Examples of Capillary action in everyday life

Capillary action is responsible for

Water being drawn by a sponge
moving water through the xylem of
is an example of capillary action
a vascular plant

Capillary action helps in pumping out

tear fluid from the eye

Blotting paper absorbs ink

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 What is a capillary?

A tube having a very fine bore

(≈ 1mm) and open at both ends
is called a capillary tube

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 Action

3. Absorption of ink by a blotting paper

4. Cloth rag soaks water
5. Capillary action is also essential for the tear fluid from the eye to drain
constantly.
6. Cotton dresses are preferred in summer because cotton dresses have
fine pores which act as capillaries for sweat.
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Jayshree Subramaniam, St. Xavier's H.S & Jr. College 40
Expression for capillary rise or fall: Method (I): Using pressure difference

The pressure due to liquid column of height h is equal to 2T/R due to

𝟐𝑻
concavity. ∴ 𝒉𝝆𝒈 = where 𝝆 is the density of liquid and g is acceleration
𝑹
due to gravity. Let r be the radius if capillary and θ be the angle of contact of
𝒓
the liquid. Radius of curvature R of meniscus is given by 𝑹 = . 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝟐𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝟐𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
∴ 𝒉𝝆𝒈 = ∴ 𝒉= .
𝒓 𝒓𝝆𝒈
This is the expression for rise or fall of liquid in a capillary. Narrower the tube
greater the height of the liquid.

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b) Method (II) : Using forces
The pressure difference across a curved liquid-air interface is the basic factor
behind the rising up of water in a narrow tube (influence of gravity is ignored).
The capillary rise is more dominant in the case of very fine tubes. But this
phenomenon is the outcome of the force of surface tension. In order to arrive a
relation between the capillary rise (h) and surface tension (T), consider a
capillary tube which is held vertically in a beaker containing water; the water
rises in the capillary tube to a height h due to surface tension .

T T

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The surface tension force T, acts along the tangent at the point of
contact downwards and its reaction force upwards. It is resolved into
two components i) Horizontal component Tsinθ and ii) Vertical
component, Tcosθ acting upwards, all along the whole circumference
of the meniscus.
Total upward force = (Tcosθ) (2πr) = 2πrT cosθ , where θ is the angle of
contact, r is the radius of the tube. Let ρ be the density of water and h
be the height to which the liquid rises inside the tube. Ignoring the
liquid in the concave meniscus the volume of the liquid in the capillary
is V = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 h and the mass of the liquid in the capillary rise is m = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 h𝝆
∴ the weight of the liquid in the capillary (rise or fall ) is w = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 h𝝆 g
This is equal and opposite to the vertical component of the force due to
𝟐𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
surface tension. ∴ 𝝅𝒓𝟐 h𝝆g = 2πrT cosθ ∴ h = . Thus, the
𝒓𝝆𝒈
𝒓𝒉𝝆𝒈
expression for surface tension in terms of capillary rise is T =
𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

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Fluids in Motion

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Examples of Fluid motion in everyday life

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The branch of Physics which
deals with the study of
properties of fluids in motion is
called hydrodynamics.

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Steady flow: It is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid
characteristics like velocity, density, pressure, etc. at a point do not
change with the time.

Flow Line: It is the path of an individual particle in a moving fluid.

Streamline: A curve whose tangent at any point in the flow is in the

direction of the velocity of the flow at that point. In a steady flow
both streamlines and flowlines are identical.

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Flow tube: An imaginary bundle of flow lines bound by an
imaginary wall. In steady flow fluid cannot cross the walls of a
flow tube.
Laminar Flow/Streamline Flow: It is steady flow in which
adjacent layers of a fluid move smoothly over each other e.g.
steady river flow.
Turbulent flow: Flow at a very high rate so that there is no
steady flow and the flow pattern changes continuously. E.g. a
flooded river or a fast running tap.

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Jayshree Subramaniam, St. Xavier's H.S & Jr. College 49
 Laminar Flow versus Turbulent Flow

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

It is a fluid flow in which the fluid It is a fluid flow in which the fluid
layers move parallel to each other layers cross each other and do not
and do not cross each other. move parallel to each other.
The laminar flow generally occurs in The turbulent flow occurs when the
the fluid flowing with low velocity. fluid flows with high velocity.
The fluid flow is laminar when the The fluid flow is turbulent when the
value of Reynolds number (Re) is less value of Reynolds number is greater
than 1000. than 2000.
The fluid flow is very orderly i.e. there The fluid flow is not orderly i.e. there
is no mixing of adjacent layers of the is mixing of adjacent layers of fluid
fluid and they move parallel to each with each other and they do not move
other and also with the walls of the parallel to each other and also with
pipe. the walls of the pipe.

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Critical velocity and Reynolds number
The flow of a fluid becomes steady or laminar when the velocity of flow is less
than the critical velocity vc otherwise, the flow becomes turbulent. Osborne
Reynolds (1842-1912) formulated an equation to find out the nature of the
flow of fluid, whether it is streamlined or turbulent.
The velocity beyond which a streamline flow becomes turbulent
is called critical velocity.
𝑹𝒏 η
𝒗𝒄 = where 𝒗𝒄 = critical velocity, Rn= Reynolds number, η= coefficient of
𝝆𝒅
viscosity, 𝝆 = density of fluid, d= diameter of tube.
𝒗𝒄 𝝆𝒅
Thus Reynolds number Rn = .
η
It is a dimensionless number called ‘Reynold’s number’. It is denoted by the
symbol Rn or K. In the equation, ρ denotes the density of the fluid, v the
velocity of the flowing fluid, D is the diameter of the pipe in which the fluid
flow, and η is the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. The value of Rc remains
the same in any system of units. Reynolds number is a pure number and is
unitless and dimensionless.
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Variation of Flow with Reynolds number

Reynolds number Flow of fluid

Rn < 1000 Streamline flow
1000 < Rn< 2000 Unsteady flow i.e. changes from
streamline to turbulent flow
Rn > 2000 Turbulent flow

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Viscosity
Most of the fluids offer resistance towards motion. A frictional force acts at
the contact surface when a fluid moves relative to a solid or when two fluids
move relative to each other. This resistance to fluid motion is due to fluid
friction within the fluid itself and between the fluid and its surroundings. The
internal friction existing between the layers of a moving fluid is viscosity. So,
viscosity is defined as ‘the property of a fluid by virtue of which the relative
motion between its different layers experience a dragging force’ also known
as viscous drag.

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However these forces are non existent in an ideal fluid which is
incompressible (i.e., bulk modulus is infinity) and in which no
shearing forces can be maintained (i.e., the coefficient of
viscosity is zero). Example of almost non viscous fluid is liquid
helium at about 2K. There is no dragging force in non viscous
flow and all layers move with same velocity (Fig. a). Consider a
liquid flowing through a horizontal surface with two
neighboring layers. The upper layer tends to accelerate the
lower layer and in turn, the lower layer tends to retard the
upper layer. As a result, a backward tangential force is set-up.
This tends to destroy the relative motion. This accounts for the
viscous behavior of fluids (Fig.b). In liquids viscous drag is due to
cohesive forces and in gases due to molecular collisions.

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Velocity Gradient :
The rate of change of velocity (dv) with distance (dx)
measured from a stationary layer is called velocity gradient
(dv/dx).
Coefficient of Viscosity:
Consider a liquid flowing steadily over a horizontal fixed layer
as shown in the figure below. The velocities of the layers
increase uniformly as we move away from the fixed layer.
Consider any two parallel layers A and B. Let v and v + dv be
the velocities of the neighboring layers at distances x and x +
dx respectively from the fixed layer.
dv

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The force of viscosity F acting tangentially between two layers
is given by Newton’s First law. This force is proportional to (i)
area A of the liquid and (ii) the velocity gradient dv/dx
where the constant of proportionality η is called the
coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. It can be defined as the
viscous force per unit area per unit velocity gradient. The SI
unit is N-s/m2 and dimensional formula for coefficient of
viscosity is [ML− 1 T −1].

𝑓
∴η= 𝑑𝑣
𝐴𝑑𝑥

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Stokes’ law states that the viscous force Fv acting on a spherical
body of radius r depends directly on the radius (r) of the sphere,
its velocity (v) and the coefficient of viscosity η of the liquid
Therefore F ∝ η r v ⇒ F = k η r v , where k is a dimensionless
constant that has a value of 6π which has been empirically
obtained. Using dimensions, the above equation can be written as
[M1L1T – 2] = k [M1L−1T – 1]x [ L 1]y [L1T−1]z
On solving, we get x=1, y=1, and z=1 Therefore, F=k η r v
Since the value of k = 6π, ∴ F = 6 π η r v. This relation is known as
Stoke’s law.

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Stokes’ Law
When a body falls through a viscous medium, it drags the layer
of the fluid immediately in contact with it. This produces a
relative motion between the different layers of the liquid.

Fig : Spherical object moving through a viscous medium

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Terminal velocity
To understand terminal velocity, consider a small metallic sphere
falling freely from rest through a large column of a viscous fluid.
The forces acting on the sphere are (i) gravitational force of the
sphere acting vertically downwards, Fg (ii) upthrust Fu due to
buoyancy and (iii) viscous drag Fv acting upwards (viscous force
always acts in a direction opposite to the motion of the sphere).
The forces Fg and Fu are constant. Initially, the sphere is
accelerated in the downward direction so that the upward force
is less than the downward force. As the velocity of the sphere
increases, the magnitude of the viscous force also increases. A
stage is reached when the net downward force balances the
upward force and hence the resultant force on the sphere
becomes zero. It now moves down with a constant velocity.
Let the radius of sphere be r, density of medium ρ and
coefficient of viscosity η
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Consider a sphere of radius r which falls freely through a highly viscous liquid
of coefficient of viscosity η. Let the density of the material of the sphere be ρ
and the density of the fluid be ς.

When the sphere attains terminal velocity the total downward force acting
on the sphere is balanced by the total upward force acting on the sphere.
𝟒 𝟒
𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝆𝒈 = 𝟔𝝅 ηrv + 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝇𝒈
𝟑 𝟑
𝟒 𝟒
𝟔𝝅 ηrv = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝆𝒈 - 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝝇𝒈
𝟑 𝟑
𝟒 𝟒 𝟏
𝟔𝝅 ηrv = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝒈 (𝝆 − 𝝇) ∴ 𝒗 = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝒈 (𝝆 − 𝝇) ×
𝟑 𝟑 𝟔𝝅 ηr
𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝒈(𝝆− 𝝇) 𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝒈(𝝆− 𝝇)
V= and η =
𝟗 η 𝟗 v
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 1 mark questions
• Give two examples each of adhesive and cohesive forces in nature.
• Define sphere of influence.
• Define angle of contact.
• State any two characteristics of angle of contact.
• Define critical temperature.
• State units and dimensions of Reynolds number.
• Define viscosity.
• State unit and dimensions of viscosity.
• Define velocity gradient.
• Which are the exceptions where surface tension increases with increase in
temperature?
• Give two applications of capillary action.
• Why are rain drops spherical?
• What is the effect of temperature on surface tension?
• Give the example of a non-viscous fluid.
2 mark questions
• Explain the concept of surface tension. State its units and dimensions.
• Derive the dimensional formula of surface tension.
• Obtain the relation between surface energy and surface tension.
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• What is capillarity? Give any ‘two’ applications of capillarity.
• How do impurities affect the surface tension of a liquid?
• Why does a steel blade sink in soap water but floats on the surface of
pure water?
• Draw a neat labeled diagram showing forces acting on the meniscus of
water in a capillary tube OR Draw a neat labeled diagram of rise of liquid
in capillary tube showing different components of tension (force).
• Draw a neat, labeled diagram for a liquid surface in contact with a solid,
when the angle of contact is acute.
• Define surface tension and surface energy.
• State the properties of an ideal fluid.
• Distinguish between laminar and turbulent flow.
• State Stokes’ law and give its mathematical form.
3 mark questions
• Define surface energy.
• Explain phenomenon of surface tension using molecular theory.

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• With the help of neat labelled diagram, derive an expression for the rise
of liquid in a capillary tube.
• i. Define capillarity. [Link] neat labelled diagram explaining the
capillary rise in capillary tube.
• Derive an expression for excess pressure inside a drop of liquid.
• Derive Laplace’s law for a spherical membrane.
• Explain why angle of contact of mercury with glass is obtuse while that
of water with glass is acute.
• “The shape of impure water meniscus is concave whereas the shape of
mercury meniscus is convex”, Explain.
• Derive an expression for terminal velocity for a spherical object falling
through a viscous fluid.
4 mark questions

• Define angle of contact. Explain why the free surface of some liquid in
contact with a solid is curved.
• Define terminal velocity and derive an expression for it.

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