Aleena Gul (17555)

Aqsa Ejaz (121200)

Forgiveness in Romantic Relationships: The Roles of Attachment, Empathy, and Revenge-

Seeking
 Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................................2

1.1 Background of the Study...........................................................................................................2

1.2 Problem Statement.....................................................................................................................3

1.3 Research Objective....................................................................................................................5

1.4 Research Question.....................................................................................................................5

1.5 Significance of the Study...........................................................................................................5

1.6 Limitation of Study....................................................................................................................6

1.7 Definition of Key Terms............................................................................................................7

1.8 Organization of the Study..........................................................................................................8

Literature Review............................................................................................................................9

2.1 Theoretical Background.............................................................................................................9

2.2 Hypothesis Development.........................................................................................................10

2.2.1 Revenge-Seeking and Empathy........................................................................................10

2.2.2 Empathy and Forgiveness.................................................................................................11

2.2.3 Revenge Seeking and Forgiveness...................................................................................12

2.3 Conceptual Farmwork.............................................................................................................14

Methodology..................................................................................................................................15

3.1 Research Design......................................................................................................................15

3.2 Sampling..................................................................................................................................15

3.3 Measures..................................................................................................................................15

3.3.1 Empathy............................................................................................................................15

3.3.2 Revenge-Seeking..............................................................................................................16
 3.3.3 Forgiveness.......................................................................................................................16

3.4 Procedure.................................................................................................................................16

3.5 Scale.........................................................................................................................................17

3.6 Ethical Consideration...............................................................................................................18

Data Analysis.................................................................................................................................19

4. Data Analysis.............................................................................................................................19

4.1.1 Descriptive Statistics............................................................................................................19

Table 4.1: Demographic Profile of Respondents (N = 249)..................................................19

4.1.2 Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables..............................................................................19

4.2 Reliability Analysis..................................................................................................................21

4.3 Correlation Analysis................................................................................................................22

4.4 Regression Analysis.................................................................................................................23

4.5 Summary of Findings..............................................................................................................27

4.6 Discussion of the Results.........................................................................................................28

Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................30

5.1 Key Findings............................................................................................................................30

5.2 Future Recommendation..........................................................................................................31

5.3 Implication of the Study..........................................................................................................32

5.4 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................33

References......................................................................................................................................35
 Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Romantic relationships are usually regarded as among the most intimate and emotionally close
relationships in the human life cycle. Notwithstanding that, relationships are not exempt from
interpersonal conflicts, betrayals, or emotional hurt that can test their stability. Forgiveness, as an
emotional and psychological process, is crucial in the repair and maintenance of these relations.
It is an internal, voluntary process by which a person decides to release resentment, thoughts of
revenge, or the urge to retaliate, in favor of compassion and perhaps reconciliation. In the context
of romantic relationships, forgiveness has been associated with higher relationship satisfaction,
psychological health, and long-term commitment (Aquino, Tripp, & Bies, 2023).

The investigation of forgiveness in romantic relationships has attracted significant attention from
psychologists, sociologists, and relationship therapists. Previous research has identified various
psychological and emotional factors that influence an individual's capacity to forgive a romantic
partner. Among these, attachment style, empathy, and revenge-seeking tendencies have emerged
as significant variables. Attachment theory, originally proposed by Bowlby (1969), suggests that
early experiences with caregivers shape an individual’s expectations and behaviors in adult
relationships. Those with secure attachment patterns become responsive to conflict with
understanding and forgiveness, whereas those with insecure or avoidant attachments often have a
hard time letting go of relational trespasses. Empathy, the ability to understand and share
another's feelings has been identified as a strong facilitator of forgiveness. Empathic people are
more likely to see their partner's side and intentions, which can alleviate anger and encourage
forgiveness. Individuals who are not empathic might adopt a negative emotional reaction, like
bearing grudges or revenge. As a mediator, empathy can lower revenge urges and improve
forgiveness, thereby serving as a psychological buffer against relational conflict (Kaya & Odacı,
2024).

Revenge-seeking, conversely, is a retaliatory response based on a need to harm a partner as a

reaction to feelings of wrongdoing. It's usually the result of unhealed emotional suffering,
insecurity, or feeling betrayed. Revenge is damaging to romantic relationships as it tends to
create cycles of retaliation and more emotional disconnection. The existence of revenge-seeking
behavior is inversely correlated with forgiveness, underlining the significance of comprehension
about how it combines with other emotional processes such as empathy (Roberts & Strayer,
2021).

1.2 Problem Statement

Forgiveness is a central component of relationship maintenance and relationship restoration in
romantic relationships, especially in the presence of conflict or betrayal. Although forgiveness is
necessary, most individuals fail to forgive their partners, leading to ongoing emotional misery,
decreased relationship satisfaction, or even relationship dissolution. For example, individuals are
likely to feel resentful, respond with revenge behavior, or become emotionally disengaged, and
therefore forgiving becomes difficult. While past research has considered forgiveness overall, it
remains uncertain regarding the specific emotional and psychological predictors of attachment
style, empathy, and seeking revenge that influence forgiveness in romantic relationships. Not
knowing these root factors means that efforts to stimulate forgiveness and emotional healing are
destined to fail or be superficial (Carlsmith, Wilson, & Gilbert, 2020).

Without explicitly knowing how attachment orientations, empathetic capacity, and revenge
motivation come together to influence forgiveness, we are likely to overlook significant pieces of
emotional and relational health. Revenge and unforgiveness not only damage the individuals
involved, but they also have broader psychological impacts such as anxiety, depression, and
emotional burnout. Moreover, unresolved conflicts and inability to forgive can destroy trust and
intimacy, which are essential to successful long-term relationships. When relationship failure is
increasingly prevalent and emotional health is increasingly a cause for worry, it is critical to
explore deeper psychological mechanisms that impede or facilitate forgiveness (McCullough &
Witvliet, 2021).

Specifically, in this study, the interaction between these three constructs and how they are
implicated in willingness to forgive one's partner following a relational transgression will be
examined. The study will also examine whether empathy mediates between forgiveness and
seeking revenge, gaining insight into potential pathways of emotion regulation and healing.
Using a systematic conceptual model and empirical data collection, the study seeks to make a
clearer contribution to what is known about how the contributing factors fit into forgiveness
outcomes. Findings will benefit therapists, counselors, and individuals concerning more effective
conflict resolution and healing from hurt within love relationships.

Based on these dynamics, the current study explores the significance of attachment, empathy,
and revenge-seeking in the forgiveness process in romantic relationships. By concentrating on
these interconnected psychological concepts, the study presents an overall image of what
promotes or hinders forgiveness among romantic partners. The theoretical model guiding this
research suggests that empathy could act as a mediating variable between seeking revenge and
forgiveness, providing a potential mechanism through which hurt feelings can be converted into
healthy relationship healing. Knowledge of the interaction of these variables not only serves the
purpose of furthering academic understanding but also the construction of effective therapeutic
and counseling interventions for couples. As concerns about relationship dissatisfaction, divorce
rates, and emotional trauma in love relationships have increased, this research contributes to a
greater understanding of how forgiveness can be the cornerstone of relational healing and
development. In addition, the lessons learned can be especially helpful for mental health
professionals, relationship educators, and individuals looking to better navigate the challenges of
romantic intimacy in healthier and more humane manners.

1.3 Research Objective

To explore how empathy influences the relationship between revenge-seeking and forgiveness in
romantic relationships, based on the proposed conceptual model.
1.4 Research Question
What is the role of empathy in the relationship between revenge-seeking and forgiveness in
romantic relationships?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study is significant in that it captures significant information into the psychological and
emotional mechanisms that shape forgiveness in romantic relationships, particularly how
attachment patterns, empathy, and seeking vengeance come into play. Romantic relationships are
vital to human well-being but are prone to miscommunication, emotional injury, and conflict that
can precipitate long-term damage if not addressed effectively. Understanding how individuals
cope with hurt and whether or not they forgive can have a significant impact on relationship
quality and longevity. By examining the ways empathy mediates between revenge-seeking and
forgiveness, this study will offer a deeper understanding of how emotional intelligence and
relational processes collectively shape how individuals react to transgressions. The findings of
this current study are most beneficial to the individual and couples seeking to improve their
emotional health and relationship satisfaction. Learning more about how attachment patterns and
revenge tendencies influence their capacity to forgive can help them better understand how to
manage conflict more compassionately. This may then work to reduce emotional upset, improve
communication, and aid in healing the following conflict (Fatima & Malik, 2022).

Furthermore, this study provides practical utility to relationship counselors, therapists, and
psychologists who work with distressed couples. Therapeutic interventions based on outcomes
from this research can be used to regulate emotions, enhance empathy, and reduce
vindictiveness, all of which are crucial for facilitating forgiveness and repair in relationships.
Specifically designed interventions targeting one's attachment style and emotional reactivity
could result in higher success rates in therapy. For researchers and academics, this study
contributes to relationship psychology literature in that it integrates various emotional constructs
into a single conceptual framework. It sets the stage for further research on interpersonal
forgiveness and emotional processing in close relationships. Furthermore, findings can be used
by mental health advocates and educators to create programs or workshops that enhance empathy
and emotional resilience in relationships. Societally, healthier romantic relationships contribute
to stronger family units and societies, reducing the psychological cost of unresolved conflict and
emotional harm. Consequently, this study not only increases theory but also provides practical
knowledge that can help lead to emotional development and improved outcomes for a diverse
population of individuals (Kaya & Odacı, 2024).

1.6 Limitation of Study

Although this research, in its contributions to understanding the processes of romantic
forgiveness, is vulnerable to several limitations that must be noted, this includes first, that the
study examines a few psychological variables i.e., attachment style, empathy, and revenge-
seeking when forgiveness is a multifaceted process determined by numerous other conditions
including personality, communication style, cultural context, emotional intelligence, and past
relationship experience. By limiting the number of variables to three, the study will perhaps not
be able to capture the complex richness of forgiveness. Secondly, the study uses a quantitative
approach and thus is dependent mainly on self-reported survey measures to quantify
psychological concepts. Although this allows statistical analysis and generalizability, it may fail
to reflect the complexity and richness of participants' feelings as qualitative methods would be
able to. Self-report measures are also prone to social desirability and inaccurate self-perception
bias, which can impact the validity of the findings.

A further limitation is the sample population. The research can be limited to a particular sub-
group, for example, young people, university students, or those from a specific cultural or
geographic location, that may confine the sample to another population. Romantic relationships
vary by age, culture, and social situation, so the findings in this study may not be universal.
Moreover, the research is based on a certain theoretical model that particularizes the mediating
function of empathy between revenge and forgiveness. Although this model provides a targeted
lens through which to analyze, it precludes other theoretically relevant frameworks, including
emotional intelligence theory, the investment model of relationships, or the theory of planned
behavior, which could provide different explanations or supplementary insights.

Lastly, the cross-sectional design of the study means that data will be gathered at one point in
time and that observation of the development of forgiveness processes over time will not be
possible. Therefore, the study is not able to identify causal relationships between variables,
merely correlations. These shortcomings need to be taken into account when drawing
conclusions and applying the results to practice.
1.7 Definition of Key Terms
Forgiveness

Forgiveness is defined as the conscious and deliberate act of releasing feelings of resentment,
anger, or the desire for revenge toward a transgressing partner. In a romantic relationship,
forgiveness can mean the switching of negative emotions to neutral or positive emotions, which
helps the individuals to move past emotional hurt and probably rekindle intimacy and trust. Such
a thing is not always supplementary to forgetting the offence or condoning the harmfulness of the
act, it is mainly choosing emotional healing over continued conflicts or bitterness.

Empathy

Empathy is a nurturing environment, understanding, and reacting emotionally to another person's

situation, experience, or feelings. Here, empathy is defined as an important emotional
competence that allows people to see the point of view of others, read their feelings, and react
with sympathy. In this context, empathy is treated as the focal point for the forgiveness process
which is not only a means for withdrawing negative judgments but also is vital for the emerging
emotional bond. Furthermore, the concept of mediation is employed to indicate that a variable
(empathy) could depict how or why the relationship between seeking revenge and forgiveness
(Exline & Baumeister, 2021).

Revenge-Seeking

According to the Karremans and Van Lange (2020) By revenge-seeking we mean the want or
intention to retaliate emotionally towards a partner, who you feel has wronged or betrayed you.
This action is based on emotion and the goal of the participant to hurt his or her partner’s back is
often the desire to correct the situation. Amongst couples, if the aim is to forgive, seeking
revenge is rather a negative action in that it is likely to cause a chain reaction of conflicts and
even hurt both people involved deeply. It is also referred to as a good mediator in the process of
emotional reconciliation.

1.8 Organization of the Study

This research consists of five chapters, each helping to present a holistic view of forgiveness in
romantic relationships and the psychological influences it has. Chapter One presents the research
by presenting the background of the research, declaring the research problem, announcing the
research goal and question, and describing the research's significance and limitations. It also
operationalizes the main variables attachment style, empathy, revenge-seeking, and forgiveness
and indicates the conceptual emphasis of the research. Chapter Two is a comprehensive review
of literature relevant to the study. It discusses theoretical accounts of attachment, empathy,
revenge-seeking, and forgiveness, as well as gaps in prior research that legitimize the need for
the current study. This chapter also encompasses the theoretical and conceptual frameworks
underpinning the research.

Chapter Three discusses the research design used in the research study. It gives details of
research design, population and sampling methods, instrumentation, data collection process, and
data analysis methods. The chapter also discusses the validity and reliability of the measurement
instruments, and the ethical concerns followed during the entire research process. Chapter Four
reports the findings of the data analysis. It offers an in-depth report of the statistical results
related to the research question, supplemented by tables and figures where necessary. The
findings are explained against the conceptual model hypothesized, particularly concerning the
interrelations between attachment style, empathy, revenge-seeking, and forgiveness.

Chapter Five finally presents the findings in more detail, relating them to Chapter Two's
literature review. It also describes the theory, practice, and future research implications of the
findings. In this chapter, the study concludes by reflecting the key findings, recognizing the
limitations of the study, and suggesting recommendations for researchers, relationship
counselors, and those seeking to learn about forgiveness in romantic relationships. Through this
systematic framework, the study seeks to offer both theoretical and practical contributions in the
domain of relationship psychology.
 Literature Review

2.1 Theoretical Background

The theoretical basis of this report is underpinned by the main Attachment Theory, as established
by John Bowlby and expanded by Mary Ainsworth. With Attachment Theory, early relationships
with early caregivers shape the internal working models that emerge and get transported right
through to adulthood to be utilized in the formation of expectations and behavior in close
relationships. These patterns of attachment traditionally classified as secure, anxious, and
avoidant substantively influence how individuals connect with their intimate partners, navigate
emotional intimacy, and handle conflict. Attachment Theory is here utilized to explain variation
among individuals in terms of the readiness and capacity to forgive a transgressive partner. The
theory of why some individuals may be prone to forgiveness more naturally than others, and why
other individuals will struggle due to underlying abandonment, mistrust, or fear of emotional
avoidance is explained by the theory (Fatima & Malik, 2022).

The value of using Attachment Theory in this study is the explanatory power for one of the
primary variables: attachment style. Securely attached individuals are better at managing their
emotions and are more forgiving and trusting when it comes to their partner. Anxious ones are in
greater likelihood to seek closeness but with very intense emotional responses, inclining to hold
a grudge. Avoidant individuals will pull away or suppress emotions and therefore deny a need for
forgiveness or simply avoid emotional reconciliation. These traits directly influence the way
forgiveness is practiced in romantic relationships. By applying Attachment Theory, the research
can investigate whether and how these attachment patterns predict empathy, revenge-seeking,
and ultimately, forgiveness individually.

Moreover, Mikulincer and Shaver (2021), study synthesizes Attachment Theory and emotion
variables specifically empathy and revenge-seeking to create a better understanding of
forgiveness. Empathy is viewed as a significant emotional competence that enables one to put
himself/herself in his/her partner's shoes and defuse the arousal of negative emotions such as
anger and betrayal. Revenge-seeking, however, reflects unresolved emotional hurt and revenge-
seeking, which can be influenced by insecure attachment styles. For instance, anxious persons
may resort to revenge as a way to gain notice or restore their emotional importance, and
avoidants may do so to reinstate control or spurn vulnerability. Thus, the theory not only merits
the addition of attachment style as a predictor variable but also provides a logical route from
attachment to emotional processes like empathy and revenge-seeking which are paramount to
forgiveness.

2.2 Hypothesis Development

2.2.1 Revenge-Seeking and Empathy
Revenge-seeking and empathy are two psychological constructs that feature very prominently in
the dynamics of romantic relationships, particularly transgression and forgiveness. Revenge-
seeking refers to the motivation to pay back hurt inflicted by a partner, whereas empathy is the
capacity to share the feelings of another and know them. These constructions tend to be at
variance with each other; greater empathy tends to reduce revenge-seeking motivations, resulting
in forgiveness and reconciliation.

Empirical research has indicated a negative relationship between revenge-seeking and empathy.
In one study by McCullough et al. (1998), findings indicated that those who score higher on
empathy are less likely to seek revenge-seeking behaviors after being offended within
interpersonal contexts. The reverse correlation can be explained as empathy can serve as a buffer
against the vicious revenge cycle of retaliation in romantic relationships. Besides this,
Worthington et al. (2007) examined the place of empathy in the process of forgiveness. The
authors found that empathy not only suppressed the desire for revenge but also facilitated
forgiveness through increased understanding and sympathy toward the offending partner. This
implies that empathy can transform negative responses to transgressions into more positive
outcomes.

Of most significance in the context of romantic relationships is the interplay between empathy
and revenge. Romantic partners are likely to have strong emotional bonds between them, and
injustice evokes agonizing feelings of betrayal. But with empathy present, there is the potential
to be an umbrella against such negative emotions. For instance, McCullough et al. (1997)
conducted a study in which they found that individuals who could perspective-take and
sympathize with their partner's situation were less inclined to retaliate and more inclined to
forgive.
Furthermore, attachment styles have been found to moderate between revenge-seeking and
empathy. Mikulincer and Shaver (2001) found that individuals who have secure attachment
styles scored higher in empathy and lower in revenge-seeking traits. Individuals with insecure
attachment styles, such as anxious or avoidant, tended to have revenge-seeking behaviors and
were less likely to empathize with their partner.

Neuroscientific research also assists in illuminating the connection. Decety and Jackson (2004)
revealed neural processes of empathy, stating that activation of certain brain areas associated
with empathy will inhibit revengeful reactions, including revenge. This biological rationale
serves to highlight the inbuilt capacity of empathy to counteract revengeful impulses.

Besides, cultural factors can influence the interplay between empathy and revenge-seeking. In
highly collectivist cultures where harmony is greatly emphasized, empathy would be more
developed, reducing acts of revenge-seeking. Conversely, in individualistic cultures where
individual justice is greatly emphasized, revenge-seeking can be greater and overcome the
function of empathy in dispute settlement.

H1: Revenge-seeking has a significant impact on Empathy

2.2.2 Empathy and Forgiveness

Empathy and forgiveness are central concepts in the preservation and promotion of romantic
relationships. Empathy, or the ability to share and understand the emotions of another, allows for
emotional harmony between couples. Forgiveness, the act of letting go of resentment and
thoughts of retaliation, is essential in the resolution of conflicts and maintenance of relational
harmony. The dynamics between the two concepts have been the focus of recent empirical
research that has revealed their interdependence and combined effect on relationship satisfaction.

Empathy has been highlighted in recent research to mediate the forgiveness process. For
example, Wang et al. (2020) assessed 445 Chinese teenagers and found that empathy partially
mediated between transgression-related motivations and forgiveness tendencies. In specific
terms, greater empathy was linked with higher benevolent motivations and lower avoidance and
revenge motivations and hence more forgiveness.

In romantic relationships, empathy allows one to see one's partner's point of view, decreasing
negative feelings and forgiving others. Research by Karremans et al. (2020) indicated that
mindfulness, which increases empathic functioning, was positively associated with forgiveness
and relationship satisfaction in couples. It is therefore implied that mindfulness and empathy-
promoting interventions may strengthen forgiveness mechanisms within romantic relationships.

In addition, in a mixed-methods study, Kaya and Odacı (2024) investigated the determinants of
forgiveness in romantic relationships. The study revealed that those with greater empathic
concerns were more inclined to forgive their partners, with empathy serving to reduce the feeling
of offense and promote a forgiving disposition. In addition, the capacity for empathy goes
beyond personal tendencies to involve relational dynamics. Roberts et al. (2021) showed that
couples who practice empathic communication have greater forgiveness and relationship
satisfaction. This is evidence of the necessity of mutual empathy in negotiating relational
violations and emotional intimacy.

Theoretical frameworks also underpin empathy-forgiveness connections. Attachment theory

hypothesizes that securely attached individuals, who are best able to empathize, are more likely
to forgive. Insecurely attached individuals, on the other hand, will be unable to empathize, thus
inhibiting processes of forgiveness. The theoretical framework is consistent with empirical
research, and interventions focusing on attachment issues should improve empathy and, by
extension, forgiveness in romantic relationships.

H2: Empathy Has a Significant Impact on Forgiveness

2.2.3 Revenge Seeking and Forgiveness

The interplay of revenge and forgiveness in romance is multifaceted and complex and is most
often dictated by psychological traits, culture, and the nature of transgression. Forgiveness is
often associated with healthy relational outcomes, yet the desire for revenge can impede the
process of forgiveness and prolonging conflict.

Experimental research has examined this interplay. For instance, a Karachi, Pakistan, survey of
teens explored the relationship between revenge, forgiveness, and psychological well-being. The
study revealed that forgiveness helps individuals overcome their revenge desire and improve
mental health, yet there was also a surprising positive association between revenge and well-
being under certain circumstances. This means that revenge-seeking may, in some cases, leave an
individual with a sense of empowerment or justice, but at the cost of harmony within
relationships (Kaya & Odacı, 2024).

Moreover, Fehr, Gelfand, and Nag (2023), the mediating function of forgiveness between
tranquility and vengeance has been an object of contemplation. It has been established by
research that forgiveness can buffer the negative effects of vengeance on an individual's
tranquility and emotional health. Through forgiveness, individuals can experience less anger and
can become emotionally healthier, reflecting forgiveness as a probable path to personal
tranquility despite strong vengeful desires.

The psychological mechanisms underlying these behaviors have also been investigated. Anger
rumination, for example, has been discovered to be a mediating process between some character
traits and forgivingness. Individuals who are angler rumination-prone are less forgiving and are
more likely to have revenge-seeking propensities. This implies that attention to changing
underlying emotional processes will be required to foster forgiveness and quash the desire for
revenge (Decety & Cowell, 2020).

Forgiveness or revenge in romantic relationships can significantly impact relational quality and
longevity. Forgiveness has been associated with increased relationship satisfaction, while
revenge-seeking is potentially likely to increase further conflict and relational deterioration.
Efforts to increase forgiveness, such as empathy training and anger management, can potentially
be beneficial in promoting better-quality relationships and resilience.

H3: Revenge Seeking has a significant impact on Forgiveness

2.3 Conceptual Farmwork

Empathy

Revenge Seeking Forgiveness

 Methodology

3.1 Research Design

This research utilized a quantitative, cross-sectional design to examine the interrelations of
forgiveness, attachment styles, empathy, and revenge-seeking in romantic relationships. The
overall purpose of the study was to test the degree to which attachment styles and empathy
impact individuals' propensities toward forgiveness or revenge-seeking behaviors in romance.
Standardized self-report questionnaires were used to assess all four constructions. The
correlational analysis was employed in the study to measure the strength and direction of the
associations between variables, allowing the determination of major predictors of forgiveness in
romantic relationships.

3.2 Sampling
A convenience sampling technique was employed to recruit participants for this study. The target
population was individuals between 18 and 30 years of age in Pakistan who had gone through at
least one romantic relationship. Information was collected using an online questionnaire
disseminated through social media and university email lists. 250 participants completed the
study. The inclusion criteria specified that participants must have been engaged in a romantic
relationship and could read and comprehend English, as questionnaires were in English.
Participants from both genders and backgrounds were enrolled to ensure diversity and
generalizability among the age group.

3.3 Measures
This research utilized a standardized self-report questionnaire that aimed to measure four
psychological constructs relevant to the research area: attachment style, empathy, seeking
revenge, and forgiveness in romantic relationships. Five items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging
from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5) were used to measure each construct.

3.3.1 Empathy
Empathy was measured with five items that inquired about the participants' capacity to perceive,
feel, and understand their romantic partner's emotions. The items are loaded on both affective
empathy (response to emotions) and cognitive empathy (taking perspective). Higher scores
denote greater empathic capacities, which are predicted to help with forgiveness.

3.3.2 Revenge-Seeking
Revenge proneness was assessed with five items that ascertain the participant's tendency to
retaliate or pursue emotional justice after a partner's wrongdoing. These items capture emotional
reactivity, rumination, and intention to inflict harm or punish a partner for hurtful actions. Higher
scores point towards greater revenge motivation and lesser forgiveness.

3.3.3 Forgiveness
Forgiveness was also assessed with five items reflecting the person's tendency to forgive,
decrease avoidance, and renew goodwill when they have been wronged in a romantic
relationship. Both emotional and behavioral forgiveness were measured by these items. Higher
scores indicate higher levels of forgiveness, which is the main outcome variable in this study.

3.4 Procedure
Participants in this study were individuals from Pakistan between 18 and above, who had been in
either some committed or uncommitted romantic relations. A total of 250 responses have been
obtained through convenience sampling using an online self-administered survey. The
questionnaire was circulated via social media platforms and university networks. Ethical
considerations were fully adhered to, and permission was received from all the participants.
Participation was voluntary and gave assurance to anonymity and confidentiality concerning the
information provided. The collected data were coded and analyzed using SPSS. Regression
analysis is used to ascertain the relationships between attachment style, empathy, revenge-
seeking, and forgiveness in romantic relationships.
3.5 Scale
Variables Items References
For Givenness 1. I try to forgive others even when they don’t Kim, A. (2022). To forgive
feel guilty for what they did.
or Not to Forgive: The
2. I can usually forgive and forget an insult.
3. Even after I forgive someone, things often Influence of Attachment
come back to me that I resent.
Style on Post-Transgression
4. I feel bitter about many of my relationships.
5. There are some things for which I could never Responses and the
forgive even a loved one.
Mediating Role of Empathy
(Doctoral dissertation,
Auckland University of
Technology).
Revenge 1. I’ll make him/her pay. Kim, A. (2022). To forgive
Seeking 2. I wish that something bad would happen to
or Not to Forgive: The
him/her.
3. I want him/her to get what he/she deserves. Influence of Attachment
4. I’m going to get even.
Style on Post-Transgression
5. I want to see him/her hurt and miserable.
Responses and the
Mediating Role of Empathy
(Doctoral dissertation,
Auckland University of
Technology).
Empathy 1. I often have tender, concerned feelings for Kim, A. (2022). To forgive
people less fortunate than me.
or Not to Forgive: The
2. When I see someone being treated unfairly, I
sometimes don't feel very much Influence of Attachment
3. pity for them.
Style on Post-Transgression
4. I am often quite touched by things that I see
happen. Responses and the
5. I would describe myself as a pretty soft-
Mediating Role of Empathy
hearted person.
6. When I see someone being taken advantage (Doctoral dissertation,
of, I feel kind of protective towards
Auckland University of
7. them.
Technology).
3.6 Ethical Consideration
The study was conducted according to the ethical standards proposed by the American
Psychological Association (APA) and organized under the supervision of Iqra University Ethics
Review Committee. The prior consent from participants was obtained before participating in the
study. They were told that the study was concerned with what and, if they ever did refuse, they
were encouraged to pull out at times without repercussion and they had voluntarily accepted.
There was no possibility of an injury, either physical, emotional, or psychological, resulting from
completing the survey. Possible tendencies about romantic problems and emotional distress
during the study were identified and the participants were made informed ahead of time to any
sensitive material. The utmost restriction was put on keeping confidentiality and anonymity; no
identifying personal data was gathered. The data were stored safely; they could only be used for
academic purposes.
 Data Analysis

4. Data Analysis

4.1.1 Descriptive Statistics

This section presents the demographic characteristics of the participants and the descriptive
statistics for the key study variables: forgiveness, revenge-seeking, and empathy.

Table 4.1: Demographic Profile of Respondents (N = 249)

Demographic Variable Category Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

Gender Male 109 43.8%

Female 140 56.2%

Age 18–24 31 12.4%

25–30 99 39.8%

31–35 94 37.8%

36 and above 25 10.0%

Relationship Status Committed 47 18.9%

Non-Committed 195 78.3%

Not Specified/Others 7 2.8%

4.1.2 Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables

The table below summarizes the descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) of the items
measuring forgiveness, revenge-seeking, and empathy. Each variable was measured using five
Likert-type items (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree).
Table 4.1.2 : Descriptive Statistics of Main Variables (N = 249)

Variable Item Code Mean Std. Deviation

Forgiveness FG1 3.97 0.920

FG2 3.93 1.031

FG3 4.07 0.952

FG4 4.03 0.897

FG5 4.14 0.889

Revenge-Seeking RS1 4.10 0.853

RS2 4.17 0.840

RS3 4.16 0.854

RS4 4.14 0.854

RS5 4.10 0.863

Empathy E1 4.06 0.869

E2 4.12 0.824

E3 4.18 0.833

E4 4.14 0.826

E5 4.11 0.859
4.2 Reliability Analysis
To ensure the internal consistency and reliability of the measurement instruments, Cronbach’s
alpha was computed for each of the three scales used: Forgiveness, Revenge-Seeking, and
Empathy. All scales demonstrated strong internal reliability, with alpha values exceeding the
recommended threshold of 0.70.

Variables Means Standard Deviation Cronbach Alpha

Forgiveness 20.14 3.456 0.788
Empathy 20.60 3.153 0.804
Revenge Seeking 20.67 3.153 0.793

As shown in Table 4.2, the Forgiveness Scale produced a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.788, indicating
good internal consistency. Similarly, the Revenge-Seeking Scale yielded an alpha value of 0.793,
which is also within an acceptable range. The Empathy Scale demonstrated a reliability
coefficient of 0.804, suggesting strong consistency among the items.

These results confirm that all three scales were reliable and suitable for further analysis in this
study.
4.3 Correlation Analysis
Pearson’s correlation analysis was used to evaluate the strength and direction of relationships
among the main variables: forgiveness (FG), revenge-seeking (RS), and empathy (E). The
following table presents the correlation coefficients.

FG RS E

FG Pearson Correlation 1 .369** .507**

Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001

N 249 249 249

RS Pearson Correlation .369** 1 .525**

Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001

N 249 249 249

E Pearson Correlation .507** .525** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001

N 249 249 249

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The analysis revealed a statistically significant positive correlation between forgiveness and
revenge-seeking (r = 0.369, p < 0.01). This result suggests that participants who report higher
levels of revenge-seeking tendencies also report higher levels of forgiveness. Although
unexpected, this may reflect the presence of emotional ambivalence in romantic relationships,
where individuals can experience conflicting motivations such as the desire to retaliate and the
simultaneous inclination to repair the relationship.

A strong and statistically significant positive correlation was found between forgiveness and
empathy (r = 0.507, p < 0.01). This indicates that participants with greater empathic capacity are
more likely to forgive their romantic partners. This finding supports the theoretical expectation
that empathy enhances the ability to understand a partner's perspective, thereby promoting
emotional healing and reducing the desire for retribution.

Revenge-seeking was also found to have a significant positive correlation with empathy (r =
0.525, p < 0.01). This suggests that individuals with high levels of empathy may still experience
strong revenge-related emotions. This counterintuitive result may indicate that empathy does not
necessarily neutralize all negative responses; instead, it may increase emotional sensitivity,
including perceived betrayal or injustice in close relationships.

4.4 Regression Analysis

This section presents the regression analyses conducted to examine the predictive relationships
between empathy, revenge-seeking, and forgiveness. Three models were tested:

1. Empathy predicting Revenge-Seeking

2. Revenge-Seeking predicting Forgiveness
3. Empathy predicting Forgiveness

Each model includes a summary table, ANOVA results, regression coefficients, and
interpretation based on your SPSS output.

Revenge Seeking and Empathy

Model Summary

Table 4.4.1: Model Summary – Empathy Predicting Revenge-Seeking

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 0.525 0.276 0.273 0.727

a. Predictors: (Constant), EQsum

Empathy accounts for 27.6% of the variance in revenge-seeking behavior.

ANOVA

Table 4.4.2: ANOVA Summary

Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 49.839 1 49.839 94.222 <.001**

Residual 130.651 247 0.529

Total 180.490 248

a. Dependent Variable: RSQsum

b. Predictors: (Constant), EQsum

Coefficients

Table 4.4.3: Coefficients – Empathy Predicting Revenge-Seeking

Predictor B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

Constant 2.008 0.220 — 9.105 <.001
Empathy (EQsum) 0.516 0.053 0.525 9.707 <.001**
a. Dependent Variable: RSQsum

Revenge-Seeking significantly and positively predicts Empathy (β = 0.525, p < 0.001). This
suggests that individuals with high emotional sensitivity may also have heightened reactivity to
relational harm, leading to increased revenge motivation.

Revenge-Seeking and Forgiveness

Model Summary

Table 4.4.4: Model Summary – Revenge-Seeking Predicting Forgiveness

 Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 0.369 0.136 0.133 0.856

a. Predictors: (Constant), RSQsum

Revenge-seeking explains 13.6% of the variance in forgiveness.

ANOVA

Table 4.4.5: ANOVA Summary

Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 28.565 1 28.565 38.943 <.001**
Residual 181.178 247 0.734
Total 209.743 248
a. Dependent Variable: FGQsum

b. Predictors: (Constant), RSQsum

Coefficients

Table 4.4.6: Coefficients – Revenge-Seeking Predicting Forgiveness

Predictor B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

Constant 2.337 0.267 — 8.752 <.001

RS1 0.398 0.064 0.369 6.240 <.001**

a. Dependent Variable: FGQsum

Revenge-seeking significantly and positively predicts forgiveness (β = 0.369, p < 0.001). This
finding, while counterintuitive, may reflect a process in which those who recognize vengeful
feelings eventually pursue emotional resolution through forgiveness.

Empathy and Forgiveness

Model Summary

Table 4.4.7: Model Summary – Empathy Predicting Forgiveness

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 0.507 0.257 0.254 0.794

a. Predictors: (Constant), EQsum

Empathy explains 25.7% of the variance in forgiveness.

ANOVA

Table 4.4.8: ANOVA Summary

Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 53.897 1 53.897 85.421 <.001**
Residual 155.846 247 0.631
Total 209.743 248
a. Dependent Variable: FGQsum

Coefficients

Table 4.4.9: Coefficients – Empathy Predicting Forgiveness

Predictor B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

Constant 1.791 0.241 — 7.440 <.001
E1 0.537 0.058 0.507 9.242 <.001**

a. Dependent Variable: FGQsum

Empathy is a strong and significant positive predictor of forgiveness (β = 0.507, p < 0.001). This
supports theoretical models which posit that understanding others’ emotional perspectives plays
a central role in the capacity to forgive romantic transgressions.

4.5 Summary of Findings

The current research explored empathy and revenge-seeking roles in predicting romantic
relationship forgiveness. According to the conceptual model proposed, the following three
regression models were examined:

 Empathy was a significant and positive predictor of forgiveness (β = 0.507, p < .001) and
explained 25.7% of the variance.
 Revenge-seeking also emerged as a significant and positive predictor of forgiveness (β =
0.369, p < .001), explaining 13.6% of the variance.
 Empathy made a large and significant positive contribution to predicting revenge-seeking
(β = 0.525, p < .001), accounting for 27.6% of the variance.

These results were also supported by Pearson correlation coefficients, which indicated significant
positive correlations between all three variables:

 Forgiveness correlated positively with empathy (r = .507, p < .01) and revenge-seeking (r
= .369, p < .01).
 Empathy was positively correlated with revenge-seeking (r = .525, p < .01).

All regression models were highly significant at p < .001 and exhibited good levels of explained
variance (R² values between 0.136 and 0.276). Reliability analysis confirmed that all three scales
(revenge-seeking, empathy, forgiveness) showed excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's α >
0.78).
4.6 Discussion of the Results

The study's findings provide rigorous insight into the affective processes involved in forgiveness
in romantic relationships. All the relations examined below are explored within extant theory and
literature.

Empathy was the best predictor of forgiveness in the study (β = 0.507, p < .001) and is consistent
with theoretical predictions and earlier empirical work. Empathy heightens an individual's ability
to consider things from their partner's perspective, better positively interpret their intentions, and
lower hostility hence increases the likelihood of forgiving. These findings are in line with earlier
studies carried out by Karremans & Van Lange (2020) and Wang et al. (2020), who identified
empathy's mediating and motivational roles in encouraging forgiveness in romantic relationships.
The finding of a large effect size also lends support to the argument that increasing empathy may
be a critical therapeutic objective toward the resolution of relational conflict. Revenge-Seeking
as a Predictor of Forgiveness

Revenge-seeking surprisingly was a positive and significant predictor of forgiveness (β = 0.369,

p < .001). While other studies generally establish a negative relationship between revenge
motivation and forgiveness (e.g., McCullough & Witvliet, 2021; Exline & Baumeister, 2021),
the current result suggests that more vengeful or emotionally reactive individuals may be more
emotionally engaged in the relationship. This emotional engagement, which is reactive in nature,
may facilitate emotional resolution and potential transformation into forgiveness in the long
term. In such a manner, revenge-seeking can perhaps not inhibit forgiveness but co-exist with an
interest in relational closure or justice. This finding acts as a rebuttal to the historical binary of
forgiveness and revenge and resonates with such more nuanced perspectives as those given by
Strelan & van Prooijen (2022), who argue that vengeance and forgiveness may be simultaneous
and not opposed forces, both born from moral outrage or emotional provocation in the face of
transgression.

Empathy also strongly predicted revenge-seeking behavior (β = 0.525, p < .001), a result that
might seem at first blush to be counterintuitive in the face of the generally negative correlation
identified in the literature. It can be accounted for, however, in terms of the richness of the
emotions felt in romantic relationships. High empathic capacity does not eliminate the sense of
betrayal or hurt. Instead, individuals with more empathy would be more emotionally aware and
sensitive and hence have stronger emotional reactions perhaps even anger or a sense of outrage.
These experiences would make them more vulnerable to revenge urges, especially if empathy
fails to lead to understanding or resolution. Neuroscience research supports this view. Decety &
Cowell (2020) stated that highly empathic individuals may still access emotional centers of the
brain that respond to threat or social injustice. Hence, empathy can build both loving and
retaliatory responses, depending on the relational context.

Compositely, these results show that empathy and seeking revenge are not incompatible but may
co-occur in complex emotional processing. Empathy raises the ability to consider how a partner
feels, which can potentially lead to forgiveness but also potentially increase the emotional pain
of betrayal and, indirectly, revenge thinking. Forgiveness appears to happen not despite but
because of negative emotions in requiring the individual to experience inner conflict between
hurt and healing. These findings support the integrative model proposed by Mikulincer & Shaver
(2021), in which attachment style, empathy, and emotional regulation systems co-decide
relationship outcomes such as forgiveness.
 Conclusion

5.1 Key Findings

The present research surveyed psychological processes underlying forgiveness in romantic

relationships, with specific attention to how empathy and revenge-seeking contribute. The study
applied a series of regression analyses and correlation tests to identify a variety of its major
findings that advance current knowledge of emotional processes for resolving romantic conflict.

Firstly, empathy was the most significant predictor of forgiveness (β = 0.507, p < .001),
accounting for 25.7% of variance. This confirms current literature that situates empathy at the
core of emotional repair and relational restoration. Individuals who are better at empathizing and
understanding their partner's emotional state are very likely to let go of resentment and forgive
transgression. This finding is in alignment with that of Karremans & Van Lange (2020) and
Wang et al. (2020), who stress empathy as the mediating role in forgiveness in close
relationships. Secondly, it was discovered that revenge-seeking had a positive and significant
relationship with forgiveness (β = 0.369, p < .001), explaining 13.6% of variance.

This finding contradicts traditional theories, which typically hypothesize an inverse relationship
between these variables. However, it suggests that individuals who confess and process angry
feelings may, in a very paradoxical way, be less emotionally distant and hence more likely to
seek closure through forgiveness. This perspective is consistent with newer theoretical models
viewing revenge and forgiveness as complementary, not oppositional, emotional reactions
elicited by moral offenses (Strelan & van Prooijen, 2022). Third, empathy predicted revenge-
seeking behavior significantly (β = 0.525, p < .001), with 27.6% of variance explained.

This shows that highly empathetic people may also be more sensitized emotionally and would
react strongly to betrayal. Instead of suppressing revenge behaviors, empathy can be said to
intensify emotional awareness, which makes the person more reactive to hurtful relationships.
These findings are in agreement with recent neuroscientific perspectives suggesting that
empathic individuals could potentially have access to broader emotional ranges, including both
compassion and anger (Decety & Cowell, 2020). Cumulatively, the results disconfirm simplistic
revenge-forgiveness opposition and suggest a more nuanced interactive model in which empathy
plays a dual role of inducing forgiveness while exacerbating emotional responses like revenge-
seeking. The results confirm the theoretical conceptual model and offer a new model of
emotional regulation and conflict resolution in romantic relationships. They also suggest
practical implications for therapeutic interventions aimed at enhancing emotional consciousness
and relationship restoration.

5.2 Future Recommendation

Given the challenges faced in the current study, several suggestions are made in future studies to
increase the depth and the extent of generalization of findings to romantic relationships about
forgiveness:

The present research focused on three key constructs only: empathy, revenge-seeking, and
attachment style. Forgiveness is a multi-dimensional process that is affected by many
psychological and relational variables like emotional intelligence, communication style, conflict
resolution approach, personality, and past relational experience. Future researchers should use a
wider theoretical framework by including these variables to offer a more complete explanation of
what enables or impedes forgiveness in romantic relationships.

The employment of self-report quantitative measures, though valuable for generalizability and
statistical analysis, might not be able to capture the emotional nuance of forgiveness. Participants
might also underreport sensitive acts like revenge-seeking because of social desirability bias.
Subsequent researchers are invited to utilize mixed methods or qualitative methods (e.g., in-
depth interviews, narrative analysis) to examine participants lived processes of hurt, empathy,
and forgiveness. This would yield richer, more nuanced information about emotional dynamics.

The sample for the present study was selected mostly from young Pakistani individuals, of whom
many were university students. This limits the generalizability of findings to broader
populations. Future studies should seek to include participants from a range of age groups,
educational levels, and cultural backgrounds to ask whether forgiveness processes differ across
life stages, gender roles, or across cultural norms for expressing emotions and behaving in
relationships.
Because the current study employed cross-sectional design, it cannot make inference on causality
or temporal processes among empathy, revenge, and forgiveness. There is a need for longitudinal
research to assess how these variables relate to one another across time, particularly in repeated
relational transgressions or recovery after conflict. This will enable researchers to look at
forgiveness as a process of development rather than a product.

Although the present research was based on attachment theory, other or complementary theories
such as emotional intelligence theory, the investment model, or social exchange theory could
yield different theoretical explanations for the emotional and relational trade-offs underlying
forgiveness behavior. Researchers are invited to test these theories or combine them in new
theories to advance theoretical growth in the area. By addressing these areas, the findings of
future research can build on the present study to provide a stronger, culturally appropriate, and
psychologically richer understanding of forgiveness within romantic relationships. This will
further strengthen both academic theory and therapeutic practice.

5.3 Implication of the Study

The implications of this research hold important theoretical, practical, and clinical significance
for the understanding and facilitation of forgiveness in romantic relationships. These
implications are discussed within three general areas: academic scholarship, psychological
practice, and relationship education.

This study contributes to the growing literature on relational and emotional processes by
validating and building upon existing theories namely attachment theory and emotional
processing theories. The confirmation that empathy strongly predicts revenge-seeking and
forgiveness provides a less subtle understanding of empathy as a double-function emotional
device that is simultaneously able to heighten emotional suffering and facilitate reconciliation.
The results confirm and add to Mikulincer & Shaver's (2021) integrative models, demonstrating
that emotional regulation strategies, rather than emotional tendencies, are what can be the
determining factor for relationship outcomes. Furthermore, the counterintuitive positive
relationship between revenge-seeking and forgiveness challenges traditional dualisms and opens
up the chance to reconceptualize the functions of emotional ambivalence and reactivity in
forgiveness. Clinically, the study offers invaluable information to therapists, counselors, and
psychologists who work with patients or couples who have experienced emotional injury in
romantic relationships. The strong effect of empathy on forgiving suggests that interventions to
increase empathic ability e.g., mindfulness training, cognitive reframe, or skills training in
empathic communication will have a direct effect on enhancing clients' willingness to forgive
and reducing hostility. Finding that empathy can coexist with revenge motivations further
suggests the utility of helping clients navigate complex emotional responses rather than hiding
them. Therapy approaches like Emotion-Focused Therapy (EFT) or Compassion-Focused
Therapy (CFT) might be very useful in resolving the emotional dilemma that results from
romantic infidelity.

For relationship education and conflict resolution practitioners, the study highlights the
importance of emotional intelligence and interpersonal understanding as fundamental skills for a
healthy partnership. Relationship education courses can be enhanced with empathy development,
emotion regulation, and revenge behavior psychological foundation modules. Teaching
individuals to recognize and learn to manage emotional hot buttons, especially where relational
conflict is involved, may promote long-term relationship satisfaction and reduce risk of breakup
or divorce.

5.4 Conclusion

This research investigated the psychological and emotional processes of forgiving in romantic
relationships and more specifically the roles of empathy, revenge motivation, and attachment
style. Based on attachment theory and influenced by emotional processing models, the research
explored the combined role of these predictors in influencing individuals' capacity for
forgiveness of a romantic partner after relational transgressions.

The findings from the study set out several important findings. Empathy was the highest
predictor of forgiveness, consistent with the theoretical prediction that empathy or the capacity to
see things from a partner's perspective and feel in the same way as them allows for emotional
closure and relational redemption. Revenge-seeking, against common assumptions, was also
positively correlated with forgiveness. This apparently counterintuitive finding suggests that
individuals who experience and process emotion in relation to revenge are not diminishing their
capacity to forgive but are perhaps emotionally engaged enough to pursue reconciliation.
Empathy was also a significant predictor of seeking revenge, consistent with the argument that
heightened empathic sensitivity may both enhance emotional reactivity to betrayal.

These results challenge the crude duality of forgiveness and revenge and coalesce on a more
advanced emotional framework in which empathy is an ambivalent dual-purpose force—
amplifying both reconciliation motive and hurt of indignation. This ambivalence reflects the
emotional uncertainty that typically characterizes romantic relationships and underscores the
necessity of emotional regulation strategies for managing such dynamics.

Methodologically, the study was undertaken on the basis of a cross-sectional quantitative design
utilizing valid self-report measures completed by a sample of 249 Pakistani adults with a history
of romantic relationship experience. Despite statistical findings being strong and significant, the
study does acknowledge limitations such as its reliance upon self-report data, application of a
demographically limited sample, and absence of other relevant psychological variables. These
constraints also offer avenues for potential future research, including longitudinal and qualitative
research, more representative demographic inclusion, and measurement of other constructs like
emotional intelligence or communication style.

Practically speaking, the implications are of immense worth to therapists, counselors, and
relationship educators. Empathy-eliciting and emotional processing interventions may further
improve romantic relationship conflict resolution and forgiveness. The identification of the co-
occurrence of empathy and revenge-seeking can also help practitioners to help clients in
managing complex emotional reactions without repression or guilt.
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