MBEYA UNIVERISTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

BUILT ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CEB 4238
STRUCTURAL TIMBER DESIGN

CREDITS: 6
SEMESTER II
UQF 8 4th YEAR

Prepared By: Dr. Mboya H. A.

Course Lecturer: Dr Mboya H. A.

Structural Timber Design 2023 i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
STRUCTURAL TIMBER DESIGN ............................................................................................1
1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1
1.1. Timber Structure...............................................................................................................1
1.1.1. The tree subsystem ........................................................................................................1
1.1.2. The tree trunk................................................................................................................1
1.2. Types of timber ................................................................................................................2
1.3. Timber is conversion ........................................................................................................3
1.4. Properties of timber ..........................................................................................................3
1.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of timber ..........................................................................3

2. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY .....................................................................................................4

2.1. Timber Grading ................................................................................................................4
2.1.1. Appearance Grading .....................................................................................................4
2.1.2. Stress Grading ...............................................................................................................4
2.1.3. Strength Classes. ...........................................................................................................5
2.2. Design Considerations - Bs 5268-2:2002 (Factors Affecting Strength of Timber) .............5
2.2.1. Loading.........................................................................................................................5
2.2.2. Duration of Loading (BS 5268 Part 2:2002 sec. 2.8) .....................................................5
2.2.3. Section size. ..................................................................................................................6
2.2.4. Load shearing (BS 5268 Part 2:2002 sec. 2.9) ...............................................................6
2.2.5. Service classes ..............................................................................................................6
2.2.6. Moisture content ...........................................................................................................6
2.2.7. Modification Factors (K-Factors). .................................................................................7
2.3. General definitions ...........................................................................................................9
2.4. Solid Timber section properties ...................................................................................... 10

3. DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS ................................................................ 11

3.1. DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS ................................................................... 11
3.1.1. Design considerations ................................................................................................. 11
[Link]. Slenderness ratio,  ............................................................................................... 12
[Link]. Effective Length, L ............................................................................................... 12
e
[Link]. Modification factor for compression member, K12 ................................................... 13
3.1.2. Design of member subjected to axial compression only (Cl. 2.11.5) ............................ 14
3.1.3. Design of members subjected to axial compression and bending (Cl. 2.11.6) .............. 14
3.1.4. Effect of compression area .......................................................................................... 15
3.2. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS (Close 2.12 of BS 5268 Part 2: 2002).................... 23
3.2.1. Design Consideration .................................................................................................. 24
3.2.2. Width Factor, K14 ...................................................................................................... 24
3.2.3. Design of members subjected to axial tension only...................................................... 24
3.2.4. Combined bending and tensile stresses ........................................................................ 24

4. SPACED COLUMNS ........................................................................................................ 32

4.1. DESIGN CONSIDERATION......................................................................................... 32
4.1.1. Geometrical Requirements .......................................................................................... 32
4.1.2. Modes of failure permissible loads .............................................................................. 33
4.1.3. Shear Capacity of spacer block. ................................................................................... 33

Structural Timber Design 2023 ii

5. DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS .............................................................................. 40
5.1. DESIGN CONSIDERATION......................................................................................... 41
5.2. EFFECTIVE SPAN (CLAUSE 2.10.3, BS526-2:2002) .................................................. 41
5.3. DESIGN PROCEDURE (SOLID RECTANGULAR BEAM) ........................................ 41
5.4. EFFECT OF NOTCH AND HOLES: ............................................................................. 46
5.5. Design of Purlins ............................................................................................................ 50

6. BUILT IN SECTIOS - BEAMS AND GIRDERS .............................................................. 55

6.1. Design of Simple Built-up Beams (Clause 2.10 of BS 5268-1:2002)............................... 55
6.2. Design Considerations of built-up Beams ....................................................................... 56

7. MECHANICAL FASTENERS AND TIMBER CONNECTORS (BS 5268 -2:2002) ......... 59

7.1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 59
7.1.1. Stress Distribution in Connections............................................................................... 60
7.1.2. Joint Slip ..................................................................................................................... 60
7.2. NAILED JOINTS (Bs 5268 Part 2: 2002 Clause 6.4)...................................................... 61
7.2.1. Improved nails ............................................................................................................ 61
7.2.2. Pre-drilling. ................................................................................................................. 62
7.2.3. Effective area (BS 5268 Part 2; 2002 Clause 6.4.2). .................................................... 62
7.2.4. Spacing rule edge and end distance (Clause 6.4.3) ....................................................... 63
7.2.5. Lateral Load................................................................................................................ 63
7.2.6. Withdrawal Load (Clause [Link], BS 5268 Part 2: 2002) ............................................ 70
7.3. SCREWED JOINT Bs 5268 Part 2: 2002 ....................................................................... 71
7.3.1. Effective area; Clause 6.4.2 ......................................................................................... 71
7.3.2. Screw spacing; clause 6.5.3. ........................................................................................ 71
7.3.3. Timber-to-timber joint ................................................................................................ 71
7.3.4. Permissible loads for screw joint clause 6.5.7 .............................................................. 72
7.3.5. Plywood-to-timber joint (Cl. 6.5.6) ............................................................................. 72
7.4. BOLTED JOINTS (BS 5268 Part 2: 2002; Cl.6.6) .......................................................... 75
7.4.1. Effective area (Cl.6.6.2) .............................................................................................. 76
7.4.2. Bolt Spacing (Cl. 6.6.3)............................................................................................... 76
7.4.3. Basic single shear lateral loads ([Link]). ..................................................................... 76
7.4.4. Basic multiple shear load ([Link]). ............................................................................. 77
7.4.5. Permissible load for a bolted joint ............................................................................... 77
7.5. TOOTHED PLATE CONNECTOR JOINTS (BS 5268 Part 2: 2002; Cl.6.7) ................. 80
7.5.1. Permissible load for a toothed-plate connected joint .................................................... 81

8. DESIGN OF TRUSSES AND TRUSSED BEAMS ........................................................... 84

8.1. FORCE ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 84
8.1.1. Method of Sections ..................................................................................................... 85
8.1.2. Method of Joints ......................................................................................................... 85
8.2. SECONDARY BENDING ............................................................................................. 86

Structural Timber Design 2023 iii

 STRUCTURAL TIMBER DESIGN
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Timber Structure.

Timber is one of the oldest materials used in construction and it is more plentiful available
natural resources. Timber materials are used in varieties of structural forms such as beams,
columns, trusses, girders and are also used in building systems such as pile, deck members and
railway foundations and for temporary structures such as forms in concrete.
Timber structures can be highly durable when properly treated and built. Timber possesses
excellent insulating properties, good fire resistances, light weight and aesthetic appeal.

1.1.1. The tree subsystem

Basically a tree has three subsystems: roots, trunks, and crown. Each subsystem has a role to
play in the growth of trees. Fig 1.1

1. Roots.
Act as foundation and enable growing tree to
withstand wind forces. Absorb moisture containing
minerals from the soil.

2. Trunk.
Provide rigidity, mechanical strength and height to
maintain the crown. Transport moisture and
minerals from the root to the crown.

3. Crown.
Provide chemical reactions that form sugar and
cellulose which is necessary for the growth of the
tree.

Fig. 1.1

1.1.2. The tree trunk

Engineers are mainly concerned with the trunk of the tree. Fig.1.2. Generally wood is composed
of long thin tubular cells, in which their cell walls are made up of cellulose. The cells are bonded
together by lignin. Most cells are oriented in the direction of the trunk except for ray’s cells
which run radially across the trunk. Trees produce a new layer of wood just under the bark in the
early part of the growing season; this layer is called the annual or growth ring.

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 Fig.1.2: cross-section of a tree

Fig.1.3: Characteristic shrinkage and distortion of flat, square, and round pieces as affected by
direction of growth rings. Tangential shrinkage is about twice as great as radial.

1.2. Types of timber

There are two groups of commercial timber: soft wood and hard wood.
(a) Softwoods: These are generally gymnosperms; the coniferous trees such as pines and
spruces which have characteristic needle-like leaves. These trees are generally evergreen;
however, some species eg. Larches lose their needles in autumn (the season between
summer and winter). Softwoods are characterized by:-
• Quick growth (mature within 30 years).
• Low density and less durable unless treated.
• Readily available and comparatively cheap.
• They are physically soft and most of them are light in colour.

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 (b) Hardwoods: These are deciduous (broad leaved) trees that lose their leaves at the end of
each growing season. The cell structure has thick wall unlike that of softwood. Hardwood
is characterized by:
• Slow growth resulting into high density and strength.
• Does not depend on preservatives for durability.
• Expensive due to time taken to mature and transportation cost.
• They are physically hard.

1.3. Timber is conversion

Structural timber is sown from matured trees by the following methods
• Quarter sawing
• Radial sawing and
• Plain sawing.

1.4. Properties of timber

1) Moisture movement: - Strength depends on moisture content, an increase of moisture
results into a decrease in strength 1.3.
2) Density: - Strength of timber increase with density.
3) Slope of grain: - 1 in 25, strength reduces by 4% and 11% at 1 in 15. In general, the
strength decreases with increasing angle of deviation.
4) Timber section in relation to load and duration of loading.
5) Direction of growth rings, wood cell and tissue position influence strength.

1.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of timber

(a) Advantages: -
o Availability, 25% of land surface is covered by forest and timber is renewable
through reforestation.
o High strength/weight ratio compared to other material e.g. concrete and steel; the
problem here is uplift due to wind.
o Cheap to produce and work with them.
o Workable i.e. sawing into various shapes and forms.
o Capable of accepting new technology e.g. gluing.
o Good insulation properties and fire resistance.

(b) Disadvantages: -
o Sensitive to moisture variation.
o Susceptible to attack by insect and fungal.
o It can rot.
o Is subjected to uplift due to light weight.

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2. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
The structural design of timber members is related to BS 5268-2: 2002 and is based on
permissible stress design philosophy in which design stresses are derived on a statistical basis
and deformation are also limited.
Permissible stresses are calculated by multiplying the grade stresses given in Tanzanian strength
grade (Table A) and Table 7 to 12a, BS 5268-2: 2002 (*NLGA = National Lumber Grades
Authority).

2.1. Timber Grading

Uniformity and reliability in quality of timber as a structural material is achieved by a process of
selection based on established grading system, i.e. appearance grading and strength grading. BS
4978:2007

2.1.1. Appearance Grading

Appearance grading is frequently used by architects to reflect the warm attractive features of the
material such as the surface grain pattern, knots, colour, etc. In such grading, timber is left
exposed and remains visible after completion and may be either structural or non-structural.

2.1.2. Stress Grading

Once timber has been seasoned, it is stress graded to determine the strength classes of timber to
satisfy the design requirements of BS 5268 Part 2; 1984 or 1996 or 2002. Strength grading takes
into account defects within the timber such as slope of grain, existence and extent of knots and
fissures. There are two types of grading as per clause 9 and 10, section 2 of BS 5268: Part 2:
1984 and clause 2.5 of BS 5268: Part 2: 1996 and 2002.

a) Visual Grading: -
o Manual process is carried out by approved grader.
o Grader examines each piece of timber to check the size frequency of defects and rate
of growth.
o The required specifications are given in BS 4978:2007 and BS 5756:2007 to
determine if a piece of timber is accepted into one of the two visual stress grades or
rejected. These are General Structural (GS) and Special Structural (SS) grades, Table
2 of BS 5268 Part 2:2002.

b) Machine grading (BS 5268 Part 2, clause 2.5: 2002):

o Strength is related to stiffness.
o Machine exerts pressure and bending is induced at increments along the timber
length. The resulting deflection is measured and compared with pre-programmed a
criterion which gives the grading of timber section according to the code.
o In general, less material is rejected if it is machine graded; however, timber is also
visually inspected during machine grading to ensure major defects do not exist.
Structural Timber Design 2023 4
2.1.3. Strength Classes.
Strength classes designation according to BS 5268 Part 2: 2002, BS 5268 Part 2 1996, and BS
5268 Part 2 1984 are given in Tables 1.1, .

Table 1.1: Strength grades

BS 5268 Part 2; 2002. Table 8 C14 C16 C18 C22 C24 C27 C30 C35 C40
BS 5268 Part 2; 2002. Table 8 D30 D35 D40 D50 D60 D70
BS 5268 Part 2; 1996. Table 7 C14 C16 C18 C22 C24 C27 C30
BS 5268 Part 2; 1984. Table 8 SC2 SC3 SC4 SC5
NB: C = Softwood, D = Hardwood.
Numbers e.g. 14 is the bending stress of 14N/mm2 BS 5268 Part :2 2002.

Advantages of strength classes: -

o Allow design without much consideration on species and prices.
o Allow freedom to suppliers.
o It is more economical.
o Allow new species to emerge in the market without affecting existing specifications of
timber.

2.2. Design Considerations - Bs 5268-2:2002 (Factors Affecting Strength of Timber)

All structural members, assemblies or formworks in a building, in combination with the floor and
walls and other buildings shall comply with section 6 and 8 of BS 5268 Part 2:2002. To ensure
that the design is robust and stable:
a) The geometry of the structure should be considered
b) Required interaction and connections between timber load bearing elements and between
such elements and other parts of the structure should be assured.
c) Suitable bracing or diaphragm effect should be provided in planes parallel to the direction
of the lateral load/forces acting on the whole structure.

2.2.1. Loading
Loading should comply with BS 6399 Part 2:1997 or any other relevant standard e.g. BS 5268
Part 2:2002
o Magnitude of loading in relation to section.
o Location of load.
o Types of load e.g. UDL or Point load (Concentrated load).

2.2.2. Duration of Loading (BS 5268 Part 2:2002 sec. 2.8)

o Load duration affect strength and permissible stresses.
o Grade stresses and joint strength given in BS 5268 Part 2: 2002 is applicable to long
term loading.
Structural Timber Design 2023 5
 o For other durations of loading (factor K3) the grade stresses and joint loads may be
increased by modification factor K3 (except elastic and shear moduli) Table17 BS
5268 Part 2: 2002.

2.2.3. Section size (Table 1.3).

• Grade stresses in bending, tension, compression and moduli of elasticity given in BS 5268
Part 2:2002 is applicable to timber of 300mm deep/wide for tension and compression.
• Since section size affect grade stress, therefore, grade stresses shall be modified for section
sizes other than 300mm deep by modification factor as specified by the code. i.e.:-
▪ K6- form factor. (for non rectangular section)
▪ K7- depth factor (depth other than 300mm)

2.2.4. Load shearing (BS 5268 Part 2:2002 sec. 2.9)

Where a number of pieces of timber (generally four or more) at a maximum of 610mm centers
act together to support load, the grade stresses can be increased in accordance to the appropriate
section of BS since the grade stresses given in BS 5268 are applicable to individual member of
structural timber. Modification factor for load shearing system is K8 = 1.1 and E = Emean

2.2.5. Service classes

Due to moisture effect on mechanical properties of timber, the permissible property values
should be those corresponding to one of the three classes as given by clause 5.5 of BS 5268: Part
2: 1984 and clause 1.6.4 of BS 5268: Part 2: 1996 as summarized below.

Service class 1: Refer to timber used internally in a continuous heated building, average
moisture content likely to be attained in service condition is 12%.

Service class 2: Refer to timber used in covered building, average moisture content to be
attained in service condition when:
- generally heated is 15%
- unheated is 18%.

Service class 3: Refer to timber used externally, average moisture is 20%

Grade stress and elastic moduli values given in Table A Tanzanian standard, or Table 8
BS 5268 Part 2: 2002 or Table 7 BS 5268 Part 2: 1996 apply to various strength class and
timber species in service class 1 and 2. For service class 3 condition they should be
multiplied by modification factor K2 from Table 16 BS 5268 Part 2: 2002.
2.2.6. Moisture content
• Moisture content affects the structural properties of timber significantly.

Structural Timber Design 2023 6

 • BS 5268 Part 2: 1984/1996/2002 recommends that, in order to reduce movement and
creep under load; moisture content during construction shall be close to that likely to be
attained in service.
• At moisture content below about 30% timber shrink or swells and its strength increases or
reduces as its moisture content reduced or increased.
• Wood is less prone to decay at moisture content below 25%, below 20% it is considered
immune.

2.2.7. Modification Factors (K-Factors).

This are factors used to convert grade stresses into permissible stresses for design purposes.
Generally when designing to satisfy strength requirements (in axial, bending or shear strength):
Applied stress < permissible stress, and
Permissible stress = grade stress * modification factor.

Table 1.2: Grade stress for Tanzanian Timer species

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Structural Timber Design 2023 8
2.3. General definitions
For design purposes the following definitions are essential:-
• Connector; Is a device generally consisting of plate, disc or ring which, when partly
embedded in each or one of the contact faces of two members held together by a connecting
bolt, is capable of transmitting a load from one member to another.
• Connector axis; Line joining centers of a pair of adjacent connectors located on the same
surface.
• Strength class; Classification of timber based on particular values of grade stress.
• Grade stress; Stress which can safely be permanently sustained by a material of a specific
section size and of a particular strength class or species and grade.
• Wet stress; Stress applicable to material exposed in conditions which would result in
softwood having specified minimum moisture content. (wet stress will exceed 18% in
service)
• Dry stress; Stress applicable to material exposed in conditions which will result in solid
timber having specified maximum moisture content. (Not exceeding 18%).
• Permissible stress; Stress that can safely be sustained by a structural material under a
particular condition. (= grade stress x appropriate modification factors for section size,
service and loading).
• Load sharing system; Assembly of pieces or members which are constrained to act together
to support a common load.
• Member; Structural component which may be either a piece of solid timber or built up from
pieces of timber, plywood etc.
• Principle member; Individual member on which the integrity of structure depends (e.g. a
trimmer beam).
• Structural unit; Assembly of members forming the whole or part of a framework
• End joint efficiency; Percentage ratio of the strength of the end joint to the strength of
unjointed timber of the same cross-section and species containing no strength reducing
characteristics.
• Glued laminated member; Timber structural member obtained by gluing together a number
of laminations having their grains essentially parallel.
• Horizontally glued laminated member; Glue laminated member whose laminations are
parallel to the neutral plane.
• Vertically laminated member; Glue laminated member whose laminations are at right-
angles to the neutral plane.
• Green timber; Timber freshly felled or still containing original free moisture in its cell
cavities. (Greater than that produced by environmental conditions, i.e. moisture content
exceeding 18%).

Structural Timber Design 2023 9

Table 1.3: Solid Timber section properties

Structural Timber Design 2023 10

3. DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS
Timber sections are normally used in construction as axially loaded members or combined axial
force and bending moment. Examples are:-
▪ Members in truss i.e. ties and struts.
▪ Post or column.
▪ vertical wall studs and
▪ Bracing elements.

3.1. DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

• Compression members are posts or columns, vertical wall studs and struts in truss and
girders.
• BS 5268 Part 2: 2002 clause 2.11 limits the bow or spring to approximately 1/300 of the
length.
• Permissible compression stresses are governed by particular condition of service and
loading, according to BS 5268 Part 2: 2002 clause 2.11 which relate to:
▪ Service class conditions.
▪ Duration of loading and
▪ Load sharing system.

• Compression members are divided into:

- Members subjected to axial compression only.
- Members subjected to combined axial compression and bending.

3.1.1. Design considerations

The dominant mode of failure to be considered when designing compression members is
axial buckling which is caused by secondary bending effects induced by factors such as:-
• Eccentricity of applied load.
• Crookedness or imperfection present in the cross-section and/or profile of a member
throughout its length.
• Non-uniformity of material properties throughout a member.

The design considerations for compression members are:

• Slenderness ratio; this relates to:
- positional restraint of ends
- lateral restraint along the length
- section dimension of the member

• Axial compression and bending stresses.

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[Link].Slenderness ratio, 
Load carrying capacity of compression member is a function of slenderness ratio,  . For a
member having the same effective length about both principal axes, buckling under axial
compression occurs about the axis with the smaller radius of gyration, i.e. in the direction of the
maximum slenderness ratio, where slenderness ratio is given as:
Le
=
i
Where: Le = effective length, i = radius of gyration

The radius of gyration, i, is the measure of the dispersal of the area about the axis. It is defined as
the function of the second moment of area and the cross section area of the section, ie.
b
i = AI =
12

Where: I = second moment of area, A = Cross-section area, b = least section dimension.

According to clause 2.11.4 of BS 5268 Part 2:2002, the slenderness ratio should not exceed a
value:-
•   180 , for compression member carrying dead and imposed loads other than
load resulting from wind.
•   250 , for any member subjected to reversal of axial stress solely from the
effect of wind and any compression member carrying self weight and wind load.

[Link].Effective Length, L
e

Effective length depends on: -

• Position of restraints of ends of column
• Directional restraint of the ends of column and
• Lateral restraint along the length

Clause 2.11.3 of BS 5268 Part 2:2002 recommended that, the effective length of a
compression member should be derived from either:
▪ Table 21 for specific conditions, (See Fig 3.1) or
▪ The deflected form of compression member as affected by any restraint and or
fixing moment.
▪ The Le is considered as the distance between the adjacent points of zero moment.

Structural Timber Design 2023 12

From Table 21 above, we have the following

Figure 3.1; Effects end restraint condition to the effective length of the column.

[Link].Modification factor for compression member, K12

K12 can be determined from Table 22 of BS 5268 Part 2:2002 or by using the following
equation.
1

  2
2
 1 (1 +  ) E 
   1 (1 +  ) E 
  2E
2 2
K = +  −  +  − 
12
 2 32 c   2 32 c  1.52 c 
    

Where:  c = Permissible stress for very short column (  5) d

= // K  K
c, g , 2 3

E = Minimum modulus of elasticity

 = Slenderness ratio
 = 0.005
E E min
From Table 22, =
 c //  c , g // K 2  K 3

Structural Timber Design 2023 13

3.1.2. Design of member subjected to axial compression only (Cl. 2.11.5)
1) Actual compressive stress  // is given by;
c ,a

P
 c ,a , // =
A

Where: P = Axial load, A = Net cross-section area

2) Permissible compressive stress  // is calculated as:

c ,adm

▪ When   5
 c,adm, // =  c, g , // K 2  K 3  K 8

▪ When   5
 c,adm, // =  c, g , // K 2  K 3  K 8  K12

Hence,  c,a , / /   c,adm, / /

3.1.3. Design of members subjected to axial compression and bending (Cl. 2.11.6)
▪ These include compression members subjected to
o eccentric loading
o applied moment

▪ The interaction equation to ensure that instability does not arise in compression
member subjected to bending is given by:

 m,a , //  c ,a , //
+ 1
 1.5 c ,a , //   c ,adm, //

 m,adm, // 1 − K 12 
 e 
 

M
Where:  m,a , // =
Z
 2E
e = = Euler critical stress.
2

Structural Timber Design 2023 14

3.1.4. Effect of compression area
a) For the purpose of calculating actual compressive stress, open holes and notches must be
deducted from the area but if bolt is inserted into a hole with only nominal clearance, no
deduction shall be made.
b) Allow holes with Φ 0.25 time’s width and positioned on the neutral axis at between 0.25
to 0.4 of the actual length from end or support without calculation (BS 5268 Part 2: 1984,
Clause 2.11.7).

Example 3.1
An axially loaded column is required to support four beams as shown in Fig 3.2 below. The top
and bottom is held in position but not in direction. A lateral restraint is provided on the weak axis
at the mid-height as indicated. Assume service class 2, check suitability of a 75 mm x 150 mm,
strength class C16 section to resist a long term load of 8.0 kN and a medium term load of 24.0
kN.

Figure 3.2

Solution
▪ Geometrical properties;
b = 75 mm
h = 150 mm
l = 1800 mm
L = 3600 mm

From Table 98
A = 11.3 x 103 mm2
Ixx = 21 x 106 mm4
Iyy = 5.27 x 106 mm4
ixx = 43.3 mm
iyy = 21.7 mm

Structural Timber Design 2023 15

From Table 21: Le = 1.0 x L = 3600 mm

▪ Grade stresses
 c , g , // = 6.8 N mm 2

E min = 5800 N mm 2

▪ K – factors
K2 = 1 (service class 2)
K3 – 1 (long-term loading)
K3 = 1.25 (medium term loading)

▪ Slenderness ratio
Lexx 3600
x-x axis: = = = 83
ixx 43.3
Leyy 1800
y-y axis: = = = 83
iyy 21.7
Therefore critical slenderness ratio,  = 83

(a) Long-term load.

 c ,adm, / / =  c , g , / /  K 2  K3  K12
E Emin 5800
= = = 853
 c / /  c , g , / /  K 2  K3 6.8 11

80 83 90
800 0.497 0.430
853 x K12 y
900 0.522 0.456

 900 − 853 
x = 0.522 −  (0.522 − 0.497 ) = 0.510
 900 − 800 

 900 − 853 
y = 0.456 −  (0.456 − 0.430 ) = 0.444
 900 − 800 

 90 − 83 
K12 = 0.444 −  (0.444 − 0.510 ) = 0.490
 90 − 80 

Structural Timber Design 2023 16

 Hence,  c ,adm, / / = 6.8 11 0.490 = 3.33 N mm 2
P 8 103
 c,a , / / = = = 0.71 N mm2
A 11.3 103

 c ,a , //   c ,adm // → Long term capacity is adequate

(b) Medium-term load.  = 83

E Emin 5800
= = = 682.4
 c , / /  c , g , / /  K 2  K3 6.8 11.25

80 83 90
600 0.430 0.363
682.4 x K12 y
700 0.467 0.399

 700 − 682.4 
x = 0.467 −   ( 0.467 − 0.430 ) = 0.460
 700 − 600 

 700 − 682.4 
y = 0.393 −   ( 0.399 − 0.363) = 393
 700 − 600 

 90 − 83 
K12 = 0.393 −   ( 0.393 − 0.460 ) = 0.440
 90 − 80 

Hence,  c ,adm, / / = 6.8 11.25  0.440 = 3.74 N mm 2

24 103
 c,a , / / = = 2.12 N mm2
11.3 103

 c,a , / /   c,adm, / / → Medium-term capacity is adequate

Example 3.2
The structure shown in Fig 3.3 below is an internal timber column of section 75 mm x 200 mm,
podo having a  c , g , // = 6.3 N mm 2 and Emin = 7000 N mm 2 ; with an overall height of 4.2 m is
subjected to a medium term axial load of 60 kN. Both ends are restrained in position but not in
direction. It is also restrained on its weaker axis by rail at 1.4 m centers. Check the suitability of
the section.

Structural Timber Design 2023 17

 Figure 3.3

Solution
▪ Geometrical properties
b = 75 mm
h = 200 mm
L = 4.2 m
Lint = 1.4 m

From table 98
A = b x h =15 x 103 mm2
ixx = 57.7 mm
iyy = 21.7 mm

Effective length; from Table 21

Lexx = 1.0 x L = 1.0 x 4200 = 4200 mm
Leyy = 1.0 x Lint = 1.0 x 1400 = 1400 mm

▪ Slenderness ratios
Lexx 4200
xx = = = 72.8
ixx 57.7
Leyy 1400
 yy = = = 64.5
iyy 21.7

Critical slenderness ratio  xx = 72.8  180 , thus, buckling shall be considered on x-x axis.
▪ Grade stress

Structural Timber Design 2023 18

  c , g , // = 6.3 N mm 2
E min = 7000 N mm 2

▪ K-factors
K2 = 1(assume service class 2)
K3 = 1.25 (medium-term loading)
K8 = 1(no load sharing)

▪ Loading
Applied load = 60 kN

Applied compressive stress

F 60  10 3
 c ,a , // = = = 4 N mm 2
Anet 15  10 3

Permissible compressive stress

 c , adm, / / =  c , g , / /  K 2  K 3  K8  K12
E Emin 7000
= = = 888.9
 c / /  c , g ,  K 2  K 3 6.3 11.25

70 72.8 80
800 0.572 0.497
888.9 x K12 y
900 0.593 0.522

 900 − 888.9 
x = 0.593 −   ( 0.593 − 0.572 ) = 0.591
 900 − 800 
 900 − 888.9 
y = 0.522 −   ( 0.522 − 0.497 ) = 0.519
 900 − 800 

70 72.8 80
0.591 K12 0.519

 80 − 72.8 
K12 = 0.519 −   ( 0.519 − 0.591) = 0.571
 80 − 70 

 c ,adm, / / = 6.3 11.25 1 0.571 = 4.5 N mm 2

Structural Timber Design 2023 19

  c,a , / /   c,adm, / /

The column section is suitable.

Example 3.3
A timber column in strength class C24 is 4 m in height with a rectangular cross-section of 100
mm x 150 mm. The column is restrained at both ends in position but not in direction and is
subjected to service class 2 condition.
a) Determine the maximum long-term axial load that the column can carry.
b) Check whether the column can carry a long-term axial load of 12 kN and a bending moment
of 0.8 kNm about its major axis.

Solution
• Geometrical properties
b = 100 mm
h = 150 mm
L=4m

From Table of section properties;

A = 15x103 mm2
ixx = 43.3 mm
iyy = 28.9 mm
Zxx = 375x103 mm3
Zyy = 250x103mm3

From Table 21
Le = 1.0L = 1.0 x 4000 = 4000 mm

L 4000
• Check:  = e
= = 138.4  180 Ok
i 28.9
min

• Grade stresses
 m, g , // = 7.5 N mm 2

 c , g , // = 7.9 N mm 2

Emin = 7200 N mm2

• K-factors
K2 = 1 (service class 2)
K3 = 1 (long-term loading)
K6 = 1 rectangular section)
Structural Timber Design 2023 20
 0.11 0.11
 300   300 
K7, (h < 300) =   =  = 1.08
 h   150 
K8 = 1 (no load sharing)

K12 from table 21;  = 138.4

E E 7200
= = = 911.4
 c , / /  c , g , / /  K 2  K3 7.9 11

120 138.4 140

900 0.304 0.237
911.4 x K12 y
1000 0.325 0.255

 911.4 − 1000 
x = 0.325 −   ( 0.304 − 0.325 ) = 0.306
 900 − 1000 

 911.4 − 1000 
y = 0.255 −   ( 0.237 − 0.255 ) = 0.239
 900 − 1000 

 138.4 − 140 
K12 = 0.239 +   ( 0.306 − 0.239 ) = 0.2444
 120 − 140 

a) Maximum axial load

▪ Permissible compressive stress;
 c ,adm, / / =  c , g . / /  K 2  K3  K8  K12 = 7.9 111 0.2444 = 1.93 N mm 2

P
But =  P =   A =  c ,adm, / /  A = 1.93  15  103  10−3 = 29 kN
A
Therefore maximum long-term axial load = 29 kN

b) Combined bending and axial compression

Given axial load P = 12 kN
Bending moment M = 0.8 kNm
▪ Applied compressive stress
P 12 103
 c ,a / / =
= = 0.8 N mm 2
A 15 10 3

▪ Permissible compressive stress =  c ,adm , / / = 1.93 N mm

2

Therefore,  c ,a //   c ,adm, // Ok

Structural Timber Design 2023 21

 ▪ Applied bending stress,
M 0.8 106
 m,a , / / = = = 2.13 N mm 2
Z xx 375 103

▪ Permissible bending stress

 m,adm / / =  m, g , / /  K 2  K3  K 6  K 7  K8 = 7.5 1111.08 = 8.1 N mm 2

Therefore,  m,a , //   m,adm, // Ok

Check interaction quantities,

 2 Emin  2  7200
Euler critical stress,  e = = = 3.7 N mm 2
2 (138.4 )
2

 m , a , //  c , a , //
+ 1
 1.5 //   c , adm , //
 m , adm , // 1 −
c ,a ,
K 12 


e 


2.13 0.8
+ = 0.7  1 Ok.
 1.5  0.8  1.93
8.1 1 −  0.2444 
 3.7 

The column is satisfactory.

Exercise 3.1
c) Determine the suitable section to support a 20 kN medium-term compression load to a
height of 3.5 m. Use grade C16 timber in dry exposure and make any necessary assumption.
d) Use timber grade C 16 to design a rectangular section 3.8 m high for an internal column of a
school kitchen building to support a short-term axial load of 20 kN. The columns are spaced
at 850 mm center to center and are restrained in position and direction in both ends. Check
the design if it can carry a long-term axil load 10 kN at an eccentricity of 90 mm about the
major axis.

Exercise 3.2
An internal column is required to carry a medium-term axial load 16 kN and a bending moment
1.4 kNm in class 2 service condition. The column is restrained in position in both ends and one
end in direction. The height of the column is 4.5 m and it is braced at a height of 2.0 m from the
bottom. Design a suitable economical section using timber grade C 30. Make any necessary
assumption.

Structural Timber Design 2023 22

Exercise 3.3
Check the suitability of the internal column given in Fig 3.4 below which carries a long-term
load of 25 kN and a medium-term load of 30 kN applied at 90 mm eccentric to its x-x axis, use
C24 timber.

Figure 3.4

Exercise 3.4
Use timber grade C 16 to design a rectangular section 3.5 m high for an external column to
support a short-term axial load of 20 kN. The structure is to be constructed in rainy area like
Kitulo in Makete DC. The columns are spaced at 550 mm center to center and are restrained in
position and direction in both ends. Check the design if it can carry a long-term axil load 10 kN
at an eccentricity of 90 mm about the major axis.

3.2. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS (Close 2.12 of BS 5268 Part 2: 2002)

• The permissible stresses of timber member are governed by the particular conditions,
which are:-
▪ Service class condition (K2)
▪ Load duration (K3)
▪ Load sharing system (K8)
▪ Width of member (K14)

• No tendency to buckle in tension member. However in truss frameworks sometimes a

member may undergo compression temporarily due to wind loading; hence BS 5268
Part 2:2002 clause 2.11.4 recommended that the slenderness ratio,  for truss member
not to exceed 250. (ie. For any member normally subject to tension or combined
tension and bending arising from dead and imposed loads, but subject to a reversal of
axial stress solely from the effect of wind)
• In design of tension member the capacity of a member at its weakest points, e.g. at
connections, notches and holes; should be determined.

Structural Timber Design 2023 23

 • No reduction in permissible stress is required to allow for stress concentration at
notches or holes.
• No reduction of area is required for wane as this is allowed in the grade tensile stress.

3.2.1. Design Consideration

The main considerations in tension members are:
• Tension stress for members subjected to axial loading only.
• Combined bending and axial tensile stresses for member subjected to:
▪ Lateral loading and axial tension.
▪ Eccentric tensile force.
• Permissible stress = grade stress x K-factors > applied stress.

3.2.2. Width Factor, K14

The grade tension stresses given in table 8 apply to members having width, h, of 300mm.
For other width the grade tension stresses should be multiplied by K14 where:-
for h  72 mm , K14 = 1.17
0.11
 300 
for 72 mm < h < 300 mm, K14 = 
 h 

3.2.3. Design of members subjected to axial tension only

• Applied tensile stress  // in an axially loaded member is given by
t ,a ,

T
 t , a , // =
A
net

Where: T = tensile force, Anet = net cross-section area.

• Permissible tensile stress  // is calculated as:

t ,adm ,

 t ,adm, / / =  t , g , / /  K 2  K3  K8  K14

• Generally the applied tensile stress should not exceed permissible tensile stress.
i.e.  //   //
t ,a , t , adm ,

3.2.4. Combined bending and tensile stresses

In members subjected to bending (lateral loading) and axial tension the position of maximum
stress occurs at the point of maximum moment. Close 2.12.3 of BS 5268 Part 2: 2002
recommended that, members subjected to both bending and axial tension should be so
proportioned that;

Structural Timber Design 2023 24

  m , a , //  t ,a , //
+ 1
 m ,adm , //  t , adm , //
T
Where: Applied tensile stress =  // =
t ,a , A
net

Permissible tensile stress =  t ,adm, / / =  t , g , / /  K 2  K3  K8  K14

My M
Applied bending stress =  // = =
m,a , I Z
Permissible bending stress  m,adm, / / =  m, g , / /  K 2  K3  K6  K7  K8

Example 3.4
A collar tie roof construction comprises of two rafters and a collar tie 100 mm x 50 mm,
connected to the rafter by M8 steel bolts. If a pine grade C14 was used and the tensile force was
found to be 0.87 kN, check the suitability of the collar tie for medium-term loading.

Solution
Geometric properties
b = 50 mm
h = 100 mm

K-factors
K2 = 1 (covered area = service class 2)
K3 = 1.25 (medium-term loading)
K8 = 1 (no load sharing)
0.11
 300 
K14, h > 72mm K14 =   = 1.128
 100 
Grade stress
 t , g , // = 2.5 N mm 2

Permissible stress
 t ,adm, / / =  t , g , / /  K 2  K3  K8  K14 = 2.5 11.25  1 1.128 = 3.53 N mm 2

Actual stress,
T
 t ,a , // =
A
net

Anet = b  h – b   hole
= 100  50 – 50  10 = 4500 mm

Structural Timber Design 2023 25

 0.87 103
 t ,a , / / = = 0.19 N mm2
4500

 t ,a. //   t ,adm, // Ok.

The collar tie is extremely suitable.

Example 3.5
Calculate the safe carrying capacity of a roof tie given in Fig 3.5 below.

Figure 3.5

Supporting information;
▪ Material – D40
▪ Service condition – dry
▪ Load duration – medium

Solution
▪ Geometrical properties
h = 200mm.
b = 50mm.

▪ K-factors
K2 = 1 (dry condition)
K3 = 1.25 (medium-term load)
K6 = 1 (rectangular section)
K8 = 1 (no load sharing)
0.11 0.11
 300   300 
K14; h >72, K14 =   =  = 1.05
 h   200 
▪ Grade stress
 t , g , // = 7.5 N mm 2
▪ Permissible stress
 t ,adm, / / =  t , g , / /  K 2  K3  K 6  K8  K14 = 7.5 11.25 111.05 = 9.84 N mm 2

▪ Safe carrying capacity

Structural Timber Design 2023 26

 F =  t / /  Anet =  t ,adm , / /  ( bh − 2bhole ) = 9.84  ( 50  200 − 2  50 18 ) = 80.7 kN

Example 3.6
A trussed rafter tie (Fig. 3.6) of 38 x 100 mm section is 2.7 m long and is subjected to a lateral
concentrated load of 0.65 kN at mid length. Determine the maximum medium-term axial tensile
load that the rafter tie can carry. Use cedar with  m, g , / / = 8 N mm 2 ,  // = 4 N mm 2 , and
t,g ,

E min = 7000 N mm 2 under service class 2 conditions.

Figure 3.6: Trussed rafter tie

Solution
▪ Geometrical properties
b = 38 mm
h = 100 mm
Anet = 38 x 100 = 3800 mm2
b 38
i =i = = = 11mm
min yy
12 12

bh 2 38 1002
Z xx = = = 63333 mm3
6 6

▪ Check slenderness ratio,  ,

L 2700
= e = = 245.5  250 Ok
i yy 11

▪ Grade stresses
 m, g , // = 8 N mm 2

 t , g , // = 4 N mm 2 , E min = 7000 N mm 2

▪ K-factors
K2 = 1 (dry condition)
K3 = 1.25 (medium-term loading)
K6 = 1 (rectangular section)

Structural Timber Design 2023 27

 0.11 0.11
 300   300 
K7 =   =  = 1.13
 h   100 
K8 = 1 (no load sharing)
0.11 0.11
 300   300 
K14 =   =  = 1.13
 h   100 

▪ Loading
Lateral point load = 0.65 kN
P  Le 0.65  2.7
Applied Moment = = = 0.44 kNm
4 4

▪ Bending
M 0.44 106
 m,a , / / = = = 6.95 N mm 2
Z xx 63333

 m,adm, / / =  m, g , / /  K 2  K3  K 6  K 7  K8
= 8  1 1.25  1 1.13  1 = 11.3 N mm 2

▪ Tension
T T
 t ,a , / / = =
Anet 3800

 t ,adm, / =  t , g , / /  K 2  K3  K8  K14 = 4 11.25 11.13 = 5.65 N mm 2

▪ Using interaction equation

 m,a , / /  //
+ t ,a , 1
 m,adm, / /  t ,adm, / /

6.95 T
+ 1
11.30 3800  5.65

 6.95 
T = 1 −   3800  5.65 = 8.3 kN
 11.30 

Example 3.7
A 150 mm x 200 mm interior tension member has a notch as shown in Fig. 3.7 below. The grade
stress of timber in tension parallel to grain is 7.5 N/mm2 and in bending is12 N/mm2. Calculate
the reduction in load carrying capacity due to the notching, assuming load duration factor K3 = 1.

Structural Timber Design 2023 28

 Figure 3.7
Solution
▪ Geometrical properties
b = 150 mm, h = 200 mm
Notch = 40 mm
A1-1 = b x h1 = 30 x 103
A2-2 = b x h2 = 24 x 103
Zxx = b (h2)2/6 = 150 x 1602/6 = 64 x 104 mm3

▪ Grade stress
 t , g , // = 7.5 N mm 2
 m , g , // = 12 N mm 2

▪ K-factors
K2 = 1 (dry condition)
K3 = 1.25 (long-term loading)
K6 = 1 (rectangular section)
0.11 0.11
 300   300 
K7 =   =  = 1.05
 h   200 

K8 = 1 (no load sharing)

0.11 0.11
 300   300 
K14 =   =  = 1.05
 h   200 

▪ Permissible stresses
 t ,adm, // =  t , g , // K 2  K 3  K 8  K14 = 7.5  1  1  1  1.05 = 7.9 N mm 2
 m,adm, // =  m, g , // K 2  K 3  K 6  K 7  K 8 = 12  1  1  1  1.05  1 = 12.6 N mm 2

▪ Maximum carrying capacity of section 1-1 (axially loaded)

F1 = Anet x  //
t ,adm ,

Structural Timber Design 2023 29

 30  10 3  7.9
F1 = = 237 kN
10 3

▪ Maximum carrying capacity of section 2-2 (eccentrically loaded)

Eccentricity e, = 200/2 – 160/2 = 20 mm.

Using interaction equation

 m,a , //  t ,a , //
+ 1
 m,adm, //  t ,adm //

M F e 20  F2 F2
 m,a , / / = = 2 = = N mm 2
Z xx Z xx 64  10 4
32000
F2 F2 F2
 t ,a , / / = = = N mm 2
Anet 150 160 24000

F2 F2
+ 1
32000 12.6 24000  7.9

 1 1 
F2  + 1
 3200 12.6 24000  7.9 

7.7544 106 F2  1  F2 = 129 kN

▪ Reduction in load carrying capacity

F = F1 – F2 = 237 –129 = 108 kN

▪ Percentage reduction in load carrying capacity

= ( F / F1 ) 100% = (108 / 237 ) 100% = 45.6%

Exercise 3.5
Use timber grade C 22 to design a rectangular tie 2.5 m long for a school kitchen roof truss to
carry an axial tension force 12.6 kN. The tie is also required to support a lateral load 1.20 kN at
one half of its length. The trusses are spaced at 1000 mm center to center.

Exercise 3.5
A trussed rafter tie (Figure 3.8) of 50 x 175 mm section is 3.0 m long and is subjected to a lateral
concentrated load of 0.85 kN at one third of its effective span. Determine the maximum short-
term axial tensile load that the rafter tie can carry. Use Tanzanian cedar with grade

Structural Timber Design 2023 30

stress  m, g , / / = 8 N mm 2 ,  // = 4 N mm 2 , and E min = 7000 N mm 2 under service class 2
t,g ,

conditions.

Figure 3.8: Trussed rafter tie

Structural Timber Design 2023 31

4. SPACED COLUMNS
▪ A spaced column is composed of two or more equal shafts spaced apart by end and
intermediate packing blocks, which are suitably glued, bolted, screwed, nailed or
connected in position in accordance with section two of BS 5268, Part 2: 1984 clause
15.9.
▪ The spacer/packing block are provided to:-
• Restrain differential movement between the shafts.
• To maintain their initial spacing under the action of load.
▪ Spaced columns are used in trusses as compression chords and in frame construction.

Figure 6. Details of two shaft spaced column.

4.1. DESIGN CONSIDERATION

According to clause 15.9 and 10 of the BS, the following are recommended:-
a) Geometrical requirement
b) Modes of failure and permissible loads
c) Shear capacity

4.1.1. Geometrical Requirements

With reference to figure 6 the following criteria must be satisfied:-
1) Clear space between the individual shafts should not exceed 3 times the thickness of
a single shaft. i.e. s  3  b .
2) The length of end spacer block he should not be less than 6 times the thickness of
individual shaft b. i.e. h  6  b and hi  230 mm
e

3) Sufficient number of spacer block should be provided to ensure that the greater
slenderness ratio of each shaft between the spacer blocks Lend/iww and Lin/iww is
limited to 70, or 0.7 times the slenderness ratio of the whole column whichever is
Structural Timber Design 2023 32
 lesser i.e. The greater of Lend/iww and Lin/iww < the lesser of 70 and the greater of
L L
0.7  e and 0.7  e .
i yy i
xx

Where i = radius of gyration with respect to axes x-x, y-y, and w-w; Figure 6

4.1.2. Modes of failure permissible loads

1) Buckling of whole column about its x-x axis
▪ Effective length Le, xx = L  effective length coefficient from Table 21.
▪ The permissible axial and bending stresses shall be calculated for the equivalent
solid column section.
2) Buckling of the whole column about y-y axis, In this case the type of connection
will affect the magnitude of the effective length of the column.
▪ Effective length Le, yy = L  K13  effective length coefficient from Table 21, K13
from Table 23 using s/b ratio and method of connection.
3) Buckling of an individual shaft about its own w-w axis,
▪ Effective length is taken to be the larger distance between the centers of the
spacer blocks. i.e Lend or Lin whichever is greater.
Lww = the greater of Lend and Lint .

NB
The greater the slenderness ratio; i.e. the greater of Le/ixx, Le/iyy, Lend/iww and Lint/iww will
govern the failure mode, in case where L < 30 x b only one intermediate packing is
required.

According to BS 5268 Part 2: 1984 the applied and permissible stresses may be
calculated as:-
P
▪ applied compressive stress  c ,a , // =
A
▪ permissible compressive stress  c , adm, // =  c , g , // K 2  K 3  K8  K12

M
▪ applied bending stress  m,a , // =
Z
▪ permissible bending stress  m,adm, / / =  m, g , / /  K 2  K3  K6  K7  K8

4.1.3. Shear Capacity of spacer block.

The end spacer block should be capable to transmit a shear force Fv at the interface
between each block and one shaft equal to,

Structural Timber Design 2023 33

 1.3  A  b   //
Fv =
c ,a ,

na
Where: A = total cross section area of the column
b = thickness of individual shaft
 // = Applied compressive stress
c ,a ,

n = number of shafts
a = distance between centers of adjacent shafts.

Fv
Therefore applied shear stress;  a , // =
hh
e

Where; h = width of the shaft

he = length of the end spacer block.

And the permissible shear stress  // =  // K  K  K .

adm , g, 2 3 8

The code also recommended that the intermediate spacer block should be able to transmit
a shear force Fv, int between their individual interfaces equal to half that of the end block.

A b  //
=
c ,a ,
i.e. F
v ,int 2 n a

F
 a , // = v ,int

hh
int

Example 4.1
An internal spaced column in an exhibition center is required to support long-term and medium-
term loads of 80kN and 130kN respectively. Check the suitability of the proposed section
indicated in figure below. The column is pined top and bottom with glued spacer block.

Supporting data
▪ Materials: Sesoned podo; grade stresses are  c , g / / = 10.0 N mm 2 ,  , g , / / = 1.8 N mm 2 ,
and Emin = 1100 N mm2 .
▪ Assume service class 2
▪ The column comprises of two shafts of cross-section dimension 63 mm x 175 mm.
▪ The strength of the glue is 0.71 N/mm2

Structural Timber Design 2023 34

Solution
Geometrical properties and requirements
Length (l) = 4200mm
Number of shafts (n) =2
Thickness of shafts (b) = 63mm
Width of shaft (h) = 175mm
Space between shafts (s) = 120mm
Distance between centers (a) = s + b = 183mm
Length of end block (he) = 400mm
Length of intermediate block (hint) = 250mm
Cross-section area of shaft (Ashaft) = b x h = 63 x 175 =11.025 x 103mm2
Total cross-section area of shaft (A) = 2 x b x h = 2 x 63 x 175 =22.05 x 10 3mm2

bh3 2  63 1753
I xx = 2  = = 56.27 106 mm4
12 12
h ( 2b + s ) − h  s 3 175 ( 2  63 + 120 ) − 175 1203
3 3

I yy = = = 191.9 106 mm 4
12 12
hb 175  63
3 3
I ww = = = 3.65 106 mm 4
12 12

Structural Timber Design 2023 35

 I 56.27  10 6
i xx = xx
= = 50.5mm
A 22.05  10 3
I yy 191.9  10 6
i = = = 93.3mm
yy A 22.05  10 3
I 3.65  10 6
i ww = ww
= = 18.2mm
A
shaft
11.025  10 3

Effective length
Lend = Lint = 760mm
Lxx = 1.0 x L =1.0 x 4200 = 4200mm
Lyy = 1.0 x L x K13
K13 (from table 23): s/b = 120/63 = 1.9

1 1.9 2
Glue 1.1 K13 1.3

 2 − 1.9 
K13 = 1.3 −   (1.3 − 1.1) = 1.28
 2 −1 
Lyy = 1.0  4200 1.28 = 5376 mm

Slenderness Ratio
L 4200
xx = xx = = 83.2
ixx 50.5
Lyy 5376
 yy = = = 57.6
i yy 93.3
Lww 760
ww = = = 41.8
iww 18.2

Check conditions
1. s<3 x b; s = 120mm < 3 x 63 = 189mm Ok
2. he > 6 x b; he = 400mm > 6x 63 = 378mm Ok
3. hin > 230mm; hin = 250mm > 230mm Ok
4. Slenderness ratio  = 41.8  70 Ok
ww

0.7   xx = 0.7  83.2 = 58.74

0.7   yy = 0.7  57.6 = 40.32

Therefore,  = 41.8  70 and < 58.74 Ok.

ww

Structural Timber Design 2023 36

 Mode of failure
Since the slenderness ratio about x-x is critical, therefore buckling about x-x axis should
be considered;  = 83.2  180 .
xx

Grade stresses
 c , g // = 10.0 N mm 2
 , g , // = 1.8 N mm 2
E min = 1100 N mm 2

K-factors
K2 = 1 (service class 2 condition)
K3 = 1 (long - term load)
K3 = 1.25 (medium-term load)
K8 = 1 (no load sharing)

Loading
Long-term load = 80 kN
Medium-term load = 130 kN

Checking the suitability

a) Long-term load.
F 80  103
Applied stress,  c ,a , // = = = 3.6 N mm 2
A 22.05  10 3

Permissible stress,  c ,adm, // =  c , g , // K 2  K 3  K 8  K12

Emin 11000
= = 1100; xx = 83.2
 c , g , / /  K 2  K3 10.0 11

From Table 22
80 83.2 90
1100 0.559 K12 0.497

 80 − 83.2 
K = 0.559 −  (0.559 − 0.497 ) = 0.539
12
 80 − 90 
 c,adm = 10  1  1  1  0.539 = 5.4 N mm 2
 c,a , / /   c,adm, / /

Structural Timber Design 2023 37

 Therefore long-term capacity is adequate.

Medium- term

130 103
 c, g , / / = = 5.9 N mm2
22.05 10 3

Emin 11000
= = 880 ; xx = 83.2
 c, g / /  K 2  K3 10 11.25

From Table 22
80 83.2 90
800 0.497 0.430
880 X1 K12 X2
900 0.522 0.456

 900 - 880 
X 1 = 0.522 -   ( 0.522 - 0.497 ) = 0.517
 900 - 800 

 900 − 880 
X 2 = 0.456 −   ( 0.456 − 0.430 ) = 0.451
 900 − 800 

80 83.2 90
0.517 K12 0.451

 80 − 83.2 
K12 = 0.517 −   ( 0.517 − 0.451) = 0.496
 80 − 90 

 c ,adm, / / = 10 11.25 1 0.496 = 6.2 N mm 2

 c,a , / /   c,adm, / /

Therefore medium-term capacity is adequate.

Check, shear capacity of the glue surface for critical (medium-term) load.
▪ Shear force to be resisted by end packs.
1.3 Ab c ,a , / / 1.3  22.05 103  63  5.9
Fv ,end = = = 29 kN
na 2 183

Structural Timber Design 2023 38

 ▪ Shear capacity of the glue surface.
F 0.71175  400
 = v  Fv =   h  he = = 49.7 kN
h  he 1000

Therefore, contact of end packs is adequate.

▪ Shear force to be resisted by intermediate packs.

F
Fv ,int = v ,end = 14.5 kN
2

▪ Shear capacity of glued surface of intermediate packs.

0.71175  250
Fv ,int = = 31 kN
1000

Therefore, contact area of intermediate packs is adequate.

Structural Timber Design 2023 39

5. DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS
• Flexural member are those subjected to bending i.e. carry or resist load by bending.
• The effective span of flexural members shall be taken as the distance between the
centres of bearing areas. For the member extending further than necessary over
bearing the span may be measured between the centers of bearings of length which
would be adequate according to BS 5268-1:2002; attention should be paid to the
eccentricity on the supporting structures.
• Beams (Fig. 5.1) are mostly used as flexural structural elements such as:
- Solid section rectangular beam
- Floor joists
- Rafters
- Purlin
- Trimmer joist etc.

Figure 5.1: Typical timber beam section

• Although the design principles are essentially the same for all bending member of all
materials: Attention on material characteristics is very essential. e.g:
(i) Steel is homogeneous, ductile and isotropic.
(ii) Concrete is brittle and is assumed homogeneous for most practical purposes.

Structural Timber Design 2023 40

5.1. DESIGN CONSIDERATION
• The main design considerations for flexural members are:
(i) Bending stress and prevention of lateral buckling
(ii) Shear stress.
(iii) Deflection.
(iv) Bearing stress.
(v) Lateral stability.

• The size of section or beam is governed by the requirements of:

(i) The elastic modulus (Z) to limit the bending stresses.
(ii) The cross-section to ensure the vertical and or horizontal shear stresses does
not induce failure.
(iii) Moment of inertial to limit deflections induced by bending and shears action
to acceptable limit.

5.2. EFFECTIVE SPAN (CLAUSE 2.10.3, BS526-2:2002)

• Most timber beams are designed as simply supported with effective span equal the
distance between centers of bearings (Fig. 5.2).

Figure 5.2: Typical timber beam section

wL2
Maximum moment: For UDL, M =
8
PL
For point load at mid-span, M =
4

5.3. DESIGN PROCEDURE (SOLID RECTANGULAR BEAM)

a) Bending (Sec. 2.10.1 BS 5268-2:2002)
Applied bending stress is given as:
M
 m,adn / / =
Z

Structural Timber Design 2023 41

 Where: M = maximum bending moment
Z = Elastic sectional modulus of the section

Permissible bending stress is the grade bending stress from Table A and table 8 BS
5268 part 2: 1984 modified by K-factors:- K2, K3, K6, K7, & K8, ie:
 m,adm, / / =  m, g , / /  K 2  K3  K6  K7  K8

Applied bending stress shall be less or equal to permissible bending stress,

 m,a , / /   m,adm, / /

Applied bending stress is determined by simple elastic bending theory as follows

M  ymax M
 m,a , / / = =
I xx Z xx
I xx
Z xx =
ymax
bh3
I xx =
12
h
ymax =
2
bh3 h bh 2
Z xx = =
Figure 5.3. 12 2 6

Where:  m,a , / / = Applied bending stress parallel to grain

M = Applied bending moment
Z xx = Elastic section modulus about major axis (axis of bending)

b) Depth factor for flexural members (K7-Factor)

All other things being equal, the greater the depth, h, of a timber beam the less
strong is it. The depth factor, K7, is in two parts: for depths between 72 and 300mm,
0.11
 300 
K7 =   Giving a maximum value at 72 mm of 1.17.
 h 

For depths over 300mm (Not common for solid beam but for built-up beams):
h 2 + 92300
K 7 = 0.81
h 2 + 56800

Structural Timber Design 2023 42

 This factor is now applicable to all timbers in BS 5268-2. Although the intention of
this chapter is to cover beams, it is convenient to discuss the width factor for tension
members while discussing the depth factor for beams. ‘Width’ is the greater dimension
of a rectangular section in tension and the width modification factor is K14. For widths,
h, of solid timber and glulam tension members over 72 mm there is a single formula,
K14 = (300/h)0.11. K14 is applied to the grade tension stresses tabulated in BS 5268-2.

c) Shear Stress (Sec. 2.10.4 BS 5268-2:2002)

• The shear strength should be calculated by using the effective depth, he, (Fig.
2 of the code) and a permissible stress equal to the grade stresses multiplied
by the factor, K-factors as follows:
 adm, / / =  g / /  K 2  K3  K5  K8

• Applied shear stress shall be less or equal to permissible shear stress.

 a , / /   adm, / /

• Shear should be calculated at support where reaction is maximum. Applied

maximum shear stress parallel to grain,  a / / is at the neutral axis and is equal
to 1.5 times the average value: it is calculated from equation
1.5Fv
a / / =
A
Where: Fv = Maximum vertical shear force, A = bh = cross-section area.

d) Deflection (Sec. 2.10.7 BS 5268-2:2002)

The dimensions of flexural members should be such as to restrict deflection within
limits appropriate to the type of structure. The deflection of the member when fully
loaded shall not exceed 0.003 of the span. For domestic floor joists, the deflection
shall not exceed the lesser of 0.003 times the span or 14 mm, whichever is less.

Total deflection:  a =  t = ( m +  v )   per

Where:  = Bending deflection,  = Shear deflection
m v

 per = Permissible deflection

Permissible deflection  per = 0.003L

Where: Le = effective span

For simply supported beam, bending deflection is given by:-

Structural Timber Design 2023 43

 5wL4
m = For UDL
384 EI
PL3
m = For point load at mid-spam
48EI
1.2M
v = Shear deflection
AG
Where: G = E /16 = shear modulus, M = bending moment

e) Bearing Stress (Sec. 2.10.2 BS 5268-2:2002)

• Bearing stresses result from application of compressive force perpendicular to
grain.
• Possible point of bearing failure are the points of concentrated load and at the
support
• Bearing stresses at support is influenced by the length and position of bearing
• The applied bearing stress  c ,a , ⊥ is calculated from:

Fv
 c ,a ⊥=
Ab
Where: Ab = b  l = bearing area
Fv = Reaction or vertical shear force

Applied bearing stress shall be less or equal to permissible bearing stress.

 c ,a ⊥  c ,adm ⊥

The grade stresses for compression perpendicular to grain apply to bearings of any length
at the ends of a member, and bearings 150 mm or more in length at any position. For
bearings less than 150 mm long located 75 mm or more from the end of a member, as
shown in Figure 1 of this code (here shown as Fig. 5.4), the grade stress should be
multiplied by the modification factor, K4, given in Table 18 of this code.

Permissible bearing stress (  c ,adm )

 c,adm ⊥=  c, g , ⊥ K 2  K3  K 4  K8

Structural Timber Design 2023 44

 Figure 5.4:

Table 18 – Modification factor, K 4 , for bearing stress

Length of bearing (mm) Value of K 4
10 1.74
15 1.67
25 1.53
40 1.33
50 1.20
75 1.14
100 1.10
150 or more 1.00
Interpolation is permitted

f) Lateral Stability (Sec. 2.10.8 BS 5268-2:2002)

• The depth to breadth ratio of solid and laminated beams of rectangular section
should be checked to ensure that there is no risk of buckling under design load.
The ratio h b should be compared with values of Table 19, BS 5268 Part
2:2002.
• Slander cross section fail at lower bending stress value due to lateral torsional
buckling which depend on parameters such as:
- The relative cross-section dimension.
- Shape
- Modulus of elasticity
- Span
- Degree of lateral restraint
- The type of loading

Structural Timber Design 2023 45

5.4. EFFECT OF NOTCH AND HOLES
• BS 5268 requires that, calculations for strength at notches or where holes are drilled to be
based on effective depth which is the minimum depth of the net section. Deflection will
not be affected much as the I values are the average over the span.
• For simply supported beam no reduction is required:
(i) If the beam depth h  250 mm and notch depths (Fig. 5.5),  0.125h and positioned
between 0.07 and 0.25 of the span from the beam end.
(ii) If holes are drilled at the neutral axis and their Ø are < 0.25h and not < 3Ø apart and
are positioned between 0.25 and 0.4 of the span from the beam end.
(iii) Effective depth, he , should be not less than 0.5h .

Beam with notch on the top edge:

h(he − a ) + ah
K5 = for a  he
he2
K5 = 1.0 for a  he

(a)

Beam with notch on the underside

of the beam edge:
K5 = he / h
(b)
Figure 5.5

Example 5.1

Structural Timber Design 2023 46

The cross-section of a suspended timber flooring system is shown in Fig. 5.6. It consists of
tongued and grooved boarding with a self weight of 0.15 kN/m2 and carries a plasterboard
ceiling of 0.2 kN/m2. The floor has aneffective span of 4.0 m and is subjected to a domestic
imposed load of 1.5 kN/m2. Design the timber floor joists using timber in strength class C18
under service class 1.
If the joists are to be notched at bearings of 72 mm deep notch, check that the notched section is
also adequate.

Figure 5.6: Timber floor joist

Solution 5.1
1) Geometrical properties
Effective length; Le = 4.0 m
Joist spacing; S = 450 mm

2) Loading
Dead load (tg) tg = 0.15 kN/m 2
Plasterboard ceiling Pb = 0.2 kN/m 2
Self weight of joist Swt = 0.1 kN/m 2
Imposed load IL = 1.5 kN/m 2
Total load (W )
W = ( tg + Pb + Swt + IL )  S  Le
W = ( 0.15 + 0.2 + 0.1 + 1.5)  0.45  4
W = 3.51 kN

Structural Timber Design 2023 47

 3) Grade stresses from table 8, BS5268
 m, g / / = 5.8 N/mm 2
 e, g ⊥= 2.2 N/mm 2
 g / / = 0.67 N/mm 2
Emean (load shearing) = 9100 N/mm 2

4) K-factors
K2 = 1 (Service class 2)
K3 = 1 (long term loading)
K4 = 1 (asumed)
K4 = 1(Sec.2.0.4 BS 5268, assume no notch)
K6 = 1 (section is rectangular)
K7 = 1 (ignore)
K8 = 1.1 (load sharing – Sec 2.9)

5) Bending
WLe 3.51 4
Applied bending moment: M = = = 1.755 kNm
8 8
Permissible stress:
 m,adm / / =  m, g , / /  K 2  K3  K 6  K 7
 m,adm / / = 5.8 11.111 = 6.38 N/mm 2
M 1.755 106
Required section: Z req = = = 275.1103 mm3
 m,a , / / 6.38

From section 2.10.8, Table 19; BS 5268, the depth to breadth ratio must be
limited to 5, i.e h  5b . Substituting for h = 5b in Z xx = bh2 / 6 and equating it to
Z required , gives:
b(5b) 2
Z req = = 275.1 103 mm3
6
1
 6  275.1103  3
b=  = 40.42 mm
 25 
Thus, minimum breadth of the section = 40.42 mm and
Depth of section = 5b = 5  40.42 = 202.08 mm

From Table of section properties, select a trial section 50 mm  200 mm deep.

Section properties

Structural Timber Design 2023 48

 Depth, h = 200 mm
Breadth, b = 50 mm
Z xx = 333 103 mm3
I xx = 3333 104 mm4
0.11
 300 
K7 =   = 1.05
 200 
Actual permissible stress:  m,adm / / = 5.8 11.1 1 1.05 = 6.7 N/mm 2
1.755 106
Actual applied bending stress:  m,a / / = = 5.3 N/mm 2
333 103
 m,a / /   m,adm / / Ok

Check self weight

Average density, Table 8:  = 380 kg/m3
Total joist self weight:
Swtactual =   g  b  h  Le
Swtactual = ( 380  9.8  0.05  0.2  4 ) /1000 = 0.15 kN
Assumed initial: Swtactual = 0.18 kN
Therefore, Self weight is satisfactory

6) Shear stress
W 3.51
Applied shear force: Fv = = =1.755 kN
2 2
1.5Fv 1.5 1.755 103
Applied shear:  a, / / == = 0.26 N/mm 2
bh 50  200
Permissible shear stress:  g,adm / / =  g / /  K 2  K3  K5  K8
he  200 − 72 
K5 = =  = 0.64
h  200 
Therefore,  g,adm / / = 0.67 11.1 0.64 1 = 0.47 N/mm 2
 a , / /   g,adm / / Ok

7) Bearing stress
W 3.51
Applied load: Fv = = =1.755 kN
2 2
Permissible bearing stress:
 c , adm ⊥=  c , g , ⊥ K 2  K3  K 4  K8
 c , adm ⊥= 2.2 11.111 = 2.42 N/mm 2

Structural Timber Design 2023 49

 Fv 1.755
bwrequired = = = 14.5 mm
b   c ,adm ⊥ 50  2.42

8) Deflection
Second moment of are: I xx = 3333 104 mm4
Load sharing: E = Emean = 9100 N/mm2
5WL3e 5  3.51103  40003
Bending deflection: m = = = 9.64 mm
384 EI xx 384  9100  3333  104
1.2M 1.2 1.755 106 16
Shear deflection: v = = = 0.37 mm
AG 50  200  9100
Total deflection:  a =  t = ( m +  v ) = ( 9.64 + 0.37 ) = 10.0 mm

Permissible deflection:  per = 0.003Le = 0.003  4000 = 12 mm

 a   per Ok

Therefore, 50 mm  200 mm sawn sections in stress grade C18 timber are

satisfactory.

5.5. Design of Purlins

Purlins are timber beams which help to make up the framing of a roof, forming the structural
skeleton of a roof. Purlins support the loads from the roof deck or sheathing and are supported by
the principal rafters or the building walls. Purlin in a pitched roof is considered as a skew
structure and undergoes a skew bending. The design of purlin is the same as that of solid timber
beam and bending is considered on both x-x and y-y axes.

Figure 5.8 Roof purlin

5.5.1. Design procedures

Consider Fig. 5.8 above:
Structural Timber Design 2023 50
 M xx M yy
i) Applied bending stress:  m,a / / = +
Z xx Z yy
 Cosθ o Sinθ o 
 m,a / / = M  + 
 Z Z yy 
 xx
ii) Permissible bending stress:  m,adm / / =  m, g , / /  K 2  K3  K7  K8
 m,a / /   m,adm / /

iii) Deflection:  t =  x2 +  y2

5wCosθ o L4 5wSinθ o L4
For uniformly distributed load:  x = and y =
384 EI x 384 EI y
FCosθ o L3 FSinθ o L3
For point load:  x = and y = and
48EI x 48EI y
19.2 M
Shear deflection:  v =
AE
Total deflection is determined as for usual beam. i.e:  a =  m +  v   per
 t  0.003L or 14 whichever is less

iv) Deflection is often the critical factor and it is normal to select the section which
satisfies the deflection limit and then check the section for bending.
The required section for deflection is: EI x ,req = 6.14 FL2Cosθ o
h
To ensure stability:  Cotθ o
b

Example 5.3
Design a timber purlin (Fig. 5.9), which will span rafters 2.4 m centre to centre. The angle of the
roof slope is 30 ° and the purlin is required to support a vertical dead load of 250 N/m from roof
covering and a wind load of 200 N/m acting normal to the roof. Use timber grade C22 under
service class 1.

Structural Timber Design 2023 51

 Figure 5.9 Roof purlin
Solution 5.3
1. Geometrical properties
Effective length; Le = 2.4 m
Pitch angle; θ o = 30o

2. Loading
Vertical dead load: DL = 250 N/m
Wind load: WL = 200 N/m
Self-weight (assume) Swt = 0.05 kN/m
Total vertical load (W )
F = ( DL + WL + Swt )  Le
 0.2 
F =  0.25 + + 0.05   2.4 = 1.274 kN
 
o
Cos30

3. Grade stresses from Table 8, BS5268

 m, g / / = 6.8 N/mm 2
 e, g ⊥= 2.3 N/mm 2
 g / / = 0.71 N/mm 2
Emin = 6500 N/mm 2 (no load shearing)

4. K-factors
K2 = 1 (Service class 1)
K3 = 1 (long term loading)
K5 = 1(no notch)
K7 = 1 (ignore)
K8 = 1 (no load sharing)

5. Deflection
Since deflection is critical;
To limit deflection; EI x ,required = 6.14 FL2eCosθ o
6.14 FL2eCosθo 6.14 1274  24002  Cos30o
I x ,required = = = 600.4 104 mm 4
Emin 6500

Try section; 75 mm 100 mm

Structural Timber Design 2023 52

 I x = 625 104 mm 4
Z x = 105 103 mm3
Z y = 66 103 mm3
To ensure stability check;
h
 Cotθ o
b
100
= 1.3  Cot 30o = 1.32 Ok
75

Check Self weight;

Swt = ( 0.075  0.1 410  9.8 )  2.4 = 0.07 kN  0.12 kN Ok

6. Check bending
Applied vertical bending moment;
wL2e WLe 1.274  2.4
M= = = = 0.382 kNm
8 8 8
M M
Applied bending stress:  m,a / / = xx + yy
Z xx Z yy
 Cos30o Sin30o 
 m,a / / = 0.382  + 3 
= 4.7 N/m
 125 10 94 10 
3

Permissible bending stress:  m,adm / / =  m, g , / /  K2  K3  K7  K8

0.11
 300 
K7 =   = 1.13
 100 
 m,adm / / = 6.8 111.13 1 = 7.7 N/mm 2
 m,a / /   m,adm / / Ok

7. Shear stress
W 1.274
Applied shear force: Fv = = =0.64 kN
2 2
1.5Fv 1.5  0.64 103
Applied shear:  a , / / = = = 0.13 N/mm2
bh 75 100
Permissible shear stress:  g,adm / / =  g / /  K 2  K3  K5  K8
Therefore;  g,adm / / = 0.711111 = 0.71 N/mm 2
 a , / /   g,adm / / Ok

Structural Timber Design 2023 53

 8. Bearing stress
W 1.274
Applied load: Fv = = =0.64 kN
2 2
Fv 0.64 103
Applied bearing stress;  c ,adm ⊥= = = 0.17 N/mm 2
b  bw 50  75

Permissible bearing stress: (assume breadth of rafter = 50 mm)

 c , adm ⊥=  c , g , ⊥ K 2  K3  K 4  K8
 c , adm ⊥= 2.3 111.2 1 = 2.8 N/mm 2
 c ,a ⊥  c , adm ⊥ Ok

9. Check deflection
Bending deflection:
5FCosθ o L3 5 1.274 10  Cos30  ( 2400 )
3 o 3

 mx = = = 4.889 mm
384 EI x 384  6500  625 104
5FSinθ o L3 5 1.274 103  Sin30o  24003
 my = = = 2.822 mm
384 EI y 384  6500  625 104

 m =  mx
2
+  my
2
= 4.8892 + 2.8222 = 5.6 mm

19.2M 19.2  0.382 106

Shear deflection: v = = = 0.2 mm
AEmin 75 100  6500
Total deflection:  a =  t = ( m +  v ) = ( 5.6 + 0.2 ) = 5.8 mm
Permissible deflection:  per = 0.003Le = 0.003  2400 = 7.2 mm
 a   per Ok
Therefore, 75 mm 100 mm sections in stress grade C22 timber are
satisfactory.

Structural Timber Design 2023 54

6. BUILT IN SECTIOS - BEAMS AND GIRDERS
These are generally used in situations where the structural capacity of solid softwood timber
sections is exceeded, perhaps due to long spans or wide spacing. They are available in different
shapes and sizes depending on the individual manufacturer. Three types are widely used (Fig
6.1) are glue laminated or glulam, plywood box beams, and ply web beams.

Fig.6.1: Built-up Sections

6.1. Design of Simple Built-up Beams (Clause 2.10.10 of BS 5268-2:2002)

• The built-up sections are defined as members consisting of more than one component
which do not qualify as glulam.
• Glued laminated timber or glulam, is a type of structural engineered wood product
comprising a number of layers of dimensional lumber bonded together with durable,
moisture-resistant structural adhesives (Section 3 of the code).
• Built-up beams should be checked to ensure that there is no risk of buckling under
design load.
• In built-up members with thin webs, web stiffener should be provided to ensure the
strength and stability of the member at all points of concentrated loads or elsewhere
as may be necessary.

Structural Timber Design 2023 55

 • The lateral stability should be determined by calculation or by consideration of
compression flange as a column which tends to deflect sideways (sway) between
points of lateral supports, or in accordance with one of the following limits:
I
(a) If xx ratio is less than 5 no lateral restrain is required.
I yy
I xx
(b) If 5 < < 10, ends should be held in position at the bottom flange at the
I yy
supports.
I
(c) If 10 < xx < 20, the beam should be held in line at ends.
I yy
I xx
(d) If 20 < < 30, one edge should be held in line.
I yy
I xx
(e) If 30 < < 40, the beam should be braced at intervals  2.4 m
I yy
I xx
(f) If > 40, the compression flange should be fully restrained.
I yy

For flanges of glue built-up beam such as box and I-beams, modification factors K27, K28
and K29 may be used.

6.2. Design Considerations of built-up Beams

Generally the design consideration of built-up beam is the same as that of solid section. However
a beam in bending experience horizontal shear, complementary to the vertical shear carried by
the beam.

Where horizontal shear is present between components, a glued joint should be used to ensure
that no slip occurs; nail cannot achieve this.
Vertical shear is only induced where the load is not properly distributed across members,
however nail and bolt can assist this.

Example 6.1
A composite beam shown in Fig. 6.2 carries a long-term load of 6 kN UDL on a span of 4.5 m.
Material used is timber of strength class SC3 in dry exposure condition. Check the adequacy of
the design in bending, shear, deflection and lateral stability.

Structural Timber Design 2023 56

 Fig.6.2

Solution
1. Geometrical properties
h = 200mm
b = 38mm
A = 7.6 x 103mm2 (each)
Zx = 253 x 103 mm3 (each)
Ix = 25.3 x 106mm4 (each)

2. Grade strength
 m, g / / = 5.3N / mm 2
 g = 0.67 N / mm 2
Emin = 5800 N / mm 2

3. K-factors
K2 = 1 (dry)
K3 = 1 (long-term load)
0.11
 300 
K7=   = 1.05
 200 
K8 = 1.1 (load sharing)
K9 = 1.21

4. Bending
 m,a , //   m,adm, //
 m,adm / / =  m, g , / /  K 2  K3  K 7  K8
 m,adm / / = 5.3 111.05 1.1 = 6.1N / mm2
M max WL 6  4.5 106
 m,a , / / = = = = 4.45 N / mm 2
Zx 8  Z x 8  3 ( 253 10 )
3

Structural Timber Design 2023 57

  m,a , / / = 4.45 N / mm 2  5.57 N / mm 2 =  m,adm, / / Ok

5. Shear
 g , / /   adm, / /
 adm, / / =  g / /  K 2  K3  K8 = 0.67 111.21 = 0.74 N / mm 2
1.5Fv 1.5  6 103
 a, / / = = = 0.2 N / mm2
A 2  3  ( 7.6 10 )
3

 a , / / = 0.2 N / mm 2  0.67 N / mm 2 =  adm, / / Ok

6. Deflection
5  6 103  ( 4.5 1000 )
3
5WL3
m = = = 13.4 mm
384 EI 384  5800 1.21 3  ( 25.3 106 )
7. Shear deflection,
19.2M 19.2  6  4.5 106
v = = = 0.4 mm
AEK9 8  3  ( 7.6  103 )  5800 1.21
And  t = 13.4 + 0.4 = 13.8 mm
But  adm = 0.003Le = 0.003  4500 = 15 mm
 t = 13.8 mm  15 mm =  adm Ok

8. Lateral stability
h 200
= = 1.8  5 No lateral restrain is required.
b 3  38

The section/design is adequate

Exercise 6.1
1. Explain the steps used in the design of flexural member.
2. Differentiate between spaced column and glulam section as used in timber design.
3. Mention the main design considerations for flexural members.

Exercise 6.2
A composite beam of a horizontally glulam section carries a medium-term load of 9 kN UDL on
a span of 5 m. Material used is timber of strength class C24 in dry exposure condition. The
section consists of 6, 75 mm × 100 mm section. Check the adequacy of the design in bending,
shear, deflection and lateral stability.

Structural Timber Design 2023 58

7. MECHANICAL FASTENERS AND TIMBER CONNECTORS (BS 5268 -2:2002)

7.1. INTRODUCTION
The common connecting system in structural timber may be classified as mechanically fastened
and glue joints. Mechanical fasteners are divided into two groups depending on how they
transfer the forces between the connected members, i.e.
(a) Dowel type fasteners which are:
• Nails
• Screws
• Bolts and dowels

(b) Connectors such as:

• Toothed plates
• Split ring
• Shear plate and punched metal plates.

BS5268 Part 2: 2002 Clause 6 gives the general summary of the design consideration as follows:
i. The load induced in each fastener or connector unit by the design loads appropriate to
the structure should not exceed the permissible value determined in accordance with
this section.
ii. When more than one nail, screw, bolt et.c is used in a joint, the permissible load is the
sum of the permissible loads for the individual unit provided that the centers of
fasteners group lie on the axis of member, and the end and edge distances are
sufficient to develop the full strength.
iii. Account should be taken on the stresses and rotation due to moment and eccentricity
if the line of action of force in a member does not pass through the centroid of the
fastener group.
iv. If the load is carried by more than one type of fasteners, due account should be taken
of the relative stiffness.
v. For glue laminated timber, tabulated values should be taken for strength class of
timber from which they are made.
vi. The effective cross-section of a jointed member should be used when calculating its
strength.

Structural Timber Design 2023 59

Table 7.1: BS5268 Part2:2002 recommended that, basic load to be adjusted for load duration by
factors (Clause 6.4.9, 6.5.7)
Fastener Modification Long-term Medium-term Short and very short-
factor loading loading term loading
Nails K48 1.0 1.12 1.25
Screws K52 1.0 1.12 1.25
Bolts K55 1.0 1.25 1.50

Factors affecting the use of particular type of fastener are:

• Method of assembly
• Connection details
• Purpose of connection
• Loading
• Permissible stress
• Aesthetics

7.1.1. Stress Distribution in Connections

For bolts and nails with diameters more than 5 mm driven after pre-drilling, the stress
distribution around the bolt is as shown in Fig. 7.1.

Figure 7.1: Stress distribution pattern

7.1.2. Joint Slip

Under the action of applied load, all mechanically connected timber joint undergo slip which
occurs between their component parts.
Slip (Fig.7.2) can cause significant deformation and can also affect the strength of some
component. Slip can be calculated as:

=
F
(mm )
K ser

Where: µ = slip per fastener per shear plane

Structural Timber Design 2023 60

 F = applied shear force per fastener per shear plane
K ser = slip modulus in N/mm/fastener/shear plane

Figure 7.2: Slip

7.2. NAILED JOINTS (Bs 5268 Part 2: 2002 Clause 6.4)

• Nails are straight slender fastener usually pointed and headed. They are available in
variety of lengths and cross section area and in different forms (Table 7.2). However
the steel wire nails with circular cross-section area with a minimum tensile strength of
600 N/mm2 and sizes of 2.65 mm to 8 mm diameter are commonly used. Nails can
be plain, enamelled, etched, electroplated, galvanized etc, for protection against
corrosion.
• A nailed joint should normally contain at least two nails.
• Skew nailing slightly increases the resistance to withdrawal. However nails loaded
laterally should not be skew driven except at joints where no reversal of stress can
occur in service and the direction of skew is such that the joint will tend to tighten
under load.

Table 7.2: The common types of nails

o Round plain wire nail.
o Clint nails.
o Lost head nails.
o Square twisted nails.
o Helically treaded and annual ringed shank
o Pneumatically driven nails

7.2.1. Improved nails

• Both lateral and withdrawal load capacities of nails can be improved by:
o Mechanically deforming nail shank to form annual ringed or helical threaded
shank.

Structural Timber Design 2023 61

 o Grooving or twisting of square cross-sectional nails. (Twisting process
modifies nail surface and work harden the steel thus increasing its yield
strength).
• When improved nails are used the load carrying capacities can be increased by
o 20% of basic single shear lateral load for square twisted shank nails.
o 50% of basic withdrawal load capacities for the threaded part of annular
ringed and helical threaded shank nails.

7.2.2. Pre-drilling.
• The species and grade of strength classes C24, C27, C30 and C35 will usually require
pre-drilling. Timber with density 500 kg/m3 or more should be pre-drilled.
• Advantages of pre-drilling: -
o Prevent timber splinting,
o Has less slip in the joint,
o Increase lateral load carrying capacity, and
o Permit more densely nailed joint.
• Nails driven into pre-drilled holes in softwood classes C14 to C24 the code permit
15% increases in their load capacities

7.2.3. Effective area (BS 5268 Part 2; 2002 Clause 6.4.2).

• The effective cross section area of a jointed member should be used when calculating
its strength, since some of connector unit removes part of the cross sectional area and
hence reduce the load carrying capacity of the member.
• When assessing the effective cross section of multiple nail or screw joint, all nails or
screws of 5 mm in diameter or larger that lie within a distance of five nail or screw
diameters measured parallel to the grain from a given cross section should be
considered as occurring at that cross section, Fig. 7.3.

Figure 7.3

• No reduction of cross section need to be made for screws of less than 5mm diameter,
and for nails of the same diameter but driven without pre drilling.

Structural Timber Design 2023 62

7.2.4. Spacing rule edge and end distance (Clause 6.4.3)
The end distances, edge distances and spacing of nail Fig. 7.4 should be such as to avoid undue
splinting and unless shown by test to be satisfactory, should be not less than the value given in
Table 60 of BS 5268 Part 2:2002.

Figure 7.4: Spacing of dowel-type connection

7.2.5. Lateral Load

1) Basic single shear loads
• The basic single shear lateral load for single round wire nails with a minimum
tensile strength of 600 N/mm2, driven at right angle to the side grain of timber in
service class 1 and 2 are given in Table 61.
• For nail driven into pre-drilled holes in softwood strength class C14 to C40, the
values given in Table 61 should be multiplied by Kpre drill = 1.15.
• For the nail driven into the end grain of timber, the value given in Table 61 should
be multiplied by the end grain modification factor K43 which has a value of 0.7.
• For square grooved or twisted nails, the values given in Table 61 should be
multiplied by K44 = 1.25
• For the basic load in Table 61 to apply, the nail should full penetrate standard
values in both head side and point side members Fig. 7.5(a). Any decrease in
either member will reduce the permissible load of the joint.
• According to BS 5268 Part 2:2002, joint where nails are subjected to multiple
shear lateral loads, the thickness of the inner member should be  0.85 of the
standard thickness given in Table 61. Fig. 7.5(b).
• Modification factor for thickness of members and penetration depth for a nailed
connection Knail bearing :

a) For a nail in single shear (Clause [Link])

t t
Knail-bearing = the lesser of a ,head or a , po int or 1
tstd tstd

For a nail in multiple shear (Clause [Link])

Structural Timber Design 2023 63

 ta ,head ta ,inner ta , po int
b) Knail-bearing = the lesser of or or or 1
tstd 0.85  tstd , poit tstd

(a) Nail in single shear

(b)Nails in multiple shears

Figure 7.5: Members thickness in nailed joint

No load-carrying capacity should be assumed where the ratios described in a) or b)

are less than 0.66 for softwoods and 1.0 for hardwoods. Where improved nails (see
[Link] of the code) are used, the ratios may be reduced to 0.50 for softwoods and
0.75 for hardwoods.

2) Permissible load for a joint

The permissible load for a nailed joint should be determined as the sum of the
permissible loads for each nail in the joint, where each permissible load should be
calculated from the equation:
Permissible load = basic load  K 48  K 43  K50  K pre drill i.e.

Fadm = F  K 48  K 43  K50  K pre drill

And the total permissible load is given by Fadm  number of nails in a group.

Structural Timber Design 2023 64

 Table 2: Modification factor shall be according to BS 5268 Clause 6.4.9, 6.5.7.
Modification factor Purpose Value
K43 End grain 0.7
K44 Improved nails 1.25
K48 Duration of load 1.0 Long-term load
1.12 Medium-term load
1.25 Short and very short term load
K49 Moisture content 1.0 Moisture class 1 and 2
0.7 Moistures class 3
1.0 Improved nail in all condition
1.0 For withdrawal load
K50 Number of nails 1.0 For n less than 10
in line 0.9 For n greater than 10

Strength of a connection depends on the strength of fastener (nail, screw and bolt) and the
strength of the timber used.

Example 7.1
Determine the medium term load carrying capacity of the joint shown in Fig 7.4 below under
service class 2. Use timber grade C16

Figure 7.5
Solution
1. Geometrical properties
Nail diameter = 3.4 mm.
Nail length l = 60 mm
No of nail n = 6
Head side penetration, ta, head = 33 mm
Point side penetration, ta, point = 27 mm.

Structural Timber Design 2023 65

 2. Basic values: Table 61, C16
Standard penetration
• Head side t std = 41 mm
• Point side t std = 41 mm
Basic single shear lateral load F = 377 N.

3. Modification factor
No of shear planes N = 1
Kpre-drill = 1 (does not apply, no pre-drilling)
t 33
K nail-bearing = lesser of a ,head = = 0.805  0.66 Ok
tstd 41
ta , po int 27
or = = 0.66 = 0.66 Ok
tstd 41

Therefore K nail bearing = 0.66

K48 = 1.12 (medium-term, Cl. 6.4.9)
K49 = 1 (service class 2/dry, Cl. 6.4.9)
K50 = 1 (no of nails in line less than 10, Cl. 6.4.9)

4. Permissible lateral load

Fadm = F  n  K nail bearing  K 48  K 49  K 50  N
= 377  6  0.66 1.12 111
Fadm = 1672 N

5. Spacing of nails, Table 60

a1 = 20d = 20  3.4 = 68 mm
a2 = 20d = 20  3.4 = 68 mm
a3 = 10d = 10  3.4 = 34 mm
a4 = 5d = 5  3.4 = 17 mm

Example 7.2
A nail connection shown below is subjected to a short term loading under dry condition. The
joint comprises of two 3.8 mm diameter times 65 mm long round wire nails acting in single shear
in C18 timber. Determine the permissible load.

Structural Timber Design 2023 66

 Figure 7.6
Solution
1. Geometrical properties
Nail diameter = 3.8 mm
Nail length l = 65 mm
No of nails, n = 2
Head side penetration ta, head = 33 mm
Point side penetration ta, point = 32mm

2. Basic values Table 61, C18 standard penetration.

Head side t std = 46 mm
Point side t std = 46 mm
Basic single shear load F = 453 N

3. Modification factors (Cl.[Link])

No of shear planes, N = 1
t 33
Knail bearing = lesser of a ,head = = 0.72  0.66 Ok
tstd 46
ta , po int 32
or = = 0.70  0.66 Ok
tstd 46

Knail bearing = 0.70

K43 = 0.7 (end grain nailing, Cl.[Link])
K48 = 1.25 (short term loading, Cl.6.4.9)
K49 = 1.0 (dry condition, Cl.6.4.9)
K50 = 1.0 (no of nails in line < 10, Cl.6.4.9)

4. Permissible lateral load

Structural Timber Design 2023 67

 Fadm = F  n  K nail bearing  K 43  K 48  K 49  K 50  N
= 453  2  0.7  0.7 1.25 11
Fadm = 555 N

Example 7.3
A nailed joint shown in Figure 7.7 is subjected to a long-term load under service class 1
condition. The joint comprises of six 3.4 mm diameter × 100 mm long helical threaded shank
nails acting in double shear in class C16 timber. Determine the load carrying capacity of this
connection.

Fig. 7.7
Solution
1. Geometrical properties
Nail diameter, d = 3.4 mm
Nail length, l = 100 mm
No of nail n = 6
Head side penetration ta, head = 33 mm
Inner member ta, inner = 47 mm
Point side penetration ta, point = 20 mm

2. Basic values; Table 61, C16

Standard penetration
• Head side tstd = 41 mm
• Point side, tstd = 41 mm
Basic single shear load F = 377 N

3. Modification factors
Number of shear planes N = 2
t 33
Knail bearing = the lesser of a ,head = = 0.805  0.5 (improved nails) Ok
tstd 41

Structural Timber Design 2023 68

 ta ,head 47
or = = 1.35  0.5 Ok
0.85  tstd , po int 0.85  41
ta , po int 20
or = = 0.45  0.5 Not applicable
tstd 41

Inner member  0.85  standard thickness i.e:

0.85  41 = 34.9 mm  47 mm Ok

Where minimum Knail bearing for multiple shear < 0.5, but due to the nature of the
joint where nails are driven from both sides, then Knail bearing = 0.805
K44 = 1.25 (improved nail, Cl. [Link])
K48 = 1 (long-term loading, Cl. 6.4.9)
K49 = 1 (dry exposure, Cl. 6.4.9)
K50 = 1 (number of nails in line less than 10, Cl. 6.4.9)

4. Permissible lateral load

Fadm = F  n  K nail bearing  K 44  K 48  K 49  K50  N
= 377  6  0.805 1.25 111 2
Fadm = 4370 N
5. Nail spacing:
a1 = 20d = 20  3.4 = 68 mm
a2 = 20d = 20  3.4 = 68 mm
a3 = 10d = 10  3.4 = 34 mm
a4 = 5d = 5  3.4 = 17 mm

6. Check for slip (Cl. 6.2 and Table 59)

Slip per fastener per shear plane, u, in mm is given as:
F
u=
K ser
Where: F  the applied load per fastener per shear plane, in newtons
K ser =  1.5 d 0.8 / 25
 = the joint member characteristic density (see Table 8 and Table 9) in
kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
d = the fastener diameter (in mm)
F  25 4370  25
u= = = 0.5 mm Not significant.
nN  d
1.5 0.8
6  2  3701.5  3.40.8

Structural Timber Design 2023 69

7.2.6. Withdrawal Load (Clause [Link], BS 5268 Part 2: 2002)
• The basic withdrawal loads for single nails at right angle to the side grain of dry
timber (Fig. 7.8) are given in Table 62. These apply to each 1mm depth of actual
point side penetration achieved; where the point side penetration of the nail should
not be less than 15 mm.
• No withdrawal load should be assigned to round or improved nail driven into the end
grain of timber.
• For threaded part of annular ringed shank and helical threaded shank nails, the basic
withdrawal load given in Table 62 should be multiplied by the improved nail
withdrawal modification factor K45 which has a value 1.5.
• For round wire nails the basic loads in Table 62 should be modified by K48, K49, and
K50 as for lateral loads.
• Factors influencing withdrawal resistance of nails are:
o Density
o Moisture content
o Surface condition of nails.

Figure 7.8

Permissible load for a joint

The permissible withdrawal load for a nailed joint should be determined as the sum of the
permissible loads for each nail in the joint, where each permissible withdrawal load
should be calculated from the equation:

Permissible withdrawal load = basic load (Table 62) x K43 x K45 x K48 x K49 K50 i.e.

Fadm = F  K 43  K 45  K 48  K 49  K50

Structural Timber Design 2023 70

7.3. SCREWED JOINT Bs 5268 Part 2: 2002
Wood screws are used in place of nails in application requiring higher capacities especially
where greater withdrawal resistance is required. Generally, withdrawal resistance of screws is 2
to 3 times that of nails of similar size. Screws can be used to join:
• timber-to-timber
• steel-to-timber and
• Panel-to-timber and should be of steel which comply with BS 1210.

The most common form of wood screw is the slotted countersunk head wood screw available in
the preferred sizes which is threaded for approximately 67% of the length under the head. Screws
should always be turned, not hammered into pre-drilled hole; otherwise the load withdrawal
resistance will decrease significantly. The hole for shank should have a diameter equal to the
shank diameter and be no deeper than the length of the shank. The pilot hole for the threaded
portion of the screw should have a diameter of about half the shank diameter. However
depending on the density of timber diameter may be 0.4 for softwood and 0.6 for hardwood
times the shank diameter. Screws diameter are specified as number 6 to 20 corresponding to
shank diameters 3.45 mm to 8.43 mm.

Types of screws are:

• Countersink
• Round headed screws
• Coach screws with nut head like, have a length of 25 mm to 300 mm and are suitable in
larger connections in situations where use of bolts is not suitable to one side access.

7.3.1. Effective area; Clause 6.4.2

Refer section 7.2.3.

7.3.2. Screw spacing; clause 6.5.3.

The end distance, edge distance and spacing of screws should be such as to avoid splitting and
should be not less than the values given in Table 65.

7.3.3. Timber-to-timber joint

Lateral loads: The basic single shear lateral load for single screw threaded at right angle to the
grain is given in Table 66.
For screws inserted into the end grain of timber, the values from Table 66 should be multiplied
by end grain modification factor K43.
For basic load in Table 66 to apply, screws should penetrate fully the standard thickness for the
headside member and the members receiving the screw point should permit penetration not less
than that given for the pointside. Where the pointside penetration is less than the standard value
(Table 66), the basic load should be multiplied by the smaller of the (i.e. Kscrew,bearing):

Structural Timber Design 2023 71

 (i) actual to standard thickness of headside member or
(ii) actual penetration of pointside to the standard pointside thickness

No increase in basic load is permitted for penetration greater than the standard value, and the
pointside penetration should not be less than 0.6 of the standard pointside thickness.

Basic Withdrawal loads: The basic withdrawal loads for single screw inserted at right angle to
the side grain of dry timber are given in Table 67. The values apply to each 1mm depth of actual
pointside penetration achieved by the threaded part of the screw; where the penetration of screw
point should not be less than 15 mm.
No withdrawal load should be assigned to screws threaded to the end grain of timber.
For screws under shear lateral load:
F = F(Table 66)  K screw,bearing  K 43

For screw under axial (withdrawal) load with a point side penetration depth t point

F = F(Table 67 )  t point

7.3.4. Permissible loads for screw joint clause 6.5.7

Permissible loads for a screwed joint should be determined as the sum of the permissible loads
for each screw in the joint, i.e.
Fadm = n  F  K52  K53  K54

Where: F = the load for a screw under shear or withdrawal

n = number of screws in the joint
K52 = modification factor for load duration
K53 = modification factor for moisture content
K54 = modification factor for the number of screws in line

7.3.5. Plywood-to-timber joint (Cl. 6.5.6)

The plywood should be selected from section four of the BS. The diameter of the pre-drilled hole
in the plywood should be not less than the shank diameter of the screw.
The basic single shear lateral load for single screw in a plywood-to-timber joint, where screws
are inserted through the plywood at right angles into the side grains of timber in service class 1
and 2 are given in Table 68; and these apply to plywood 6 mm thick.

Permissible load for a joint (Cl.6.5.7)

Structural Timber Design 2023 72

The permissible load for a screwed joint should be determined as the sum of the permissible
loads for each screw in the joint where each permissible screw load, Fadm, should be calculated
from the equation:

Fadm = F  K52  K53  K54

Where: K52 = the modification factor for duration of loading;
K53 = the modification factor for moisture content;
K54 = the modification factor for the number

Example 7.4
A tension member shown in Fig. 7.9 is made of 50 mm x 100 m softwood of strength class C16
and 12 mm x 100 mm Swedish softwood plywood. Using 4.0 mm diameter, slotted, countersink
head woodscrews 44 mm long in pre-drilled holes, determine the maximum medium-term load
that can be transmitted by the screws in service class 2.

Figure 7.9
Solution
1. Geometrical properties:
Screw diameter d = 4.0 mm
Screw length l = 44 mm
Plywood thickness (actual head side penetration) t head = 12 mm
Plywood number 1
Screw diameter = 4.0 mm thus,
Standard head side penetration (t head) = 2 × d = 2 × 4 = 8 mm < 12 mm Ok
Actual point side penetration = 44 -12 = 32 mm
Standard point side penetration = 2 × t head = 2 × 8 = 16 mm < 32 Ok

2. Basic values:
Basic single shear lateral load = 267 N

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 3. Modification factors (Cl. 6.5.7):
K52 = 1.12 (Medium- term load)
K53 = 1.0 (Service class 2)
K54 = 1.0 (Number of screws in line less than 10)

4. Permissible load:
Fadm = n  F  K 52  K 53  K 54  N
= 4  267 1.12 11 2
Fadm = 2392.3 N

Example 7.5
A timber framed building has cladding screwed to timber studs as shown in Fig. 7.10. Using the
data given, determine the number of screws required to resist the wind sanction pressure
indicated.

Figure 7.10

Solution
1. Geometrical properties
Screw No 6 = 3.5 mm diameter
Screw length l = 38 mm
Plywood thickness = 12 mm
Actual penetration ta = 38 –12 = 26 mm  15 mm Ok
Length of threaded section 0.67 x 38 = 25.4 mm
Stud thickness = 50 mm
Width = 75 mm
Length = 2350 mm
Spacing = 400 mm

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 2. Basic values
Basic withdrawal load/mm penetration Fbasic = 12.2 N / mm
Minimum screw penetration = 26 mm
Basic withdrawal load:
F = Fbasic  actual penetration - threaded part
= 12.2  25.4 = 309.9 N
3. Modification factor
K52 = 1.25 (Short-term load)
K53 = 1.0 (Dry)
K54 = 1.0 (Number of nails in line < 10)
4. Permissible load per screw
Fadm = F  K 52  K 53  K 54
Fadm = 309.9  1.25  1 1 = 387.4 N

5. Load induced on each stud by wind sanction

Fa = 1.2  0.4  2.350 = 1.128 kN

6. Number of screws required per stud

Fa 1.128 103
n= = = 2.9 Say 3 screws
Fadm 387.4

7. Maximum spacing
s = stud length / screws per stud
s = 2350 / 3 = 783.3 mm

7.4. BOLTED JOINTS (BS 5268 Part 2: 2002; Cl.6.6)

Bolts are threaded dowels with hexagonal or spherical heads and hexagonal nuts. Bolts are used
in connections where higher shear capacity is required. Bolts can also be used in axially loaded
tension connections.
Bolts are commonly used to hold two or more members together in a multiple shear arrangement.

Clause 6.6.1 of the code recommended black bolt which conform to BS EN 20898-1 and have a
minimum tensile strength of 400 N/mm2 and washers which conform to BS 4320 should be used.
The recommended nominal diameter and thickness of washer should be at least 3 times and 0.25
times the bolt diameter respectively.
When a bolt is tightened, a minimum of one complete thread should protrude from the nut. Bolt
holes should be 2 mm maximum oversize.

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7.4.1. Effective area (Cl.6.6.2)
All bolts that lie within a distance of two bolt diameters measured parallel to the grain, from a
given cross-section should be considered as occurring at that cross-section. The effective area
should be determined by deducting the net projected area of the bolt hole from the gross area of
the cross-section.

7.4.2. Bolt Spacing (Cl. 6.6.3)

The minimum spacing, end and edge distances of bolts are given in Table 81 as shown in Fig
7.11.

Figure 7.11

7.4.3. Basic single shear lateral loads ([Link]).

Unlike nails and screws, bolts have loading capacities which varies according to the direction of
the applied load with respect to the direction of grain. The basic load for single bolt in two
member timber joint, in which the load act perpendicular to the axis of the bolt, and parallel or
perpendicular to the grain of the timber are given in Table 69 to 80.

Where the loads are inclined at an angle α to the grain of the timber, the basic load, F should be
determined from Hankinson’s equation. i.e:
F/ / F⊥
F=
F/ / Sin  + F⊥Cos 2
2

Using Cos 2 + Sin 2 = 1 ; the Hankinson’s equation can be simplified as:

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 F/ / F⊥ F/ / F⊥
F= =
F/ / Sin  + F⊥ (1 − Sin  ) F⊥ + F/ / Sin  − F⊥ Sin 
2 2 2 2

F/ / F⊥
F=
F⊥ + F⊥ ( F/ / / F⊥ − 1) Sin 2

F/ /
F=
1 + ( F/ / / F⊥ ) − 1 Sin 2

Where: F/ / = the basic load parallel to the grain obtained from Table 69 to 80.
F⊥ = the basic load perpendicular to the grain obtained from Table 69 to 80.

If the load acts at an angle to the axis of the bolt the component of the load perpendicular to the
axis of the bolt should be not greater than the basic load given in Table 69, Table 70, Table 71,
Table 72, Table 73, Table 74, Table 75, Table 76, Table 77, Table 78, Table 79 and Table 80,
modified where appropriate by the above equation.

For two-member joints where parallel member are of unequal thickness, the load for the thinner
member should be used. Where members of unequal thickness are joined at an angle, the basic
load for each member should be determined and the smaller load used.
For three-member joints, the basic loads given in Table 75, to 80 apply to joints where the outer
members have the tabulated thickness and the inner member is twice as thick. For other
thicknesses of inner or outer members, the load may be obtained by linear interpolation between
the two adjacent tabulated thicknesses.

7.4.4. Basic multiple shear load ([Link]).

The basic load for a joint of more than two members should be taken as the sum of the basic
loads for each shear plane, provided that any member having shear plane on both sides has twice
the tabulated thickness (Table 69 to 80)

7.4.5. Permissible load for a bolted joint

The permissible load for a bolted joint should be determined as the sum of the permissible loads
for each bolt in the joint, where each permissible bolt load should be calculated from the
equation:
Fadm = F  K 46  K56  K57

Where: F = basic load from 6.6.4.

K 46 = 1.25 (steel to timber modification factor. Where steel component is bolted to
timber member loaded parallel to grain)
K56 = Modification factor for moisture content

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 K57 = Modification factor for the number of bolts in line

For the number of bolts in each line:

Where a number of bolts of the same diameter, acting in single or multiple shear, are
symmetrically arranged in one or more lines parallel to the line of action of the load in a
primarily axially loaded member in a structural framework, then:

 3 ( n − 1)
1 − for n  10
K57 =  100
0.7 for n  10


Where: n = the number of bolts in each line.

In all other loading cases where more than one bolt is used in joint K57 = 1.0

Example 7.6
A bolt joint shown in Fig. 7.12 is subjected to a long-term loading, as shown, under service class
2 conditions. The joint comprises a single M16 bolt acting in double shear with C22 timber
sections. Check the adequacy of the connection.

Fig. 7.12

Solution 7.8
2. Geometrical properties
Bolt diameter, d = 16 mm
No of bolts, nbolt = 1
Side member thickness, touter = 35 mm
Inner member thickness, tinner = 72 mm
Check the adequacy of the section, tinner = 72 mm  2  touter = 70 mm Ok
Distance from loaded edge = 4d = 16  4 = 64 mm  194 / 2 = 97 mm Ok

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 3. Basic values (Cl. 6.6.4 Table 76, BS 5268-2:2002).
The support reaction acting on the ceiling tie makes the load in the rafter to act parallel
to grain, and in the ceiling tie to act at 27 to the grain direction. Therefore the
Hankinson’s formula should be used to determine the appropriate basic shear loads.

For 35 mm outer member (rafter), Frafter / / = 3.09 kN

For 72 mm inner member equal to two 36 mm boards,

F/ / F⊥ 3.19  2.64
Ftie = =
F/ / Sin  + F⊥Cos  3.19Sin 27o + 2.64Cos 2 27o
2 2 2

Ftie = 3.06 kN

4. Grade shear stress for C22,  g ./ / = 0.71 N/mm

5. Modification factors
Timber to timber connection, K 46 = 1
Moisture content, K56 = 1
Number of bolts (nbolt = 1), K57 = 1
Long-term loading, K3 = 1
Service class 2, K 2 = 1
Load sharing (not applicable), K8 = 1

6. Permissible loads:
For rafter,
Fadm,rafter = Frafter / / = 3.09  K 46  K 56  K 57
Fadm,rafter = 3.09 111 = 3.09 kN

Actual load per shear plane for the rafter,

Fa ,rafter = 5.8 / 2 = 2.9 kN Ok

For the tie,

Fadm,tie = Ftie  K 46  K 56  K 57
Fadm,tie = 3.06 111 = 3.06 kN

Actual load per shear plane,

Fa ,tie = 5.2 / 2 = 2.6 kN Ok

Permissible shear stress in jointed timber (Cl. 6.1, BS 5268-2):

 adm =  g ./ /  K 2  K3  K8
 adm = 0.71111 = 0.71 kN

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 Permissible shear force,
2
Vadm =  adm  he  tinner
3
Vadm = (2 / 3)  0.71 72 194
Vadm = 3.31 kN  2.63 kN = Va Ok

7. Minimum bolt spacing

For rafter:
end distance loaded, 7d = 112 mm
end distance unloaded, 4d = 64 mm
edge distance loaded, 4d = 64 mm
edge distance unloaded, 1.5d = 24 mm

For tie:
end distance loaded, 7d = 112 mm
end distance unloaded, 4d = 64 mm
edge distance loaded, 4d = 64 mm
edge distance unloaded, 1.5d = 24 mm

Comment: The capacity of solid tie is bigger than of two members.

7.5. TOOTHED PLATE CONNECTOR JOINTS (BS 5268 Part 2: 2002; Cl.6.7)
Connector plates are made from hot dipped galvanized or cold rolled mild steel. They are
commonly available in circular or square shapes with sizes ranging from 38 mm to 165 mm.
Double sided tooth plates are suitable for use in timber-to-timber connections, whereas single
side one can be used in steel to timber connections or in pairs put back to back for timber-to-
timber joints (Fig. 7.12). Bolt and washer suitable for different shapes and forms of toothed
plates are used as detailed in Table 82.

Figure 7.12: Toothed-plate connector

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7.5.1. Permissible load for a toothed-plate connected joint
Clause 6.7.6, recommended the permissible loads for a toothed plate connected joint be
determined as the sum of the permissible loads for each unit in the join, where each permissible
load, Fadm , should be calculated from the equation:
Fadm = F  K58  K59  K 60  K 61

Where: Fadm = is the basic load for a toothed-plate under single shear loading (Table 86)
It is modified if applied to an angle  o to the grain of timber as:
F/ / F⊥
F=
F/ / Sin  + F⊥Cos 2
2

K58 = is the modification facto for duration of loading, where:

K58 = 1.00, for long-term loads
1.12, for medium-term loads
1.25, for short and very short-term loads

K59 = Modification factor for moisture content, where:

K59 = 1.00, for a joint in service class 1 and 2
0.70, for a joint in service class 3

K 60 = is the modification factor for end distance, where:

K 60 = 1.00, if the standard end and edge distances and spacing given in
Tables 87 and 88 are used, otherwise the lesser of K c and K s as
given in Tables 83, 84, and 85 of the code should be used.

K 61 = is the modification factor for the number of connector units of the

same size in each line for axially loaded member, loaded parallel to
the line of connectors. Where:
 3 ( n − 1)
1 − for n  10
 100
K 61 = 0.7 for n  10
1.0 for all other loading cases


Where n = the number of connectors units in each line.

Exercise 7.1

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Determine the value of Ks tor the arrangement of 64 mm diameter toothed plate connector shown
in Fig. 7.13, given that  = 50 degree,  = 60 degree and S = 80 mm. Determine the basic long-
term service class 1 load per connector placed one side in 50 mm thick C24 timber, assuming
that edge and end distance requirements are satisfied.

Figure 7.13: Truss joint

Exercise 7.2
Member D1 of an industrial roof truss (15 m span) is exposed to a critical long term design load
Fd = 30.0 kN. Tanzanian cypress, strength grade C24 in moisture class 3. Determine the
minimum thickness (bmin) such that the load will safely be carried if D1 is arranged and
connected as shown in Fig. 7.14. Comment the results.

Figure 7.14: Shear ring connector

NB: Additional materials

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Structural Timber Design 2023 83
8. DESIGN OF TRUSSES AND TRUSSED BEAMS

Truss is a structural frame made by simple triangles (Fig. 8.1). A rigid structure composed of
member joined at their ends is called a plane truss. Trusses are normally referred to as two
dimension structural frame.
Force transmission mode is by simple tension and compression.

Fig.8.1: Basic triangle truss

8.1. FORCE ANALYSIS

• In the analysis of forces in a statically determinate plain truss, the following

assumptions may be used.
1) The weight of a member is negligible compared to the applied forces
2) The center line of members must be concurrent.

• There are two methods for the force analysis of simple truss and trussed beam.
i. Method of sections
ii. Method of joints

• Members or supports that are not necessary for maintaining the equilibrium of the
truss is called redundant member. Fig. 8.2
• Compression members are called struts and the tension member are called tie.

Fig. 8.2: Simple truss structure

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8.1.1. Method of Sections

The method of sections involves the application of the three equations of static equilibrium to
two – dimension plane frame. The sign convention adapted to indicate ties and struts in frames is
as shown in Fig 8.3.

Figure 8.3: Sign convention

The method involves considering an imaginary section line which cuts the truss under
consideration into two parts A and B. Fig. 8.4.
Since only three independent equations are available, any section taken through a frame must not
include more than three members for which their internal forces are unknown. Consideration of
the equilibrium of the resulting force system enables the magnitude and sense of the forces in the
cut members to be determined.

Figure 8.4: Section of a truss

8.1.2. Method of Joints

This is a particular case of the method of sections in which a series of sections are considered,
each isolating an individual joints (Fig. 8.5)

Structural Timber Design 2023 85

 Figure 6.5 Joints of a truss

Since all of the forces at a joint are coincident, the moment equation of equilibrium cannot be
used therefore only two unknown forces can be determined at any given section.

8.2. SECONDARY BENDING

The top and bottom chords of trusses are normally continuous member. The point of application
of loads, often do not coincide with the joint positions (Fig. 8.6), in such circumstances the
chords are subjected to combined axial and secondary bending effects. The magnitudes of the
axial loads are determined using standard pin-jointed frame analysis assuming a simple static
distribution of all the loads to adjacent nodes, Fig. 8.7.

Figure 8.6: Actual applied loading system

Structural Timber Design 2023 86

 Figure 8.7: Axial loads

Figure 8.8: Secondary bending moment

The secondary bending moment can be determined assuming the chord to be a multispan beam,
as shown in Fig. 8.8. In situations where the applied loads are due to numerous, closely spaced
members or continuous decking, it is convenient to consider the chord to be supporting a
uniformly distributed load Fig. 8.9.

Figure 8.9: Actual applied loading system

To determine the secondary bending moment, similar analysis can be carried out assuming a
continuous beam carrying a uniformly distributed load Fig. 8.10.

Structural Timber Design 2023 87

 Axial load Secondary bending moment
Figure 8.10: A top chord carrying a UDL

Example 8.1
A ping jointed truss pinned at A and a roller support at E carries three loads at nodes G, H and I,
Fig. 8.11. Determine the magnitude and sense of the induced forces in members X, Y and Z.

Figure 8.11

Solution
1. Method of Section
Evaluate support reactions
+ve :  Fx = 0 → H A = 0
;  Fy = 0 → VA + VE − 3 10 = 0
VA + VE = 30 kN

+ve :  M A = 0; 2 10 + 4 10 + 6 10 – 8  VE = 0

VE = ( 20 + 40 + 60 ) / 8 = 15kN
But VA + VE = 30 kN  VA = 30 – VE = 15 kN

OR Since the truss is symmetrical

VA = VE and 2VA = 2VE = 3 10
VA = VE = 15 kN
Select a section to consider

Structural Timber Design 2023 88

 Figure 8.12

Consider the left hand side.

Figure 8.13

Using the three equations of equilibrium

 Fy = 0

 Fx = 0
M = 0 +ve
Sinθ° = 1/  2 = 0.707
 Fy = 0 : 15 – 2 10 + FCI Sinθ° = 0  FCI = 7.07 kN (CI is a tie)
 M C = 0 : 15  4 –10  2 + 2 FHI = 0  FHI = −20 kN (HI is a strut)
 Fx = 0 : FHI + FCI cos  + FCD = 0
(CD is a tie)
− 20 + (7.07  0.707) + FHI = 0  FHI = 15 kN

2. Method of joints
In this method sections are taken which isolate each individual joint in the truss (frame). In our
example joints (modes) E, J, D and I are considered i.e. Fig. 8.

Structural Timber Design 2023 89

 Figure 8.13

Since in each case the forces are coincident, the moment equation shall not apply, thus only two
independent equations are available. It is also necessary to work in sequence such that there are
no more than two unknown member forces in the joint under consideration.
Consider joint E

Consider joint J

Consider joint D

Consider joint I

Structural Timber Design 2023 90

Comment
After analysis of member forces, normal design procedures can be used to determine the suitable
size of compression and tension members and the required connections.

Example 8.2
Given Fig 6.14, neglect self weight of truss.
(a) Calculate the forces in the members AB, BF and EF
(b) Determine the suitable size of member. AB and EF using podo 50%

Figure 8.14

Solution
(a) Determination of forces in members AB, BF and EF by method of sections.
Evaluation of support reactions
∑MA = 0 +ve
3 x 2 + 3 x 4 + 3 x 6 – RD x 6 = 0 RD = 6kN
∑Fx = 0
∑Fy = 0
RA + RD -3 x 4 = 0, RA + 6 -12 = 0
RA = 6kN
Step 2: Select suitable section

θ° = arc tan (3/6) = 26.565°, and Length of BF: By similarity of triangles.

BF BD BF 4
=  =  BF = 2 m
AG AD 3 6

Structural Timber Design 2023 91

  MF = 0 +ve
FAB  2 + 3  2 + 3  4 – 6  4 = 0  FAB = 3 kN (AB is a tie)

∑Fx = 0
− FAB – FEF Cosθ° = 0: − 3 – FEF Cos ( arctan3 / 6 ) = 0
FEF = −3.4 kN (EF is a strut)
 MD = 0 +ve

The forces 3 kN, FEF and FAB have no action at node D since their line of action
passes through node D, thus;
4  FBF – 3  2 = 0  FBF = 6 / 4 = 1.5 kN (BF is a tie)

(b) Determination of suitable section of members:

i. AB carrying 3.0kN tension force.
ii. EF carrying 3.35kN compression force
• Determine the actual length of the two members and assume service class two
conditions, load duration long-term and no load sharing.

Exercise 8.1
1. With reference to Fig.8.15, determine:
(a) Support reactions
(b) The magnitude and sense of forces in the members AI, AB, BC, BH, BG and HI.
(c) Design the suitable section of members HI, BC and BG.
(d) Design and detail joint A and B.

Figure 8.15
2. By using Fig. 8.16 select suitable cross-section of the top and bottom chords.

Structural Timber Design 2023 92

 Figure 8.16

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