of cycles per second)
-The faster the clock speed, the more heat the processor generates
-This heat must be dissipated to avoid corrupting the data

Physical Characteristics of the CPU

Moore’s Law:
-A hypothesis that states transistor densities in a single chip will double every
2 years.
-This rule of thumb has become a goal that chip manufactures have met more
or less for more than 4 decades
-Chip manufacturers have been able to improve productivity and performance
by putting more transistors on the same chip size while reducing the amount of
power required to perform tasks

Memory Characteristics and Functions:

Main memory is located physically close to the CPU, not on CPU chip itself

Storage Capacity
-Normally 8 bits represents a letter such as the letter A
-8 bits together form a byte (B)
-Storage capacity is measured in bytes

Types of Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM)

-A form of memory in which instructions or data can be temporarily stored
-RAM chips are volatile storage devices -> they lose their contents if current is
turned off or disrupted
-Mounted directly on the computers main circuit board or on peripheral cards
that plugs into the main circuit board
-Comes in varieties
1. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) – byte-addressable storage
used for high-speed registers and caches
2. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) – byte addressable storage
used for main memory in a computer
3. Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
(DDR SDRAM) – improved form of DRAM -> doubles the rate at which
data can be moved in and out of the main memory

Read-only Memory (ROM)

-ROM chips are non-volatile -> contents are not lost when power is turned off
or interrupted
-Provides permanent storage for data and instructions that do not change
-Comes in varieties
1. Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) – holds data and
instructions that can never change
2. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) – Programmable
ROM that can be erased and reduced
3. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) – Is
user-modifiable read only memory that can be erased and
programmable repeatedly through the application of higher than
normal electrical voltage

Phase Change Memory (PCM)

-Memory chip that offers minimal power, extremely fast write speed, can store
data accurately -> such a chip can eliminate the need for RAM

Cache Memory
-A type of high-speed memory that a processor can access more rapidly than
main memory
-Cache data holds less data; the CPU can access the desired data and
instructions more quickly than when selecting a larger set of main memory
-The CPU can execute instructions faster improving the overall performance of
the computer system
-Is available in 3 forms
1. Level 1 cache (L1) – on the CPU chip
2. Level 2 cache (L2) – can be accessed by the CPU over a high speed
dedicated interface
3. Level 3 cache (L3) – placing the Level 3 cache directly on the CPU chip
and providing a high-speed support for a tertiary Level 3 external
cache

Multiprocessing:
Multiprocessing
-The simultaneous execution of 2 or more instructions at the same time

Coprocessor
-Speeds processing by executing specific types of instructions while the CPU
works on another processing activity
-Coprocessor is one form of multiprocessing
-Can be internal or external to the CPU
-Each type of coprocessor performs a specific task

Multicore microprocessor
-Combines 2 or more independent processors into a single computer -> share
the workload
-Dual-core processor enables people to perform multiple tasks simultaneously
-When selecting a CPU -> organizations must balance the benefits of
processing speeds with energy requirements and cost

Parallel Computing:

Parallel Computing
-A form of multiprocessing that speeds the processing by linking several
processors to operate at the same time or in parallel

Massively parallel processing systems

-A form of multiprocessing that speeds processing by linking hundreds or
thousands of processors to operate at the same time, or in parallel, with each
processor having its own bus, memory, discs, copy of operating system and
applications

The most frequent uses for parallel computing include

1. Modelling
2. Simulations
3. Analyzing large amounts of data

Grid computing
-The use of a collection of computers, often owned by multiple individuals or
organizations, to work in a coordinated manner to solve a common problem
-It is a low-cost approach to parallel computing
-Can include dozens, hundreds even thousands of computers -> run
collectively to solve extremely large processing problems
-Key to success -> a central server that acts as a grid leader and traffic monitor
Secondary Storage:

Stores large amounts of data, instructions and information more permanently

than
main memory

Secondary storage offers the advantages of nonvolatile, greater capacity and

greater
economy

On the basis of cost-per-megabyte basis, secondary storage is cheaper than

primary
storage

Primary characteristics of secondary storage

-Access method
-Capacity
-Portability

Devices for secondary storages

-Magnetic tape and disks
-Compact disk read-only memory
-Optical disks
-Memory cards
-Flash memory
-Removable storage

Access Methods
Sequential Access
-A retrieval method in which data must be accessed in the order in which it
was stored
Direct Access
-A retrieval method in which data can be retrieved without the need to read
and discard other data
-It is possible to go directly to and access the needed data, without going in
sequence
-Faster than sequential access
Sequential Access Storage Devices (SASDs)
-Devices used only to access secondary storage sequentially
Direct Access Storage Devices (DASDs)
-Devices used for direct access to secondary storage
Secondary Storage Devices
-Not directly accessible by the CPU
-Computers use input/output channels to access secondary storage
-Magnetic Secondary Storage Devices
-Magnetic Tape
-A type of sequential secondary storage medium, now used primarily for
strong backups of critical organizational data in the event of a disaster
-Magnetic Disk
-A direct access storage device with bits represented by magnetized areas
-Redundant array of independent/inexpensive discs (RAID)
-A method of storing data that generates extra bits of data from existing
data, allowing the system to create a reconstruction map so that if hard
drive fails, it can rebuild lost data
-RAID technology has been applied to storage systems -> improve system
performance and reliability
-Disc mirroring
-A process of storing data that provides an exact copy that protects users
fully in the event of data loss
-Other RAID methods are less expensive, only duplicates half of the data
-Virtual Tape
-A storage device for less frequently needed data so that it appears to be
stored entirely on tape cartridges, although some parts might actually be
located on faster hard discs

Optical Secondary Storage Devices

-Optical storage devices
-A form of data storage that uses lasers to read and write data
-The lasers record data by physically burning pits in the disc
-Compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM)
-A common form of an optical disc on which data cannot be modified once
it has been recorded
-After data is recorded, cannot be modified
-Two most common devices that can record data
1. CD-Recordable (CD-R) – can write CDs once or repeatedly
2. CD-Rewritable (CD-RW)- technology that allows PC users to backup
data on CDs
-Digital Video Disc
-Looks like a CD -> can store 135min of digital video/several gigabytes of
data
Solid State Secondary Storage Devices
-Solid State Storage Devices (SSDs)
-Stores data in memory chips
-Memory chips require less power and provides faster data access than
magnetic data storage devices
-They have few moving parts; they are less fragile than hard discs

Storage Options:

Attached Storage
-Includes tape, hard discs and optical devices and is connected to a single
computer
-Does not always allow systems to share storage -> makes it difficult to backup

Network-Attached Storage (NAS)

-It’s a hard disc storage that is set up with its own network address rather than
being attacked by a computer
-It includes software to manage storage access and file management, relieving
the user’s computer of those tasks
-Common applications for NAS include
-Consolidated storage
-Internet
-E-commerce
-Digital media
Storage area network (SAN)
-A special purpose, high-speed network that provides direct connections
between data storage devices and computers over a network
-Also integrates different types of storage subsystems, such as multiple RAID
and magnetic tape backup systems, into a singular system
-SAN offloads the traffic from the network
-Difference between NAS and SAN
-NAS uses file input/output -> defines data as complete containers of
information
-SAN deals with block input/output which is based on subsets of data
smaller than a file
-SAN manufacturers include
-EMC
-Data Systems Corporation
-Xiotech
-IBM
Policy-based Storage Management’
-Automation of storage using previously defined policies
-The software products from industry leaders such as
-Veritas Software Corporation
-Legato Systems
-EMC
-IBM

Storage as a Service
-It is a data storage model in which a data storage service provider rents space
to people and organizations
-Such a service allows users to store and backup their data without requiring a
major investment to create and maintain their own data storage infrastructure

Input and Output Devices: The Gateway to Computer

Systems

Characteristics and Functionality

-Input devices let people enter data rapidly into a computer system
-Output devices let people produce timeless results
The Nature of Data
-Getting data into the computer – input – often requires transferring human-
readable data etc. a sales order into the corporate system
-Human readable data -> people can read and understand
-Machine readable data -> read by computer devices, typically stored as bits or
bytes
-Magnetic link on bank cards -> can be read by people and machines
Data Entry and Input
-Getting data into a computer system -> two-stage process
1. Data Entry
-The process by which human-readable data is converted into a
machine-readable form
2. Data Input
-The process of transferring machine-readable data into the computer
system
Source Data Automatism
-Capturing and editing data where the data is originally created and in a form
that can be directly input to a computer
-Any errors can be seen immediately
Input devices
Personal computer Input Devices
-A keyboard and mouse are the most common devices for entry and input of
data
-Keyboards are developed that is more comfortable -> ergonomic keyboards
-E.g., Split keyboards offered by Microsoft
-Touchpads for sketches
Speech-Recognition Technology
-Input devices that recognizes human speech e.g., microphone
-Interactive Voice Response (VR) systems allow a computer to recognize both
voice and keypad inputs
-Saves time and money
Digital Cameras
-An input device used with a PC to record and store images and videos in
digital form
-These photos and videos can be edited and printed

Scanning Devices
-Can captures image and character data
-They are like a photo copier
Optical Data Readers
-Used to scan documents
-2 categories of optical data readers
1. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) – Used to mark tests e.g., use pencils to fill in
the bubbles or check boxes on OMR paper and gets marked with OMR system
2. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) – use reflected lights to recognize and
scan various machine-generated characters
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Devices
-A system for reading baking data quickly
-Data is placed at the bottom of a cheque or other form using a special
magnetic ink
Magnetic Strip Cards
-Stores a limited amount of data by modifying the magnetism of tiny iron-based
particles contained in a band on the card
Chip-and-Pin Cards
-A type of card that employs a computer chip that communicates with a card
reader using frequencies
-Does not need to be swiped at a terminal
Contactless Cards
-A card with an embedded chip that only needs to be held close to a terminal
to transfer its data -> no pin needs to be entered
Point-of-Sale Devices (POS)
-A Terminal used to enter data into the computer system
-Often used in retail operations
Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Devices
-A terminal that bank customers use to perform transactions with their bank
accounts
Pen Input Devices
-By touching a screen with a pen as the input device
-Can activate a command or cause a computer to perform a task
-Requires special software and hardware
-Handwriting recognition software is needed
Touch-Sensitive Screens
-Screen technology now allows display screens to function as input as well as
output devices
Barcode Scanners
-It employs a laser scanner to read a barcoded label and pass the data to a
computer
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
-Its technology that employs a microchip with an antenna to broadcast its
unique identifier and location to receivers

Output Devices
-The output from one computer system can provide input into another
-The desired output can be visual, audio or digital
Display Monitors
-It’s used to display the output from the computer
-A Pixel – a dot of color on a photo image or a point of light on a display screen
-Plasma display – uses thousands of pixels consisting of electrodes and neon and
xenon gases that are electronically turned into plasma to emit light
-Each pixel is made of 3 colors -> red, blue and green
-LCD Screens – flat displays that uses liquid crystals
-Organic Light-emitting diode (OLED) – uses a layer of organic material
sandwiched between two conductors, which in turn are sandwiched between
a glass top plate and a glass bottom plate.
Printers and Plotters
-The most useful and common forms of output is called hard copy -> paper out
of a printer
-2 main types of printers
1. Laser printers
2. Inkjet printers
-Speed of a printer is measured by number of pages printed per minute
-A number of manufacturers offer multi-function printers -> print, copy, fax and
scan
-Plotters are a type of hard-copy output device -> used for general design work
Digital Audio Player
-A device that can store, organize and play digital music files
-MP3 – a standard format for compressing a sound sequence into a small file
E-book Readers
-The digital media equivalent of a conventional printed book
-Amazon kindle, Sony PRS and Kobo e-reader -> popular e-reader

Computer System Types

-Classified as special purpose computer or general-purpose computer
-Special Purpose computer – used for limited applications e.g., military,
government and scientific research groups
-General-purpose computers – used for a variety of applications and to execute
the business applications discussed in the text

Portable Computers
-A computer small enough to carry

Handheld computers
-A single user computer that provides ease of portability because of its small size
-These systems often include a number of software’s and communications
capabilities
-Most can communicate with desktop computers
-Require a lot of power

Smartphones
-Is a handheld computer combined with the functions of a mobile phone,
camera,
web browser, email tool, MP3 player and other tools into a single device

Laptop Computers/personal computer

-It’s a personal computer designed for use by mobile users
-They are small and light
-It is inexpensive
Notebook computers
-It is smaller than a laptop computer, an extremely lightweight computer that
weighs less than 2 KG and can fit in a briefcase
-They have less processing power

Netbook Computers
-Small, light, inexpensive member of the laptop computer family that is great for
tasks
-Do not require a lot of computing power
-It is not good for users who want to run demanding application, have many
applications open at the same time or needs a lot of storage

Tablet Computers
-A portable lightweight computer with no keyboard that allows you to roam the
office, home or factory floor, carrying the device like a clipboard
-Can text on it with your finger
-Can include optical keyboard or speech recognition

Nonportable Single-Users Computers

-Computers include thin client computers, desktop computers, nettop

computers and workstations

Thin Clients
-It is a low cost, centrally managed computer with essential but limited
capabilities and no extra drives or expansion slots
-Have limited capabilities
-With no hard discs -> never picks up viruses & never suffer hard disc crash
-Thin clients download data and software from a network when needed
-Less expensive and much easier to use applications

Desktop Computers
-Nonportable computer that fits on a desktop and that provides sufficient
computing
power, memory and storage for most business computing tasks
-It is highly versatile

Nettop Computers
-An inexpensive desktop computer designed to be smaller, lighter and consume
much
less power than a traditional desktop computer
-Designed to perform basic processing tasks
-Exchange email
-Internet surfing
-Accessing web-based applications
-Can be connected to an existing monitor

Workstations
-More powerful than personal computers but still small enough to fit on a
desktop
-Used to support engineering and technical users who perform heavy
mathematical
computing, computer-assisted design (CAD)
-More expensive than the average computer

Multiple-User Computer System

-Designed to support workgroups from a small department of 2 or 3 workers to
large organizations with many employees
-They include:

Servers
-A computer employed by many users to perform a specific task -> running a
network
-Have large memory and storage facilities
-Fast and efficient communications abilities

Server systems consists of multiuser computers, including

-Supercomputers – most powerful with fastest processing speeds
-Mainframes – large and powerful, shared by hundreds concurrently
-Other servers

Organization will house a large number of servers in the same room -> access to
the machines can be controlled -> authorized support personnel can easily
manage and maintain the servers -> single location -> called a server farm

Servers offer great scalability -> the ability to increase the processing capability
of a computer system so that it can handle more users, more data or more
transaction in a given period

Scalability -> increased by adding more and more powerful processors

-Scaling up -> adds more powerful processors
-Scaling out -> adds many more equal processors to increase the total data-
processing capacity
Blade server – houses many computer motherboards that include one or more
processors, computing memory, computing storage and computer network
connections

Mainframe computers
-A large, powerful computer shared by dozens or even hundreds of concurrent
users connected to the machine over a network
-The role of the mainframe is to undergo remarkable changes as lower-cost,
single-user computers become increasingly powerful
-Many computer jobs that used to run on mainframe computers have migrated
onto smaller, less expensive computers -> information-processing migration is
called computer downsizing

Supercomputers
-Most powerful computers with the fastest processing speed and highest
performance
-They are designed for applications that require extensive and rapid
computational capabilities
-Supercomputers are based on a new architecture that employs both GPU
chips to perform high-speed processing
-Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) – a specialized circuit that is very efficient at
manipulating computer graphics and is much faster than the typical CPU chip
at performing floating point operations and executing algorithms for which
processing of large blocks of data is done in parallel

Green Computing
-Green computing is a program concerned with the efficient and
environmentally
responsible design, manufacture, operation and disposal of IS-related products
-Has 3 goals
1. Reduce the use of hazardous material
2. Allow companies to lower their power-related costs
3. Enable the safe disposal or recycling of computers and computer-related
equipment