1) Explain absolute loader. State its advantages and disadvantages.

— 5

Absolute Loader

An absolute loader is the simplest type of loader.

Working

 The assembler produces object code with fixed addresses.

 The loader places the code directly into memory.

 It does not relocate addresses.

 It does not perform linking.

Advantages

 Very simple to design and use.

 Fast loading.

 No extra processing overhead.

Disadvantages

 Program must be loaded only at the given address.

 No relocation is possible.

 Cannot handle multiple modules easily.

 Not flexible for large systems.

2) Explain Direct Linking Loader in suitable example. — 10

Direct Linking Loader

A direct linking loader loads several object modules into memory and links them during loading
time.
It resolves external references between modules and places them in memory directly.

Main Functions

 Allocation: assigns memory addresses.

 Linking: connects different modules.

 Relocation: adjusts address values.

 Loading: copies object code into memory.

Working

1. The loader reads all object modules.

3. It creates a common symbol table.

4. It assigns memory addresses to each module.

5. It updates all address references.

6. Finally, it loads the program into memory.

Example

Suppose:

 Module A defines X

 Module B uses X

The loader:

 stores the address of X from Module A

 replaces the reference of X in Module B with that address

Simple Flow

 Read object files

 Collect symbols

 Assign addresses

 Resolve references

 Load into memory

Advantages

 No need for a separate linking step.

 External references are resolved automatically.

 Easy to use for multi-module programs.

Disadvantages

 Loading time becomes longer.

 Loader becomes more complex.

 Needs memory for symbol tables and reference handling.

3) Discuss the databases used in direct linking loader. — 10

In a direct linking loader, the loader maintains some important tables or databases to manage
symbols, addresses, and linking.

1. ESTAB (External Symbol Table)

Purpose

 Stores all external symbols defined in different modules.

 Keeps their addresses.

Contents

 Control section name

 Symbol name

 Relative/absolute address

 Length of control section

Use

 Helps the loader find the address of external references.

2. PROGADDR

It stores the starting address of the whole program in memory.

Use

 Used as the base address for loading the first control section.

3. CSADDR (Control Section Address)

It stores the starting address of the current control section.

Use

 Helps calculate actual addresses of symbols in each module.

4. CSLTH (Control Section Length)

It stores the length of the current control section.

Use

 Helps decide where the next control section should be placed.

5. REFER Table / External Reference Table

It stores symbols that are used but not defined in the current module.

Use

 Helps in resolving external references during loading.

These are records in the object program that tell the loader which addresses must be updated.

Use

 Helpful in relocation and external symbol adjustment.

Summary

The databases used in direct linking loader are:

 ESTAB

 PROGADDR

 CSADDR

 CSLTH

 Reference table

 Modification records

These tables make linking and relocation possible during loading.

4) Explain Dynamic Linking Loader in Detail. — 10

Dynamic Linking Loader

A dynamic linking loader loads and links some program parts only when they are needed during
execution, not all at the beginning.

It is also called runtime linking.

Idea

 The main program is loaded first.

 Other routines are linked only when they are called.

 This saves memory and loading time.

Working

1. The program starts execution.

2. If a function or library routine is needed, the loader searches for it.

3. The required routine is loaded into memory.

4. The address is linked with the calling program.

5. Execution continues.
Example

A program uses functions from a library like:

 printf()

 sqrt()

 file handling routines

These may be loaded only when required.

Advantages

 Saves main memory.

 Faster initial loading.

 Useful for large programs.

 Only needed routines are loaded.

Disadvantages

 Execution may become slower at the time of first use.

 More complex system design.

 Needs support from operating system.

Important Point

Dynamic linking is very useful for shared libraries in modern systems.

5) Explain different functions of loader in detail. — 5

Functions of Loader

A loader performs the following main functions:

1. Loading

 Copies object program into memory.

2. Allocation

 Assigns memory space to the program.

3. Linking

 Connects different program modules.

 Resolves external symbols.

4. Relocation

 Adjusts address values according to the actual memory location.

5. Address Resolution
  Converts symbolic addresses into actual memory addresses.

6. Execution Start

 Transfers control to the starting address of the program.

In one line

A loader loads the program, assigns memory, links modules, relocates addresses, and starts
execution.

6) Explain the process of loading and linking with a neat diagram. — 5

Loading and Linking

Loading means placing object code into memory.

Process

1. Object modules are produced by assembler/compiler.

2. Loader reads all modules.

3. It finds external symbols.

4. It assigns memory addresses.

5. It updates address references.

6. It loads the complete program into memory.

Neat Diagram
Key Point

 Loading = place program in memory

 Linking = join modules and resolve symbols

7) Discuss the concept of “Relocation” in loaders. Explain the various methods of handling
relocation during the loading process with examples. — 10

Relocation

Relocation means modifying address values in the object program so that the program can run
correctly when loaded at a memory address different from the one originally assumed.

Why relocation is needed

 A program may not always be loaded at the same address.

 The loader may place it in any free memory location.

 So address values must be adjusted.

Relocation Methods

1. Absolute Addressing

 Addresses are fixed.

 No change is allowed.

Example

If code is written for address 1000, it must be loaded at 1000.

Limitation

 Very rigid.

2. Relocating Loader with Relocation Bits

This is a common method.

Working

 The object program contains a relocation bit for each address field.

 If the bit is 1, the address must be modified.

 If the bit is 0, no change is needed.

Example

If actual loading start address is 3000 and instruction address is 100,

3. Modification Records

In this method, the object program contains modification records.

Working

 Each record tells the loader which field must be changed.

 It also gives the length of the field and adjustment value.

Example

If a field contains address 200 and program is loaded at 5000,

4. Self-Relocating Code

 Program can adjust its own addresses during execution.

 Uses relative addressing or base registers.

Example

If base register contains 4000, and offset is 120,

Advantages of Relocation

 Program can be loaded anywhere in memory.

 Better memory use.

 Supports multiprogramming.

Conclusion

Relocation is necessary for flexible program loading and proper execution.

8) Define Relocation and Linking. Why are they crucial functions of a linking loader? — 10

Relocation

Relocation is the process of changing address values in a program so it can run from a different
memory location.

Linking

Linking is the process of combining multiple object modules and resolving external references
between them.
Why Relocation is Important

 Programs are not always loaded at the same address.

 It allows the loader to place programs wherever memory is available.

 Makes programs flexible and reusable.

Why Linking is Important

 Large programs are divided into modules.

 One module may call functions in another module.

 Linking connects these modules correctly.

Why Both Are Crucial in a Linking Loader

A linking loader must do both jobs:

1. Relocation

 Adjust addresses to actual memory location.

2. Linking

 Resolve external symbols and connect modules.

Without them:

 The program may jump to wrong addresses.

 External function calls may fail.

 The program cannot execute correctly.

Simple Example

Module A defines SUM

The loader:

 links B to A

 relocates both modules to actual memory locations

Conclusion

Relocation and linking are essential because they make modular programs work correctly in any
memory location.