Introduction to RADAR

Presenter :Engineer Motion Marufu

E-mail: motionmarufu60@[Link]
WhatsApp: +263773587388

9/17/2025 ZNDU Aerospace Eng. – Microwave Application –

Introduction to Radar
 Introduction
• RADAR is an electromagnetic based system for detection, location, and
sometimes for recognition of target objects that works by radiating
electromagnetic waves, receiving echoes from target objects within its volume of
coverage and extracting location and other information from the echo signals.
• This is a logical extension of the original term RADAR is RAdio Detection And
Ranging. Detection refers to whether the target is present or not. The target can be
stationary or movable, i.e., non-stationary. Ranging refers to the distance between
the Radar and the target.
 Introduction
• The word RADAR is an acronym from the words Radio Detection And Ranging; that is,
finding and positioning a target and determining the distance (range) between the target
and the radar by using radio frequency. The basic radar equipment consists of a
transmitter, a receiver, a duplexer, and an antenna.
• The basic principle behind the radar is simple: The transmitter sends out a very short
duration pulse at a high power level. The pulse strikes an object (or a target), and energy
will be reflected (known as radar returns or echoes) back to the radar receiver. The radar
determines the distance (range) to the target by measuring the travel time of the radar
pulse to the target and to come back from the target, and then divides that time by two.
• For extracting the target information from the echo, the signal should be of sufficient
magnitude. The radar equation is used to predict the echo power to assist in making the
determination of whether or not the condition just mentioned is met. The radar receiver
processes these echoes to determine the target information.
• These information can be a range, velocity, angular position, etc. The radar functions can
be performed at any distance long or short and in any visibility levels. Radar can
measure distances with high accuracy in all weather conditions.
 Introduction
• The name Radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging
• Radar is a remote sensing technique: Capable of gathering information about
objects located at remote distances from the sensing device.
• Two distinguishing characteristics:
• 1. Employs EM waves that fall into the microwave portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum (1 mm < l < 75 cm)
• 2. Active technique: radiation is emitted by radar – radiation scattered by objects is
detected by radar.
• Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of objects
(Radio Detection and Ranging). Radar operates by transmitting a particular type of
waveform and detecting the nature of the signals reflected back from objects.
 Introduction
• Radar can see in conditions which do not permit the eye to see such as darkness,
haze, rain, smoke. Radar can also measure the distances to objects. The elemental
radar system consists of a transmitter unit, an antenna for emitting electromagnetic
radiation and receiving the echo, an energy detecting receiver and a processor.

A portion of the transmitted signal is

intercepted by a reflecting object (target) and
is reradiated in all directions. The antenna
collects the returned energy in the backscatter
direction and delivers it to the receiver. The
distance to the receiver is determined by
measuring the time taken for the
electromagnetic signal to travel to the target
and back. The direction of the target is
determined by the angle of arrival (AOA) of
the reflected signal.
 Introduction
• Also if there is relative motion between the radar and the target, there is a shift in
frequency of the reflected signal (Doppler Effect) which is a measure of the radial
component of the relative velocity. This can be used to distinguish between
moving targets and stationary ones.
• Radar was first developed to warn of the approach of hostile aircraft and for
directing antiaircraft weapons. Modern radars can provide AOA, Doppler, and
MTI etc.
 What is done by Radar?
What is done by a Radar?
• Radar can see the objects in
• day or night
• rain or shine
• land or air
• cloud or clutter
• fog or frost
• earth or planets
• stationary or moving and
• Good or bad weather.
In brief, Radar can see the objects hidden any where in the globe or planets except
hidden behind good conductors.
 Information given by the Radar
• Radar gives the following information:
• The position of the object
• The distance of objects from the location of radar
• The size of the object
• Whether the object is stationary or moving
• Velocity of the object
• Distinguish friendly and enemy aircrafts
• The images of scenes at long range in good and adverse weather conditions
• Target recognition
• Weather target is moving towards the radar or moving away
• The direction of movement of targets
• Classification of materials
 NATURE AND TYPES OF RADARS
• The common types of radars are:
 Speed trap Radars  Search Radars
 Missile tracking Radars  IFF (Identification Friend or Foe)
 Early warning Radars  Synthetic Aperture Radars
 Airport control Radars  Missile control Radars
 Navigation Radars  MTI (Moving Target Indication) Radars
 Ground mapping Radars  Navy Radars
 Astronomy Radars  Doppler Radars
 Weather forecast Radars  Remote sensing Radars
 Gun fire control Radars  Tracking Radars
Mesosphere, Stratosphere and  Instrumentation Radars
Troposphere (MST) Radars  Gun direction Radars
Over-The-Horizon (OTH) Radars  Airborne weather Radars
Monopulse Radars
Phased array Radars
 Applications of Radars
• By using RADAR technology, we can satisfy different applications such as search,
detect, track, imaging, and remote sensing. Radars are employed everywhere on the
ground, in the air, on the sea, and in space.
• Radars can be categorized based on the application, into
(i) Ground-based radars – For the detection, location, and tracking of aircrafts or
spacecraft.
(ii) Ship-board radars – As navigational aid and safety devices to locate buoys, shore-lines,
and other ships, etc.
(iii) Air-borne radars – For the detection of other aircrafts, ships, land mapping, weather
indication, etc.
(iv) In space – For the guidance of spacecraft and remote sensing.
• The radars are mainly used in the military, and also have important civilian applications
especially for air and marine navigation. The following sections briefly describe the
major radar applications.
Radar Frequency Bands
Radar Band Usage
 Applications of Radars
• Air traffic control: High resolution radars are used for safe controlling of the air
traffic and ground vehicular traffic at large airports throughout the world.
• Maritime navigation: In ship, radars are used to warn about the potential
collision with other ships and for detecting navigation buoys, especially in poor
visibility. Moderately high resolution shore-based radars are used for the
surveillance of harbors as an aid to navigation.
• Aircraft navigation: Weather forecasting is very essential in aircraft navigation.
Pulse Doppler radar os used for this purpose. A classic example of the above
application is the weather avoidance radar installed on the nose of aircrafts which
is used to outline the regions of precipitation to the pilot. For terrain avoidance
and the terrain following, radars are used. Another application of radar is radio
altimeter that measures the aircraft’s height above the ground.
 Applications of Radars
• Military applications: In military, we have to identify and track the enemy
aircraft, which can be done by using search and tracking radars and also by using
over-horizon search radars. By using radars we can detect the missile activity at a
very long range and we can guide and control the weapons for attacking enemy
aircrafts.
• Meteorological applications: Radars are used by the meteorological department
to forecast approaching storms and to issue timely warning, thus avoiding the loss
of life and property. There is a network of weather radars operating in our country,
especially along the eastern coast.
• Process control: Very short-range radars can be used to measure the fluid levels
in enclosed tanks very accurately and to determine the dryness of products in a
manufacturing process to provide feedback to the process controller.
 Applications of Radars
• Space applications: The advantage of Space-based radar systems is an
unobstructed overhead view of the earth and objects on the earth surface. For
rendezvous and docking of Space vehicles radars can be used. For the detection
and tracking of satellites some of the largest ground-based radars are used. For
remote sensing of earth resources, mapping of sea conditions, water resources, ice
cover, agricultural and forest conditions, geological formations, and environmental
pollution satellite borne radars can be used.
• Law enforcement applications: Radars are widely used to measure the speed of
automobile traffic by police on highways, thereby aiding them in enforcing road
traffic regulations.
 Classification Of Radars
Radar systems can be classified into four categories as follows:
• Based on role of the targets during detection process
• Based on how transmitting antenna and receiving antenna are employed
• Based on waveforms used
• Based on services provided
 Classification of Radars Based on Role of Targets
During Detection Process
Based on the role of targets during the detection, the radars are classified into two
groups, namely,
• Primary radar
• Secondary radar
• Primary radars
• In primary radars, the cooperation of the target is not required to find the range,
position, and relative velocity of the target. In other words, the role of the target is
said to be passive and is limited only to reflect the radar signals back to the radar.
Most of the radars used for the air traffic control, such as the approach
surveillance radar (ASR) or airport surveillance radar, air-route surveillance radar
(ARSR), and precision approach radar (PAR), belong to the group of primary
radars.
 Primary radars
• Transmitter characteristics
• The modern air traffic control (ATC) primary radars operate in the S-band
frequency (2700 to 2900 MHz). Older systems tended to use vast amounts of
power (several Megawatts), and employed vacuum tube devices such as
magnetrons, klystrons, or traveling-wave tubes. More modern systems benefit
from powerful signal processing techniques, and tend to require far less power
than older types. In some new installations, solid-state transmitters are commonly
used.
• Advantages:
• It works independently, that is, the active cooperation of the target is not required.
• It engages several targets simultaneously and is not likely to get saturated.
• The electronic system is comparatively simpler, and requires only one set of
transmitter and receiver.
 Primary radars
• Disadvantages:
• The efficiency of a primary radar is poor, because the echo signals depend on the
target size, shape, material, and so on.
• The transmitter power has to be high, because the same energy has to return after
getting reflected from the target.
• The receiver has to be highly sensitive, because the strength of echoes may be
very weak.
• The critical alignment of the transmitter and receiver frequency is very essential.
• The selective response of targets is not possible.
• The echoes from fixed targets will cause disturbance in detecting moving targets.
 Secondary radars
• Here, the active cooperation of targets is very much required for finding the range
and other details of the targets. Hence, the role of the targets is said to be active.
The secondary radar system basically consists of two principal components,
namely the interrogator, which is ground based and the transponder, which is
carried out on the targets (aircrafts). Each of these components consists of a set of
pulse transmitter and receiver. The interrogator radiates pulses, which when
received by a corresponding transponder on a target, a reply will be initiated from
that transponder. These replies are then collected by the interrogator to extract
information about the targets. Examples of a secondary radar used in airports are
as follows: Monopulse Secondary Surveillance Radar (MSSR).
 Secondary radars
• The ground-based interrogator transmits a coded signal to a transponder on the
aircraft, which then replies with a second code. The transmission from the
interrogator to the transponder (known as the uplink) is on a frequency of 1030
MHz, and the replies (downlink) are on a frequency of 1090 MHz. Ground-based
SSR antennas are often mounted directly on top of primary radar antennas (Figure
below).
 Secondary radars
Advantages:
• Considerable range increase is possible as the radar transmission has to travel the
distance between the target and the radar only once.
• It allows low powers to be used to get a given performance.
• The echo is no longer dependent on the target size, material, and so on.
• Since there is a frequency difference between the transponder and the interrogator,
received signals are totally free from permanent target echoes.
• By suitable coding, some useful information can be conveyed from the target to the
ground station.
Disadvantages:
• It can be used for friendly targets only.
• The system operation depends on the equipment of the target remaining serviceable.
• All secondary radars are liable to be saturated.
 Classification of Radars Based on How Transmitting
and Receiving Antennas are Employed
• If the same antenna is used to transmit and receive, the system is called a
monostatic radar (see Figure (a)). A radar with transmit and receive antennas at
different sites is called a bistatic radar (shown in Figure (b)).
 Classification of Radars Based on Waveforms Used
• Radars can be classified into two groups depending upon the type of waveforms
radiated.
• CW radars are of two types:
• – CW radar (Doppler radar) - uses unmodulated waveforms for radar
transmission and
• – FMCW radar - uses frequency-modulated waveforms for radar transmission
• Pulsed radar uses pulse modulated waveforms for radar transmission.
• Each type of waveform enjoys distinct advantages and has specific usage.
 Classification of Radars Based on Waveforms Used
• CW radars: The simplest type of radar is the CW radar, which uses a continuous
waveform for its transmission (Figure (a)). These radars are capable of detecting
moving targets as well as their radial velocities. Their main disadvantages are their
inability to find the range of the targets.
• CW-FM radars: This radar is an improved version of the CW radar, and it can
measure the range of targets by the use of frequency-modulated signals (Figure
(b)). They are usually used in radio altimeters for finding the height of an aircraft.

Radar waveforms: (a) Continuous wave; (b) Frequency-

modulated continuous wave;
 Classification of Radars Based on Waveforms Used
• Pulsed radars: The most widely used radar is the pulsed radar, which uses pulse-
modulated microwave signals for their transmission (Figure (c)). The pulsed
radars can be designed either for moving target detection or for radial velocity
measurements.

• Radar waveforms: (c) Pulsed wave

 Detailed Classification
• A detailed classification of radars based on waveforms radiated is summarised
below (Figure (d)).
 Classification of Radars Based on Services Provided
A radar system is generally required to perform one of the two tasks. It should either
search for targets or track them once they have been acquired. Accordingly, radars
have been classified as
• SEARCH radar
• TRACK radar
• Search radars: Also known as the SURVEILLANCE radars, these radars should
acquire targets in a large volume of space regardless of whether their presence is
known or not. These radars usually use an antenna system that is capable of
continuous rotation. The most common application of these radars is for Air
Traffic Control.
• Tracking radars: Once the target has been acquired, it may then be tracked.
Tracking radars usually locate the targets very accurately, perhaps in order to bring
weapons to point toward it. Tracking radars can continuously give the angular
position, the range, and the radial velocity of targets with precision. If radars are
purely used for tracking, SEARCH radar should also be co-located.
 Basic Radars
• An electromagnetic system that is used for the detection and location of reflecting
objects like vehicles, ships, aircraft, spacecraft, people and other natural
environment is Radar.
• Basically, pulses at a high power level are sent out by radar, where these pulses
travel through the air or space until they meet an obstacle in their path. Some of
the energy is reflected from the object when the pulse hits the object, while some
energy is absorbed by the object and some is transmitted through the object. The
amount of the energy reflected is dependent on the following parameters:
• (i) The wavelength of the radar signal.
• (ii) Composition of the object.
• (iii) Size and shape of the object.
• The amount of reflected energy to the radar is very small and is detected using a
specially designed receiver as the reflected energy can go in any direction.
 Basic Principle of Radars
• The Figure below shows the basic principle of radar. An electromagnetic signal
that is radiated into space by an antenna is generated by a transmitter. The target
intercepts a part of the transmitted energy and reradiates it in many directions. The
reradiated signal is collected by the radar antenna and sends it to a receiver. To
locate the target’s presence and to find its location it is processed further in the
receiver. By measuring the time taken by the radar
signal to travel to the target and back to the
radar, the range or distance of a target is
found. A directional antenna has a narrow
beamwidth. Hence, it is used to find the
target’s location in angle to sense the angle
of arrival of the received echo signal. If the
target is in motion, due to the Doppler
Effect there will be a shift in the frequency
of the echo signal.
 Basic Principle of Radars
• In radars on the basis of differentiating the targeted moving object from fixed
clutter echoes (unwanted) which are reflected from the natural environment such
as land, sea, or rain, the Doppler frequency shift is broadly used. Nature of the
target can also be provided by radars.
 Radar Range Equation
• The ability of a radar to detect the presence of a target is expressed in terms of the
radar equation, which is worth deriving, rather than just quoting, because of the
insight it gives into the way radars work.
• We begin with the transmitter, which has a peak power output 𝑃𝑡 [W].If this power
is radiated isotropically by the antenna, then the power flux (the power density per
unit area) at a range R can be determined
 Radar Range Equation
• The transmitted power, the received power, the characteristics of the target and the
radar itself is related by the radar equation. The equation is also helpful to assess
the performance of the radar. The maximum radar range 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by

• where 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum

detection range between the radar and the target. It has the units of meters (m).
• 𝑃𝑡 is termed the peak transmit power and is the average power when the radar is
transmitting a signal. It has the units of Watts.
• 𝜆 is the radar wavelength. It has the units of meters (m).
• G is the gain of the transmitter and receiver antenna.
• 𝜎 is the target radar cross-section or RCS and has the units of square meters or
𝑚2 .
• 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the minimum received power that the radar receiver can sense and is
referred to as Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS). It has the units of Watts.
 Derivation of radar range equation
The derivation of the radar equation involves the following three steps for an
isolated target:
1. The power flux density which is given by radiated power per unit area incident
on the target is determined.
2. Radar cross-section which is given by power flux density reflected back toward
the radar is determined.
3. Antenna effective area which is given by the amount of power collected by the
antenna is determined.
 Derivation of radar range equation
• Consider radars with an omni-directional antenna that radiates energy equally in
all directions. These kinds of antennas are isotropic radiators and have a spherical
radiation pattern. Isotropic radiator is the one that radiates in all directions evenly.
Assuming that the medium is a lossless propagation medium, the transmitted
power divided by the surface area 4𝜋𝑅 2 of an imaginary sphere of radius R
determines the power density at range R away from the radar. Let the power
transmitted by the antenna through an isotropic radiator be 𝑃𝑡 .
𝑃𝑡
• Power density from an isotropic antenna 𝑃𝑑 = W/𝑚2
4𝜋𝑅 2
• In order to increase the power density in particular direction radar systems utilizes
directional antennas. There will be losses in the signal as it travels from the input
port to the target point at which it is targeted into the atmosphere. Let 𝐺𝑡 be the
radar transmitter antenna gain; and then, the power density at range R away from
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 2
the radar can be expressed as 𝑃𝑑 = 2 W/𝑚
4𝜋𝑅
 Derivation of radar range equation
• where 𝑃𝑡 = peak transmitted power in Watts
• 𝑃𝑑 = power density in W/𝑚2
• R = range between the antenna and the target
• 4𝜋𝑅 2 = surface area of a sphere of radius R
• Power density 𝑃𝑑 received by the target from a transmitter increases with antenna
gain 𝐺𝑡 . The impinging radiated power is scattered by the object and is dependent
on shape, size, material, and orientation of the object. The measure of scattered
power in direction of the radar is the scattering cross-section of the object. With
this, from the target to the transmitter, the power 𝑆𝑅 is scattered.
The measure of the amount of incident power intercepted by the target
and reradiated back in the direction of the radar is denoted by the radar
cross section σ, where σ is in square meters and is defined as
Power back scattered to radar
σ=
Power density at target
 Derivation of radar range equation
• The signal reflected from the target propagates back toward the radar system over
a distance R so that the power density back at the radar receiver antenna, 𝑆𝑅 is
𝑃refl
• 𝑆𝑅 = =
4𝜋𝑅 2
• The receiving antenna has an effective area Ae, and it absorbs the power out of the
power density 𝑆𝑅 . The power density of the radio wave received back at the radar
receiving antenna is given by

• Let the gain of the receiving antenna be 𝐺𝑟 ; and its effective area be 𝐴𝑒 . The
relation between 𝐺𝑟 and 𝐴𝑒 is given by When multiplied by the
𝐺𝑟 𝜆2 effective area of the radar
• ∴ 𝐴𝑒 = , antenna, this becomes the
4𝜋
received power.
 Derivation of radar range equation
• The antenna does both transmitting and receiving functions, where 𝐺𝑡 = 𝐺𝑟 = 𝐺
in a mono-static radar. Therefore,

• Receiver thermal noise: The receiver bandwidth, B gives the range of

frequencies for which the radar is subject to noise signals which affects the
performance of the radar. Thus, the thermal noise power in the radar receiver, 𝑃𝑛
will be directly proportional to B as given in the equation below
where K is Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 × 102 watt-sec/K), 𝑇𝑜 is the
standard temperature (290 K). 𝑇𝑠 is the system noise temperature (𝑇𝑠 =
𝑇𝑜 𝐹), B is the instantaneous receiver bandwidth in Hz, F is the noise
figure of the receiver subsystem (unit less)
 Derivation of radar range equation
• Signal-to-noise ratio: The ratio of received signal power to the noise power is
measured in dB.
• SNR = received signal/noise
 Basic Radar Range Equation by Considering Energy
Losses
• The total amount of power received will be reduced by the energy loss which is
due to the circuit or equipment power dissipation. These losses are lumped
together and are denoted by L, where L < 1.
• The total received power is given by
• The above equation can also be given in terms of dB as

• Range of the target can be determined from the above two equations and is called
the radar range equation. The range at which the received power equals the
minimum detectable signal 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the maximum detection range 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 . The
maximum range can be calculated from Eq. (12.10) by substituting 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 and
𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 and is as follows:
 Practice Problem
• Consider a radar system with the following parameters:
• f = 2GHz Transmitter frequency (l = 0.15m)
• 𝑃𝑡 = 1W Peak transmitter power (𝑃𝑡 = 0dBW)
• 𝐺𝑡 = 𝐺𝑟 = 18dB Antenna gains
• R = 2km Range to target
• B = 50kHz Receiver bandwidth
• F = 5dB Receiver noise figure
• 𝜎𝑡 = 1𝑚2 Target radar cross section
• What is the SNR at the receiver? [6.5 dB]

Seybold
 Worked Problem
• Calculate the maximum range of Radar for the following specifications:
• Peak power transmitted by the Radar, 𝑃𝑡=250𝐾𝑊
• Gain of transmitting Antenna, 𝐺=4000
• Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna, 𝐴𝑒 = 4𝑚2
• Radar cross section of the target, 𝜎=25 𝑚2
• Power of minimum detectable signal, 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 10−12

Solution
We can use the following standard form of Radar range equation in order to calculate the
maximum range of Radar for given specifications.
1/4 1/4
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝜎𝐴𝑒 (250 𝑥103 )(4000)(25)(4)
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 158 𝑘𝑚.
4𝜋 2 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 4𝜋 2 𝑥10−12
 Basic Radar Range Equation by Considering Energy
Losses
• All the above radar equation parameters are illustrated in the figures given below:

• The general radar equation is derived for point targets. Point targets are objects
whose dimensions D are small compared with the illumination (Range × Half
power beam width (HPBW)) by the radar at the target site.
 Basic Radar Range Equation by Considering Energy
Losses
• The power density of isotropic antenna (𝑃𝐼𝑆𝑂 ) at range R from the transmitter is
defined as the transmitted power (𝑃𝑡 ) divided by the surface area 4𝜋𝑅2 of an
imaginary sphere of radius R.
 Worked Problem
• A pulsed radar operating at 8 GHz has an antenna with a gain of 10 dB and a
transmitter power of 1 KW. If it is defined to detect a target with a cross-section of
12 square meters, and the minimum detectable signal is 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = − 80 dBm. What is
the maximum range of the target?
• Solution
𝑐 3 𝑥 108
• Pulsed radar frequency = 8 GHz = 8 × 109
Hz. 𝜆 = = = 37.5 𝑥 10−3 𝑚
𝑓 8 × 109
• Antenna gain G = 10 dB 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
• Peak power 1kw = 1 × 103 W −80𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10 log
1𝑚𝑊
.
• Radar cross-section of target 𝑠 = 12 sq.m 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 1 𝑥 10−8
• Minimum detectable signal (Smin) = − 80 dBm. 1𝑚𝑊

𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1 𝑥 10−8 𝑥 1𝑚𝑊 = 1 𝑥 10−11 𝑊

As per radar range
equation
 Worked Problem
• Find the maximum range of a radar whose transmitted power is 200 kw. Cross-
sectional area of the target is 10 sq.m. The minimum power received is 1 mw. The
power gain of the antenna used is 2000, and the operating frequency is 3 GHz.
• Solution
• Given radar Transmitted power 𝑃𝑡 = 200 kW = 200 × 103 W
• Radar cross-section area of target, 𝑠 = 10 𝑚2
• Minimum detectable signal (Smin) = 1 mW = 1 x 10−3 W
• Power gain of antenna 𝐺𝑡 = 2000
• Transmitted frequency f = 3 GHz =3 x 109 Hz.
 Worked Problem
• Another system consideration is the losses involved due to pointing or
misalignment, polarization mismatch, antenna feed or plumbing losses, antenna
beam-shape loss, atmospheric loss, and so on. These losses can be combined and
represented by a total loss of 𝐿𝑠𝑦𝑠 . The radar equation is modified to include the
effects of system losses and pulse integration and becomes
 Worked Problem
• For any distance R, we have

• As expected, the So=No is increased as the distance is reduced.

Worked Problem
 Overall System Noise Temperature
• We are now able to determine the noise temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑦𝑠 of the overall receiver
system. This allows us to place a single noise source of temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑦𝑠 at a
reference point in the overall system. The system is then replaced by its noiseless
version for all purposes, such as when determining the C/N at the demodulator
input. The overall system noise temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑦𝑠 accounts for all noise in the
receiver. This includes:
• Antenna noise, represented by noise temperature 𝑇𝑎
• Noise from a lossy feed run (a coaxial cable or waveguide) that connects the
antenna to a LNA.
• Receiver noise, represented by noise temperature 𝑇𝑒 . The receiver is usually a
cascade connection of several stages starting from the LNA.
 Overall System Noise Temperature
• diagra

The noise factor 𝐹𝑓 of a passive attenuator such If there is no loss between the antenna and the receiver,
as an antenna feed cable is equal to its numeric loss 𝐿𝑓 . Lf = 1, so that
Therefore, the noise temperature 𝑇𝑓 of the feed run is
Tsys = Te + Ta. This equation holds, for example, where
𝑇𝑓 = To(𝐹𝑓 − 1) = 𝑇𝑜 (𝐿𝑓 − 1)
The feed run transmits noise from its input to output
the LNA is mounted in a waterproof unit just under the
reduced by the factor Lf . At the reference point, the total antenna (and referred to as a low-noise block [LNB]) so
noise power is therefore that the feed length between antenna and LNA is
negligible. In this case, there will be a cable leading
from the output of the LNB to the remaining sections of
the receiver inside a building.
 Overall System Noise Temperature
• The noise effect of this cable is included in the computation of Te using equation of
calculating noise figure of cascaded stages, with the cable serving as the second stage of
the cascade connection, which therefore has noise temperature and gain values 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑓
and 𝐺2 = 1/𝐿𝑓 .
• Overall System Noise Temperature
• We wish to calculate the overall system noise temperature Tsys of the satellite
communication earth station in Figure below.
Converting the dB values of gain and noise figure in Figure to ratios, we have
𝐺1 = 316.23, 𝐹1 = 1.202, 𝐺2 = 0.3981, 𝐹2 = 3.981, and 𝐹3 = 2.239.

Note that, by co-locating the LNA

with the antenna, the overall system
noise temperature of the earth station
could be reduced to just 64K+62K =
126 K, achieving a reduction of 2.2
dB in noise power.
 Receiver Noise Figure and Equivalent Noise
Temperature
• Noise figure is a figure of merit quantitatively specifying how noisy a component
or system is. The noise figure of a system depends on a number of factors such as
losses in the circuit, the solid-state devices, bias applied, and amplification. The
noise factor of a two-port network is defined as

• The noise figure is simply the noise factor converted in decibel notation. Figure
below shows the two-port network with a gain (or loss) G. We have

Note that 𝑁𝑜 ≠ 𝐺𝑁𝑖 ; instead, the output noise 𝑁𝑜 = 𝐺𝑁𝑖 +

noise generated by the network. The noise added by the
network is 𝑁𝑛 = 𝑁0 − 𝐺𝑁𝑖 (W). Substituting, we get
 Receiver Noise Figure and Equivalent Noise
Temperature
• Therefore,

• Above equation implies that the input noise Ni (in decibels) is raised by the noise
figure F (in decibels) and the gain (in decibels).
• Since the noise figure of a component should be independent of the input noise, F
is based on a standard input noise source Ni at room temperature in a bandwidth
B, where
• 𝑁𝑖 = 𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵
• where k is the Boltzmann constant, 𝑇𝑜 = 290K (room temperature), and B is the
bandwidth. Then, the equation of noise factor becomes
 Receiver Noise Figure and Equivalent Noise
Temperature
• For a cascaded circuit with n elements as shown in Fig. below, the overall noise
factor can be found from the noise factors and gains of the individual elements.

• Equation above allows for the calculation of the noise figure of a general cascaded
system. It is clear that the gain and noise figure in the first stage are critical in
achieving a low overall noise figure. It is very desirable to have a low noise figure
and high gain in the first stage. To use above, all F’s and G’s are in ratio. For a
passive component with loss L in ratio, we will have G = 1/L and F = L
 Receiver Noise Figure and Equivalent Noise
Temperature
• For the two-element cascaded circuit shown in Fig. below, prove the overall noise
factor.

• Substituting the first three equations into the last equation leads to
 Receiver Noise Figure and Equivalent Noise
Temperature
• Calculate the overall gain and noise figure for the system shown in

Note that 𝐹 = 𝐹1 due to the high gain in the first stage. The
first-stage amplifier noise figure dominates the overall noise
figure. One would like to select the first stage RF amplifier
with a low noise figure and a high gain to ensure the low
noise figure for the overall system.
The equivalent noise temperature is defined as
𝑇𝑒 = (𝐹 − 1)𝑇𝑜
where 𝑇𝑜 = 290 K (room temperature) and F in ratio.
𝑇𝑒
Therefore, 𝐹 = 1 +
𝑇𝑜
 Receiver Noise Figure and Equivalent Noise
Temperature
• For a cascaded circuit shown as in Fig. below noise temperature can be rewritten
as
• where 𝑇𝑒 is the overall equivalent
noise temperature in kelvin.

• The noise temperature is useful for noise factor calculations involving an antenna.
For example, if an antenna noise temperature is 𝑇𝐴 , the overall system noise
temperature including the antenna is where 𝑇𝐸 is the overall
cascaded circuit noise temperature. The antenna noise
temperature could be very low (a few kelvin) for an antenna pointing to the sky.
 Noise Factor of a Cascade
• When separate networks are cascaded each having its own gain Gi and noise
factor Fi, all networks add noise to the signal that travels through them, but the
contribution to the overall noise factor from succeeding networks is reduced when
previous stages have amplified the signal (Fig. below). The overall noise factor is
calculated using

• Note that the calculation in equation above must be performed using the numeric
value for gain as well as noise factor F, not NF (in decibels). The implications of
this simple cascade noise figure formula can be considerable in real system
designs.
 Receiver Noise Figure
• Noise figure (F) of a receiver, over the bandwidth of interest, the contribution by
the receiver itself to thermal noise at its output. Noise figure (F) is a measure of
thermal noise generated in a receiver as compared to noise produced by an ideal
receiver. Noise figure is noise factor expressed in decibels (dB). The noise figure
(F) of a linear system may be defined as
• Thus

• where, 𝑆𝑖 = Input signal power, 𝑁𝑖 = Input noise power, 𝑆𝑜 = Output signal power
• 𝑁𝑜 = Output signal power, G = 𝑆𝑜 /𝑆𝑖 is gain of receiver.
• The input noise power (𝑁𝑖 ) is function of the standard temperature (T) and
bandwidth (𝐵𝑛 ), which is directly proportional to T and 𝐵𝑛 .
where k is Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K and T is
standard temperature (in kelvin 290 K).
 Receiver Noise Figure
• Now substituting this eqn in
• we get
• Noise figure represents the degradation of signal to noise ratio caused by the
receiver.
• The noise figure is commonly expressed in decibels i.e., 10 log F.
• The term noise factor is also used instead of noise figure.
 Noise Figure of Networks in Cascade
• If we consider two networks in cascade, with different noise figure and available
gain but have same Noise bandwidth (𝐵𝑛 ) as shown in Fig. below.

• where, 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are the noise figure of two networks.

• 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are the available gain of respective networks.
• The output noise No of the two networks in cascade is No = noise from network
(1) at output of network (2) + noise ΔN2 introduced by network (2)
 Noise Figure of Networks in Cascade
• The gain of the first network is large. This is of importance in the design of multi-
stage receivers. It is not sufficient that only the first stage of a low-noise receiver
have a small noise figure. The succeeding stage must also have a small noise
figure or the gain of the first stage must be high enough to swamp the noise of
succeeding stage.
• The noise figure of N networks in cascade may be written as
 Noise Temperature
• The noise introduced by a receiver network may also be expressed as a noise
temperature (𝑇𝑒 ) defined as that temperature at the input of the network which
would account for the noise ΔN at the input. The advantage of the use of noise
temperature is that if shows a greater variation for any given noise level change
than does the noise figure so changes are easier grasp in their true perspective.

• and or

• The effective noise temperature of a receiver consisting of a number of networks

in cascade is
 Noise Figure Worked Example
• Figure below shows three different arrangements of the same four stages 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 ,
𝑆3 , and 𝑆4 of a receiver. We wish to examine the noise figure and noise
temperature of the receiver under each arrangement.

• The gain and noise figure of the receiver stages are expressed in dB
 Noise Figure Worked Example
• For the (b) and (c)

• The above results show that the noise temperature Te of the receiver depends crucially
on the order of arrangement of the stages. Typically, 𝑆1 would be a lossy waveguide or
coaxial cable connecting an outdoor antenna to the rest of the receiver block located
indoors; 𝑆2 would be an LNA, 𝑆3 a mixer, and 𝑆4 another (noisier) amplifier.
• If the LNA is the very first stage seen by the input signal (from the antenna), achieved by
locating it outdoors with the antenna then we have the 𝑆2 𝑆1 𝑆3 𝑆4 order in figure (b) and
the lowest possible noise temperature (62K in this case). Note how the overall noise
figure of the receiver (0.84 dB) is only marginally worse than that of the LNA (0.8 dB).
 Noise Figure Worked Example
• If the lossy feed run precedes the LNA, as in the 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆4 order in Figure a, we
have a higher noise temperature (=265 K), which corresponds to an increase of 10
log10(265/62) = 6.3 dB in noise power compared to the previous arrangement.
• The situation is worse still with the 𝑆4 𝑆1 𝑆3 𝑆2 arrangement shown in Figure (c).
Here the LNA is relegated to the last stage. As a result, 𝑇𝑒 = 377K and the noise
power is about 8 dB higher than could be achieved using a better ordering of the
same set of receiver stages.
• An increase in noise power leads to a reduction in SNR by the same amount.
Thus, in the design of communication receivers a high-gain LNA must be used at
the front end, and every effort must be made to keep losses preceding the LNA to
a minimum. Losses and noise in devices that follow a high-gain LNA have a
negligible effect on the noise temperature of the receiver.