Dredging – characteristics of dredged sediments; Dredging methods and

equipment – small and large hydraulic dredges, mechanical dredges,

pneumatic dredges, hybrid dredges; Dredge pumps – viscosity, suction inlet,
pump characteristics, dredge pump cavitation; Cutters, drag heads, buckets;
Instrumentation – flow meters, density meters, production meters, hopper load
indicators, flow controllers; Pipeline transport of dredged materials,
determination of critical velocity; determination of head losses, evaluation of
friction factor, estimating production; Dredged material placement – open
water, confined disposal facilities; Contaminated sediments and capping –
equipment, placement options, capping; Dredging costs – cost estimation,
environmental consideration, environmental laws, environmental impact
assessment; Problem session.
Dredging
Dredging  removal of bottom sediments from
streams, lakes, rivers, coastal waters, oceans and
resulting dredged material is transported by ship,
barge, pipeline to designated disposal site on
land (or) water (definition provided by Herbich
and Webster (2000)).
Terminology:
Maintenance dredging  removal of sediments that have accumulated since
previous dredged operation.
New-work dredging  removal of materials that have not been previously
dredged.
Dredging  involves project planning, design, operation and maintenance.
Basic dredging requirements  channel design & shoaling rates.
Quantity of material to be dredged  based on past records.
Horizontal positioning and depth measurements are conducted using electronic
navigation  GPS accuracy of 1 m horizontally.
Dredge Classification  Mechanical (or) Hydraulic dredgers
Types of Dredges:

Mechanical type  clamshell (or) grapple dredges  endless chain bucket (or
bucket ladder) dredges widely used in Europe.
Mechanical dipper dredge  heavy bucket moved by strong arm used for
dredging relatively loose (not solid) rock.
Bucket provided with special cast iron teeth  ‘Big Boy’ in Norway (2.6 cubic
yard bucket)
Hydraulic dredge  most important piece of dredging equipment
Plain suction dredges  no cutter but sucks material from bottom and
discharge through connected pipe to disposal area.
Cutter head pipeline dredge  rotating cutter at end of the ladder excavates
material from in situ condition and discharges to pontoon and shore pipe.
Self-propelled hopper dredge  large hopper in which dredged material is
loaded for later dumping through doors in the bottom (normally employed
where water is too deep for pipeline dredge).
Hydraulic dredge  most important piece of equipment in harbour engineering
field.
Small hydraulic dredges  waters of few feet deep
Large dredge  require more draft but can dig greater depths  aid for booster
pumps transport material.
Bucket chains  open connected bucket line (or) close connected bucket line

Open connected  link is placed

between each bucket
Close connected  twice as many
buckets
Advantages of open chain are in event of
large boulder lifted by chain, less
likelihood it will catch between two
buckets.
Bucket  cast of solid manganese steel and cutting edge called ‘lip’ which is a
separate piece either riveted (or) welded to bucket.
Lip size can be adjusted depending on ‘bank’ and nature of sediment
consolidation.
Life of lips normally last for four seasons roughly 1000 dredging days.
To move dredge forward  winch man raises the spud by means of gantry and
spud winch.
Tip of spud  shaped much like the snout of a dolphin long and tapered with a
rounded tip (spud lands on bedrock below due to its sheer weight and
momentum – normally 65 feet long and weighing almost 27 tons)
If spud is sharply pointed, it would act like nail (or) spike to stick to the hole.
Winch  integral part in operating the dredge by
system of winches and cables.
System of winches is used on either side of bow and
stern (total of four – port, starboard, fore, and aft).
Large dredgers  handle about eight winches.
Bow line winch  one on port side, one on starboard
 swing the dredge port and starboard across the
working face.
Two stern lines (port & starboard) pull the dredge
forward.
One winch powers to raise and lower the drilling ladder
as dredge moves side to side across the working face.
One winch raises the spud. One raises and lowers gang
plank. Eighth one is spare if needed.
Machinery in winch is located in forward position of
super-structure on the starboard side.
Winch man controls  by gears and clutches.
Dredging Corporation of India (DCI)  Hopper (10 Nos.) and
Cutter (2 Nos.) dredgers.
Hopper Dredges
DCI dredge – V (1974)
Length  100 m; Draft  6.52 m; Breadth  15.5 m; Speed  10 knots; Hopper capacity  3450 m3
Propulsion power  2×1700 HP; Dredging power  2×1200 HP; Maximum dredging depth with Immarsat 
22 m.
DCI dredge – XVI (2001)
Length  122 m; Draft  8.52 m; Breadth  20.3 m; Speed  14.8 knots; Hopper capacity  7400 m3
Propulsion power  2×5288 HP; Dredging power  2×1588 HP; Maximum dredging depth  25 m.
DCI dredge – XVII (2001)
Length  122 m; Draft  8.5 m; Breadth  20.3 m; Speed  14.8 knots; Hopper capacity  7400 m3
Propulsion power  2×5288 HP; Dredging power  2×1588 HP; Maximum dredging depth  25 m.
Cutter Dredges (2 Nos.)
Length  86 m; Length between perpendiculars  63.0 m; Draft  2.5 m;
Breadth  14.5 m
Dredge pumps  2×2300 HP; Cutter power  1000 HP; Pipeline discharge
 800 mm diameter; Pumping distance  3000 m; Maximum dredging depth
 22 m; Anchorage  central spud and anchors.
DCI Dredge Aquars – builder Netherlands
Length  107 m; Draft  4.4 m; Breadth  19 m; Speed  11.5 knots;
Dredging depth  25 m.
Hopper Dredgers:
• Propelled floating plant capable of dredging material, storing on-
board and transporting to disposal area and dumping it.
• Performs largest and most dangerous jobs like clearing channels,
offshore sandbars from mouths of major rivers.
• Moves like ship; while dredging move very slowly.
• Dredging can be recognized by signals on the main mast 
during day (black ball over black diamond over another black
ball will be shown); during night (red light over a white light over
another red light indicates dredging).
• These signals indicate dredge in its restricted area of manoeuvrability and
must stay clear off the vessel.
• While dredge hopper is loaded  manoeuvres in and out of channel  to
reach relocation site.
• Direct pump out common way of removing the dredged material.
• Hoses connected to the pipeline extending to shore discharges slurry
(slurry – mixing dredged material with water).
• Dredged material is raised by dredge pumps and discharged into hopper.
• Classification of hopper dredges  based on hopper capacity  large
class dredges (6000 cubic yard or greater); medium class (2000 – 6000
cubic yard); small class (2000 – 50 cubic yard)
 Characteristics of Dredged Sediments:
• Composed of solid particles, water and gas – sediments are commonly
classified as gravel, sand, silt and clay depending on sediment size.
• Seive analysis – determines the particle size distribution.
• Hydrometer analysis – conducted for particle finer than 0.04 mm.
• Based on this analysis  diameter D10 means 10% of soil particles are
finer than this diameter (0.04 mm); D30, D50  diameter at which 50%
of soil particles are finer than this diameter.
• Uniformity coefficient (Cu) is an index of particle size uniformity.
• Cu = (D60/D10) ; Cc = (D30)2/D60 D10 ; Cc  coefficient of curvature
• Based on the values of Cu and Cc the following classification holds:
• If Cc is between 1 and 3 (1 < Cc < 3) and if Cu > 4 for gravels and if Cu >
6 for sand  soil is well graded (W) other poorly graded (P)
• Porosity (n) is the ratio of void volume (Vv) to the total volume (V) of soil
expressed as: n = (Vv/V)
• Void ratio (e) is the ratio of volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solids (Vs)
e = (Vv/Vs)
• Water content (W) is the ratio of weight of water (Ww) to that of solids (Ws)
expressed in percentage: W = (Ww/Ws × 100)
• Degree of saturation (Sr) is percentage of void space (Vv) occupied by water
(Vw) expressed in the form: Sr = (Vw/Vv × 100)
• Unit weight (γ) is defined as the weight of material (W) divided
by the volume (V)

γ = (W/V) = (Ww + Ws)/(Vs + Vv)

• Weight of dry material (Ws) divided by its volume (V) is the dry
unit weight (γd) expressed in the form: γd = (Ws/V)

• Weight of solid particles (Ws) divided by volume of dry solids

(Vs) is defined as unit weight of solids (γs).
 Soil Investigation
i. Studies involve desk studies and field sampling.
ii. Sufficient historical records and local available information  desk study
can be performed  field sampling useful for new studies.
[Link] includes drilling and boring in accordance with standards by
American Society for Testing & Materials (ASTM), British Standards
Institute (BS) (or) German Standards (DIN).
[Link] classification system (USCS)  United Soil Classification System 
Cobbles, Gravel – coarse & fine, Sand – coarse, medium & fine, Fines – silt
(or) clay.
Dredging Material Bulk Factors:
Hydraulic method  mixes about 20% solids with 80% water produces ‘bulking’ – hence
dredged material placed in a disposal area is larger in volume than dredged material in situ.
Increased volume is accompanied by increase in void ratio and water content.
For clays and silk ‘bulking’ is quite substantial.
Bulking factor (B) of particular soil is defined as the ratio of volume of soil in contaminant
area (Vc) after dredging to volume of soil in situ (Vi)
B = (Vc/Vi) (saturated condition)
Type of sediment, dredging method and particle size distribution affect bulking factor.
Mechanical dredges  causes normally small bulking factor
 Dredging Methods & Equipment:
i. Classified large when diameter of pump discharge and discharge pipeline is
greater than 12 inches.
ii. Performs both digging and disposition.
[Link] by pumping dredged material via pipeline floating on water (or)
storing in hopper units and transporting to disposal site.
[Link] dredges are most efficient, versatile and economical.
v. Dredged material is loosened and mixed with ambient water by cutter heads
and water jets, finally transported as slurry to long pipelines (or) hopper.
Basic components of hydraulic dredges  dredge pumps, digging & agitation machinery,
hoisting & hauling equipment  categorized as: Hopper (trailing suction); Pipeline (plain
suction, cutter-head, dust pan); Bucket-wheel and side casting.
Cutter Suction Dredge:
i. Versatile dredge – function to excavate and move material hydraulically to
disposal location without re-handling.
ii. Two types of cutters – straight arm (or) basket. Rotation of shaft and cutter agitates
soft/loose materials and picked up by the suction.
[Link] of ladder determines the dredging depth usually 0.7 times the length of
ladder.
[Link] pump is located forward in the hull with centre near loaded water line.
Diesel engine, diesel electric motor, steam/gas turbine is used to drive the pump.
v. Required horsepower to pump varies from 186 HP to more than 15,000 HP. Pump
rotate speed varies from 300 to 900 RPM.
[Link] are normally placed not less than 1/10th distance between stern of dredge
and cutter.
Dustpan Dredge
• Hydraulic, plain suction vessel.

• Wide (almost same as hull width) vacuum cleaner like head is

lowered to bottom by winches.

• Has high velocity water jet to agitate and loosen material,

subsequently pumped through pipeline to the disposal site.
Bucket-wheel Dredge
Rotating wheel equipped with buckets is used to cut or loosen soil and then directed
into interior of the wheel and conveyed to the suction line.
Agitation Dredge
• Re-suspends dredged material and lets the natural current move sediments to
another location in the dredged channel.

• Another type of agitation dredge is the water injection dredge  lowers dredge
head into sediments and injects water into the sediment. If there is a slope in the
channel, liquefied mud flows as density current down the slope of the channel to
point of lower elevation.
Side-casting Dredge

• Discharges dredged material to side of the channel and allow continuous

dredging.
Cutter Suction
• Similar to large cutter suction dredges.
• Reduced pressure created by centrifugal pump allows hydrostatic
pressure to force sediments and water through suction pipe.
• Certain average velocity called ‘critical velocity’ is required to
keep sediments in suspension.
• If average velocity drops below the ‘critical velocity’ sediments
begins to settle down along pipeline causing ‘clog’.
• Booster pumps placed along pipeline adds energy to the pumping
process transporting dredged sediments to long distances.
• Small hydraulic dredges with pipe 12 inches diameter and length several
thousands of feet require booster pumps.
• Cutter suction dredge generate ‘turbidity’ confined to the bottom – ranges
from 5 to 200 mg/l.
• Control devices placed around cutter suction inlet reduces ‘turbidity’ e.g;
match box dredge head.
• Location of pump in cutter suction dredge determines the dredge
production.
• Dredge pumps are limited by cavitation – deep digging depths severely
limits the amount of sediments dredge can pump before cavitation begin
and reduces the pump efficiency.
• Recommended to place pump on ladder section which may eliminate the
cavitation process.
Mechanical Dredges – Clamshell, Dragline & Dipper Dredges
a) Dredges which removes sediments from waterways
using various types of buckets and lifting mechanisms –
mechanical dredges. For example, dipper, clamshell,
grapple, dragline & bucket ladder.
b) Advantages of mechanical dredges are its ability to
work in restricted locations (for example: docks, jetties
and piers).
c) Best for working in soft sediments and difficult to
access areas.
Pneumatic Dredges
Excavates bottom sediments and transports the dredged
material to a barge or disposal area using compressed air
(developed in Italy and Japan).
Advantages includes no additional water is required for
transporting material through pipeline. Categories are high
density dredge, pneuma dredge, air tight bucket-wheel
dredge, hybrid dredge.
Dredge Pumps
a) Designed with sufficient clearance to accommodate
gravel, rocks and other debris without jamming.
b) Type of material pumped affects the performance of the
centrifugal (dredge) pump.
c) Slurry has variable specific gravity and high variable
viscosity.
Viscosity
• Function of concentration, temperature,
past history and rate of shearing stress.
• Different fluids have different relation
between shear stress (τ) and rate of
strain (du/dy).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• For Newtonian fluid: 𝜏𝜏 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Newtonian fluid – flows like water
where shear stress (τ) is linearly
proportional to velocity gradient in
direction perpendicular to plane of
shear
• Solid-water mixture  non-Newtonian fluid
(diatant, pseudo-plastic, bingham plastic)

• Sand-water slurry  tend to behave similar to Newtonian fluids.

• Viscosity is the value of carrier fluid – water (or) seawater.

• Silt-clay-water mixture  behaves similar to bingham fluid.

• Effects of viscosity are important  design of dredge pump.

Components of Dredge Pump

• Suction Inlet & Impeller

Suction Inlet
• Important if cavitation is to be avoided.
• Variables include: suction pipe diameter, curvature of
inlet, eye diameter and leading edge of the vane.
• Ideal conditions require sufficient length of straight pipe
without valves (or) disturbances at the entrance of pump.
Major Components of Centrifugal Pump
Impeller
i. Performance affected by inlet angle, vane shape, vane area
and exit angle.
[Link] vane moves faster than fluid so as to transfer
energy from vane to the fluid.
[Link] dredge pumps have three to five vanes, whose
shapes are circular arc or logarithmic spiral (logarithmic
spiral results in the best flow path).
[Link] between impeller and volute tongue also affects
the pump efficiency.
Cavitation
Cavitation means different things to different people, which
includes:
• Reduction in pump capacity.
• Reduction in head of the pump.
• Formation of bubbles in low-pressure area of the pump
volute.
• Noise heard when pump is running.
• Damage on pump impeller and volute.
Practical Issues:
• Capacity of the pump is reduced  happens because bubbles take up space and one
cannot have bubbles and liquid in same place at same time.
• If bubbles gets big enough at the eye of the impeller, pump will lose its suction and will
require priming.
• Head is often reduced  bubbles unlike liquid are compressible. It is this compression
that changes the head.
• Bubbles form in low-pressure area because they cannot form in high-pressure area. As
velocity of fluid increases the pressure decreases. This means high velocity liquid is by
definition a low-pressure area. This can be a problem when liquid flows through
restriction in piping, volute (or) changes direction suddenly. Fluid accelerates as it
changes direction. Same acceleration takes place as fluid flows in small area between tip
of impeller and volute cut water.
• Noise is heard  any time fluid moves faster than speed of sound
‘sonic’ boom is head. Sound speed in water is about 1480 m/s (or)
5267 km/h.
• Pump parts shows damage  bubble try to collapse by itself 
called imploding. Dirt particles get stuck on surface of the bubble
held by surface tension of the fluid. Since the dirt particle has
weakened surface tension of the bubble becomes the weakest part
of the section where collapse usually occurs.
• Higher capacity of pump  more the cavitation.
Modelling Dredge Pumps
Physical models of fluid phenomena are commonly used in various
engineering fields.
To have complete similarity between model and prototype:
geometric, kinematic & force ratios must be same in both.
Kinematic Ratios  velocity & acceleration ratios
Force Ratios  Dimensional parameters like Reynolds, Froude,
Mach, and Weber numbers.
 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
I. Reynolds Number, 𝑅𝑅 = ( 𝜌𝜌  fluid density; 𝑉𝑉  fluid
𝜇𝜇
velocity; 𝐷𝐷  pipe diameter; 𝜇𝜇  fluid dynamic viscosity).
𝑉𝑉 2
II. Froude Number, 𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 = (𝑔𝑔  acceleration due to gravity; 𝑉𝑉
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
 velocity; 𝐿𝐿  characteristic length).
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
III. Mach Number, 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐 = (sub-sonic if 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐 < 1.0;
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Transonic if 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1.0; Super-sonic if 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐 > 1.0; Hyper-sonic if
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐 > 5.0)
I. Weber Number (𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒 ) is the ratio between inertial force to surface
tension force.
𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2 𝐿𝐿
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒 = (𝜌𝜌  density of fluid; 𝑉𝑉  velocity of
𝜎𝜎
fluid; 𝐿𝐿  characteristic length; 𝜎𝜎  surface tension).

For pumps  most important is similitude ratio of fluid velocity to

peripheral velocity of impeller which must be constant at all
geometric similar points.
Dimensional Analysis of Pumps:
[Link] (H) produced; Power (P) input and Efficiency (η) are the
three important parameters for dredge pump selection and design.

[Link] are functions of fluid density (ρ), angular velocity (ω),

impeller diameter (D), fluid flow rate (Q), acceleration due to
gravity (g), and viscosity (µ)

[Link] (H)  depends on (g)  shaft work/unit weight of the fluid.

[Link] (η)  ratio of output power to input power.

Dimensional Analysis
Buckingham π theorem can be used to perform the dimensional
analysis.
Results from dimensional analysis neglecting the effects of viscosity
are:
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑄𝑄
= 𝑓𝑓
𝜔𝜔3 𝐷𝐷2 𝜔𝜔𝐷𝐷3
𝑃𝑃 𝑄𝑄
= 𝑓𝑓
𝜌𝜌𝜔𝜔3 𝐷𝐷5 𝜔𝜔𝐷𝐷3
𝑄𝑄
𝜂𝜂 = 𝑓𝑓
𝜔𝜔𝐷𝐷3
 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑃𝑃
At maximum efficiency: = constant; = constant; 𝜂𝜂 = constant
𝜔𝜔3 𝐷𝐷2 𝜌𝜌𝜔𝜔3 𝐷𝐷5

Assuming the angular velocity (ω) as constant, flow rate (Q), head (H) &
power (P) between two similar pumps can be expressed as:

𝑄𝑄1 𝐷𝐷13 𝐻𝐻1 𝐷𝐷12 𝑃𝑃1 𝐷𝐷15

= 3; = 2; = 5
𝑄𝑄2 𝐷𝐷2 𝐻𝐻2 𝐷𝐷2 𝑃𝑃2 𝐷𝐷2
Similarly, if the impeller diameter is constant:

𝑄𝑄1 𝜔𝜔1 𝐻𝐻1 𝜔𝜔13 𝑃𝑃1 𝜔𝜔13

= ; = 3; = 3
𝑄𝑄2 𝜔𝜔2 𝐻𝐻2 𝜔𝜔2 𝑃𝑃2 𝜔𝜔2
These relations are called ‘pump affinity laws’
 𝑁𝑁𝑄𝑄0.5
Specific Speed (Ns) is defined as: 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 =
𝐻𝐻 0.75
(𝑁𝑁  pump RPM; 𝑄𝑄  flow rate; 𝐻𝐻  head expressed in
feet). Specific speed ranges from 500 to 3500.
Dimensionless Specific Speed (ns) is:
𝜔𝜔𝑄𝑄0.5
𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠 =
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 0.75
(𝜔𝜔  rad/s; 𝑄𝑄  ft3/s; 𝑔𝑔  ft/s2; 𝐻𝐻  in feet; FPS
notation)
Net-Positive Suction Head:
i) Common parameter for evaluating cavitation in pumps is the Net-
positive Suction Head (NPSH) produced for a given discharge or
flow rate.
ii)NPSH is defined as the total head available to pump above the
vapour pressure of the liquid.
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠2 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣
iii)NPSH = + + − ( 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎  local atmospheric
𝛾𝛾 𝛾𝛾 2𝑔𝑔 𝛾𝛾
pressure; 𝛾𝛾  specific weight of fluid/slurry being pumped; 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 
pressure at suction inlet; 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣  vapour pressure of carrier liquid
(water); 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠  velocity of the fluid.
Energy equation for dredging applications:
 𝑃𝑃1 𝑣𝑣12 𝑃𝑃2 𝑣𝑣22
+ + 𝑧𝑧1 = + + 𝑧𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 2𝑔𝑔 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 2𝑔𝑔
(𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿  friction and minor losses in suction pipe)

Pressure head in absolute terms is:

𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑
= − +
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚
(𝑑𝑑  digging depth
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚  specific gravity of the mixture equal to
𝛾𝛾
Specific gravity of Slurries:
Predicting physical properties of slurry is difficult due to their
composition. One approximation used to estimate specific gravity of
slurry is:
𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑚𝑚3 + ⋯
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚3
+ + +⋯
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆3
𝑚𝑚1 , 𝑚𝑚2 , …  weight of each component in kilograms.
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆1 , 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2 , 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆3 , …  specific gravity of each component.
Problem – 1
Calculate the specific gravity of 37 wt % slurry. Specific gravity of
solid is 4.27 and specific gravity of liquid is 1.2. Assume a 100 kg
sample.

Solution:
𝑚𝑚1 +𝑚𝑚2 +𝑚𝑚3 +⋯ 37+63
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚3 = 37 63 = 1.54
+ + +⋯ +
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆3 4.27 1.20
Problem – 2
A dredge pump is located 5 feet below the water surface. The
digging depth is 45 feet and the slurry specific gravity is 1.2.
Estimated total head loss is 12 feet of mixture, and vapour pressure
at this location is 0.36 lb/in2 at 70° F. The atmospheric pressure is
assumed to be 14.7 lb/in2. Calculate the NPSH?
Solution:
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 = 𝛾𝛾 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = 62.4(1.2) = 74.8 lb/ft3
𝛾𝛾  specific weight of water at 60° F is 62.4 lb/ft3 (9.8 KN/m3)
Formula:
𝑃𝑃2 𝑣𝑣22 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑 𝑃𝑃2 𝑣𝑣22
+ = − + − 𝑧𝑧2 − 𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿 In this formula + is the available
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 2𝑔𝑔 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 2𝑔𝑔
NPSH
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 14.7×144
Therefore, = = 28.3 feet (8.6 m) of mixture
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 74.8
𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 0.36×144
= = 0.69 feet (0.21 m) of mixture
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 74.8

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑
Available NPSH = − + − 𝑧𝑧2 − 𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚

NPSH = 28.3 – 0.69 + (45/1.2) – 40 – 12 = 13.1 feet (4.0 m) of mixture

Available NPSH is compared to required NPSH provided by manufacturer. If available
NPSH is greater than required NPSH, pump will not cavitate, otherwise it cavitates.
Flow Meters:
(i)Magnetic flow meter (ii) Sonic flow meter
Magnetic flow meter  measures the average velocity of fluid/slurry moving
through the meter.
i) Normally installed in vertical section of suction (or) discharge piping near pump.
ii) Operates on Faraday’s principle  which says voltage induced in a conductor
moving at right angles to magnetic field is proportional to the velocity of
conductor through the field.
iii)Slurry is the conductor for dredging operations.
iv)Accuracy of magnetic flow meter is within 1% of flow range. Cost ranges from
$10,000 to $30,000. Advantages  data can be input to computer data acquisition
system.
Sonic flow meter:
i) Doppler sonic flow meter  less expensive than magnetic flow
meter, but less accurate.
ii)Principle  Transducer mounted on outside of dredge pipe sends
sound pulse which propagate through slurry. Reflected returning
frequency is shifted (Doppler shift) due to velocity of the particle.
iii)Measured Doppler shift is directly related to velocity of particle
in the pipe. Problems: velocity measured is result of particle close
to pipe wall.
Density meter:
i) Nuclear density gauge is commonly used to measure density of
slurry flowing in the pipeline.
ii) Source such as Cesium-137 emits gamma rays which is absorbed by
material passing through the pipeline – located on discharge side of
dredge pump.
iii) Ionization chamber located on opposite side of pipeline measures
the amount of energy reaching it and converts the radioactive
energy into electrical energy.
iv) Density meters combined with velocity measurement from magnetic
flow meter gives an estimate on the amount of solids moved out 
excellent method for maximizing production. This is outputted to
the production meter.
v) Dredge pumps can be monitored and efficiency improved using the
information seen from production meter.
Pipeline transport of Dredged Material:
i) Dredged material is commonly transported by pipes to disposal location or
beaches for beach nourishment.
ii)Settling velocity (Vt) of sediments is important in calculating energy losses
in pipeline (frictional effects).
Schiller (1992) provided a formulation:
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡 = 134.14(𝑑𝑑50 − 0.039)0.972 (𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡  Settling velocity in mm/sec; 𝑑𝑑50
 median grain diameter (typically about 0.34 mm). The settling velocity
varies from 2.95 cm/sec to 4.17 cm/sec). The formulation is good for sand
particle size and not for gravel.
i) Dredged material containing sands is considered as non-cohesive – those
containing silt and clay are cohesive and behaves as non-Newtonian fluid.
Determination of Critical Velocity:
• Certain velocity must be maintained in the pipeline to
prevent grain from falling to the bottom and becoming
stationary.
• Critical velocity (𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 )  function of specific gravity of
sediment, grain size and diameter of pipe.
• Recommended average slurry velocity is 10-20% above
the critical velocity.
 0.55 1.75
8.8 𝜇𝜇𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 − 𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓 /0.66 𝐷𝐷0.7 𝑑𝑑50
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 2
𝑑𝑑50 + 0.11𝐷𝐷 0.7
(𝜇𝜇𝑠𝑠  Coefficient of mechanical friction between solid
particles (ranges between 0.44 to 0.55) and pipe wall; 𝑑𝑑50
 grain diameter (in mm); 𝐷𝐷  pipe inside diameter (in
meters); 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 , 𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓  specific gravity of solid and fluid
respectively).
• Slurry pipeline system with inclined slope must allow for
increased critical velocity (or else deposition occurs).
• Vertical sections may be preferable over short inclined slopes.

𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐(ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) + ∆𝐷𝐷 2𝑔𝑔 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 − 1 𝐷𝐷

• Friction factor (𝑓𝑓) can be expressed as function of Reynolds number (𝑅𝑅) and
relative roughness 𝜉𝜉/𝐷𝐷 .

Swamy & Jain formulation for friction factor (𝑓𝑓) can be expressed as:
0.25
𝑓𝑓 = 2 (valid for the range between 5 × 10−3 ≤
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝜉𝜉/3.6𝐷𝐷 +5.74/𝑅𝑅0.9
8 −6
𝑅𝑅 ≤ 10 ; 10 ≤ 𝜉𝜉/𝐷𝐷 ≤ 10−2 )
Estimating Production:
Important to determine the time required to complete the project – more time
means more wear & tear of machinery, more fuel and more pay to the workers.

Turner (1996) formulation for production:

𝑃𝑃 = 0.297𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 (or) 𝑃𝑃 = 0.297𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
(𝑃𝑃  production (in yd3/hr; 𝑄𝑄  average flow erate; 0.297  conversion
factor w.r.t yd3/hr; 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣  average concentration of solids by volume; 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 
maximum concentration of solids by volume; 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷  dredging efficiency which
is about 50% when using two fixed spuds and 75% when using spud carriage).
Disposal of Dredged Material:
Open water  disposal of dredged material in rivers, lakes,
estuaries & oceans is called ‘open water’ disposal. Can be
both ‘dispersive’ and ‘non-dispersive’.
Non-dispersive site  dredged material remains within
disposal site boundaries.
Dispersive site  dredged material leaves the site due to
environmental forces such as ocean currents/other
meteorological factors.
Beneficial aspects of dredged material:
• Habitat restoration (e.g; wetlands, islands for birds etc.)
• Beach re-nourishment
• Aquaculture
• Parks & Recreation
• Agriculture, forestry
• Landfill reclamation & landfill cover
• Industrial use (post-development, residential development)
Issue  cost factor in transporting dredged material to other sites.
Contaminated Sediment & Capping:
Ports have been found to contain contaminant in bottom sediments as a result
of waste material discharge from urban, industrial, river and navigation
sources.
Many regulatory procedures are available, individual countries have their
own regulations and laws.
Contaminants present in the bottom are exposed to benthic organisms and
finally to the biological good chain.
Contaminants includes heavy metals viz; lead, mercury and cadmium,
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), DDT and polychlorinated
biphenyl’s (PCB).
Capping:

Ocean Dumping Act – National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).

Capping is defined as controlled placement of contaminated material
at open water placement site.
Capped sites necessarily needs to be located in non-dispersive sites.
Factors: Bioturbation, Consolidation, Erosion due to waves &
currents, Chemical isolation.