DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

MODULE-II

Contents:
Entity relationship model, Components of ER model, Mapping E-R model to Relational schema,
Relational Algebra, Tuple & Domain Relational Calculus, Relational Query Languages: SQL and
QBE. Database Design:-Database development life cycle (DDLC), Automated design tools,
Functional dependency and Decomposition, Join strategies, Dependency Preservation & lossless
Design, Normalization, Normal forms:1NF, 2NF,3NF, and BCNF, Multi-valued Dependencies,
4NF & 5NF. Query processing and optimization: Evaluation of Relational Algebra Expressions,
Query optimization, Query cost estimation.

Introduction to E-R Model

E-R Model: The ER model defines the conceptual view of a database. It works around real-
world entities and the associations among them. At view level, the ER model is considered a
good option for designing databases.
The main components of E-R model are: Entity, Entity Type, Entity Set, Attributes,
Relationship Type and Relationship Set.
Entity: An Entity may be an object that can be used in database with a physical existence – a
particular person, car, house, or employee – or it may be an object with a conceptual
existence – a company, a job, or a university course.
In ER diagram, this can be represented in rectangle shape.
Entity Type: The collection of entities that have the same attributes is called entity type.
Entity Set: An entity set is a collection of similar types of entities. An entity set may contain
entities with attribute sharing similar values.
Example:
If a Student is an Entity, then the complete dataset of all the students will be the Entity Set.
An Entity is an object of Entity Type and set of all entities is called as entity set. e.g.; E1 is
an entity having Entity Type Student and set of all students is called Entity Set. In ER
diagram, Entity Type is represented as:

 The Entity which is having its own Primary Key is called Strong Entity
 The Entity which is not having its own Primary Key is called Weak Entity
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Strong Entity Weak Entity

Attributes: Attributes are the properties which define the entity type. For example,
Roll_No, Name, DOB, Age, Address, Mobile_No are the attributes which defines entity type
Student. In ER diagram, attribute is represented by an oval.

Types of attributes:

1. Key Attribute: The attribute which uniquely identifies each entity in the entity set is called
key attribute. For example, Roll_No will be unique for each student. In ER diagram, key
attribute is represented by an oval with underlying lines.

2. Composite Attribute: An attribute composed of many other attribute is called as

composite attribute. For example, Address attribute of student Entity type consists of Street,
City, State, and Country. In ER diagram, composite attribute is represented by an oval
comprising of ovals.

3. Multivalued Attribute: An attribute consisting more than one value for a given entity. For
example, Phone_No (can be more than one for a given student). In ER diagram, multivalued
attribute is represented by double oval.

4. Derived Attribute: An attribute which can be derived from other attributes of the entity
type is known as derived attribute. e.g.; Age (can be derived from DOB). In ER diagram,
derived attribute is represented by dashed oval.

5. Simple attribute: The attributes with values that are atomic and cannot be broken down
further are simple attributes.

The complete entity type Student with its attributes can be represented as:
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Relationships: When an Entity is related to another Entity, they are said to have a
relationship. For example, A Class Entity is related to Student entity, because students study
in classes, hence this is a relationship.

Relationship Type: A relationship type represents the association between entity types.
For example, ‘Enrolled in’ is a relationship type that exists between entity type Student and
Course.

In ER diagram, relationship type is represented by a diamond and connecting the entities

with lines.

Relationship Set: A set of relationships of same type is known as relationship set. The
following relationship set depicts S1 is enrolled in C2, S2 is enrolled in C1 and S3 is enrolled
in C3.

Degree of Relationship: The number of different entities sets participating in a relationship

defines the degree of the relationship.

1. Unary Relationship – When there is only ONE entity set participating in a relation, the
relationship is called as unary relationship. For example, one person is married to only one
person.
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2. Binary Relationship – When there are TWO entities set participating in a relation, the
relationship is called as binary relationship. For example, Student is enrolled in Course.

3. n-ary Relationship – When there are n entities set participating in a relation, the relationship
is called as n-ary relationship.

Cardinality: The number of times an entity of an entity set participates in a relationship set
is known as cardinality. Cardinality can be of different types:

1. One to one – When each entity in each entity set can take part only once in the relationship,
the cardinality is one to one. Let us assume that a male can marry to one female and a female
can marry to one male. So the relationship will be one to one.

Using Sets, it can be represented as:

2. Many to one – When entities in one entity set can take part only once in the relationship
set and entities in other entity set can take part more than once in the relationship set,
cardinality is many to one. Let us assume that a student can take only one course but one
course can be taken by many students. So the cardinality will be n to 1. It means that for one
course there can be n students but for one student, there will be only one course.

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Using Sets, it can be represented as:

In this case, each student is taking only 1 course but 1 course has been taken by many
students.

3. Many to many – When entities in all entity sets can take part more than once in the
relationship cardinality is many to many. Let us assume that a student can take more than
one course and one course can be taken by many students. So the relationship will be many
to many.

Using sets, it can be represented as:

In this example, student S1 is enrolled in C1 and C3 and Course C3 is enrolled by S1, S3 and
S4. So it is many to many relationships.

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Participation Constraint: Participation Constraint is applied on the entity participating in
the relationship set.

1. Total Participation – Each entity in the entity set must participate in the relationship. If
each student must enrol in a course, the participation of student will be total. Total
participation is shown by double line in ER diagram.
2. Partial Participation – The entity in the entity set may or may NOT participate in the
relationship. If some courses are not enrolled by any of the student, the participation of
course will be partial.

The diagram depicts the ‘Enrolled in’ relationship set with Student Entity set having total
participation and Course Entity set having partial participation.

Using set, it can be represented as,

Every student in Student Entity set is participating in relationship but there exists a course
C4 which is not taking part in the relationship.

Weak Entity Type and Identifying Relationship: As discussed before, an entity type has a
key attribute which uniquely identifies each entity in the entity set. But there exists some
entity type for which key attribute can’t be defined. These are called Weak Entity type.

For example, a company may store the information of dependants (Parents, Children, Spouse)
of an Employee. But the dependents don’t have existence without the employee. So
Dependent will be weak entity type and Employee will be Identifying Entity type for
Dependant.

A weak entity type is represented by a double rectangle. The participation of weak entity
type is always total. The relationship between weak entity type and its identifying strong
entity type is called identifying relationship and it is represented by double diamond.

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Symbols use ER- diagram:

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E-R Diagram for Hospital:

E-R Diagram for Car Insurance Company:

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E-R Diagram for University and marks Database:

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E-R diagram for student examination:

Relational Algebra:
Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It gives a step by step process to obtain
the result of the query. It uses operators to perform queries.
Types:

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[Link] Operation:

 The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.

 It is denoted by sigma (σ).

1. Notation: σ p(r)

Where:

σ is used for selection prediction

r is used for relation
p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors like: AND OR and NOT. These
relational can use as relational operators like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.

For example: LOAN Relation

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Downtown L-17 1000
Redwood L-23 2000
Perryride L-15 1500
Downtown L-14 1500
Mianus L-13 500
Roundhill L-11 900
Perryride L-16 1300

Input:

1. σ BRANCH_NAME="perryride" (LOAN)

Output:

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT

Perryride L-15 1500
Perryride L-16 1300

2. Project Operation:

 This operation shows the list of those attributes that we wish to appear in the result. Rest of the
attributes are eliminated from the table.
 It is denoted by ∏.

1. Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)

Where

A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of relation r.

Example: CUSTOMER RELATION

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NAME STREET CITY

Jones Main Harrison
Smith North Rye
Hays Main Harrison
Curry North Rye
Johnson Alma Brooklyn
Brooks Senator Brooklyn

Input:

1. ∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)

Output:

NAME CITY
Jones Harrison
Smith Rye
Hays Harrison
Curry Rye
Johnson Brooklyn
Brooks Brooklyn

3. Union Operation:

 Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The union operation contains all the tuples that are either in
R or S or both in R & S.
 It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted by ∪.

1. Notation: R ∪ S

A union operation must hold the following condition:

 R and S must have the attribute of the same number.

 Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.

Example:

DEPOSITOR RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO
Johnson A-101
Smith A-121
Mayes A-321
Turner A-176
Johnson A-273
Jones A-472
Lindsay A-284
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BORROW RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO
Jones L-17
Smith L-23
Hayes L-15
Jackson L-14
Curry L-93
Smith L-11
Williams L-17

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∪ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME
Johnson
Smith
Hayes
Turner
Jones
Lindsay
Jackson
Curry
Williams
Mayes

4. Set Intersection:

 Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation contains all tuples that are in
both R & S.
 It is denoted by intersection ∩.

1. Notation: R ∩ S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

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Smith
Jones

5. Set Difference:

 Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation contains all tuples that are in R
but not in S.
 It is denoted by intersection minus (-).

1. Notation: R - S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) - ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME
Jackson
Hayes
Willians
Curry

6. Cartesian product

 The Cartesian product is used to combine each row in one table with each row in the other table. It
is also known as a cross product.
 It is denoted by X.

1. Notation: E X D

Example:

EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT

1 Smith A
2 Harry C
3 John B

DEPARTMENT

DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME
A Marketing
B Sales

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C Legal

Input:

1. EMPLOYEE X DEPARTMENT

Output:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME

1 Smith A A Marketing
1 Smith A B Sales
1 Smith A C Legal
2 Harry C A Marketing
2 Harry C B Sales
2 Harry C C Legal
3 John B A Marketing
3 John B B Sales
3 John B C Legal

7. Rename Operation:

The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is denoted by rho (ρ).

Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT relation to STUDENT1.

1. ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)

Relational Calculus

 Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language. In the non-procedural query language, the user is
concerned with the details of how to obtain the end results.
 The relational calculus tells what to do but never explains how to do.

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Types of Relational calculus:

1. Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)

 The tuple relational calculus is specified to select the tuples in a relation. In TRC, filtering variable uses the
tuples of a relation.
 The result of the relation can have one or more tuples.

Notation:

1. {T | P (T)} or {T | Condition (T)}

Where

T is the resulting tuples

P(T) is the condition used to fetch T.

For example:

1. { [Link] | Author(T) AND [Link] = 'database' }

OUTPUT: This query selects the tuples from the AUTHOR relation. It returns a tuple with 'name' from
Author who has written an article on 'database'.

TRC (tuple relation calculus) can be quantified. In TRC, we can use Existential (∃) and Universal
Quantifiers (∀).

For example:

1. { R| ∃T ∈ Authors([Link]='database' AND [Link]=[Link])}

Output: This query will yield the same result as the previous one.

2. Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)

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 The second form of relation is known as Domain relational calculus. In domain relational calculus, filtering
variable uses the domain of attributes.
 Domain relational calculus uses the same operators as tuple calculus. It uses logical connectives ∧ (and), ∨
(or) and ┓ (not).
 It uses Existential (∃) and Universal Quantifiers (∀) to bind the variable.

Notation:

1. { a1, a2, a3, ..., an | P (a1, a2, a3, ... ,an)}

Where

a1, a2 are attributes

P stands for formula built by inner attributes

For example:

1. {< article, page, subject > | ∈ javatpoint ∧ subject = 'database'}

Output: This query will yield the article, page, and subject from the relational javatpoint, where the
subject is a database.

QBE (Query By Example): Stands for "Query By Example." QBE is a feature included with various
database applications that provides a user-friendly method of running database queries. Typically without
QBE, a user must write input commands using correct SQL (Structured Query Language) syntax. This is a
standard language that nearly all database programs support. However, if the syntax is slightly incorrect the
query may return the wrong results or may not run at all.

The Query By Example feature provides a simple interface for a user to enter queries. Instead of writing an
entire SQL command, the user can just fill in blanks or select items to define the query she wants to
perform. For example, a user may want to select an entry from a table called "Table1" with an ID of 123.
Using SQL, the user would need to input the command, "SELECT * FROM Table1 WHERE ID = 123".
The QBE interface may allow the user to just click on Table1, type in "123" in the ID field and click
"Search."

QBE is offered with most database programs, though the interface is often different between applications.
For example, Microsoft Access has a QBE interface known as "Query Design View" that is completely
graphical. The phpMyAdmin application used with MySQL, offers a Web-based interface where users can
select a query operator and fill in blanks with search terms. Whatever QBE implementation is provided
with a program, the purpose is the same – to make it easier to run database queries and to avoid the
frustrations of SQL errors.

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Database Development Life Cycle(DDLC):

Database development is just one part of the much wider field of software engineering, the process of
developing and maintaining software. A core aspect of software engineering is the subdivision of the
development process into a series of phases, or steps, each of which focuses on one aspect of the
development. The collection of these steps is sometimes referred to as a development life cycle.

 Establishing requirements involves consultation with, and agreement among, stakeholders as to

what they want of a system, expressed as a statement of requirements.
 Analysis starts by considering the statement of requirements and finishes by producing a system
specification. The specification is a formal representation of what a system should do, expressed in
terms that are independent of how it may be realised.
 Design begins with a system specification and produces design documents, and provides a detailed
description of how a system should be constructed.
 Implementation is the construction of a computer system according to a given design document
and taking account of the environment in which the system will be operating (for example specific
hardware or software available for the development). Implementation may be staged, usually with
an initial system than can be validated and tested before a final system is released for use.
 Testing compares the implemented system against the design documents and requirements
specification and produces an acceptance report or, more usually, a list of errors and bugs that
require a review of the analysis, design and implementation processes to correct (testing is usually
the task that leads to the waterfall model iterating through the life cycle).
 Maintenance involves dealing with changes in the requirements, or the implementation
environment, bug fixing or porting of the system to new environments (for example migrating a
system from a standalone PC to a UNIX workstation or a networked environment). Since
maintenance involves the analysis of the changes required, design of a solution, implementation
and testing of that solution over the lifetime of a maintained software system, the waterfall life
cycle will be repeatedly revisited.
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Automated Design Tools: There are different automated design tools they are

[Link]: this allows the designer to draw a conceptual schema diagram in some tool specific
notations.

[Link] Mapping: this implements mapping algorithms, this mapping is a system specific most tools
generated schemas in SQL DDL for Oracle.

[Link] Normalization: This utilizes a set of functional dependencies that are supplied at the conceptual
design.

[Link] off analysis: A tool should be present the designer with adequate analysis

[Link] of Design results: Design results such as schemas are often displayed in diagrammatic form.
Diagrams are not easy to generate automatically so we can slow the design in form the tables.

[Link] Verification: Its purpose is to verify that the resulting design satisfies the initial requirements.

Join Strategies:

A Join operation combines related tuples from different relations, if and only if a given join condition is
satisfied. It is denoted by ⋈.

Example:

EMPLOYEE

EMP_CODE EMP_NAME

101 Stephan

102 Jack

103 Harry

SALARY

EMP_CODE SALARY

101 50000

102 30000

103 25000

1. Operation: (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)

Result:

EMP_CODE EMP_NAME SALARY

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101 Stephan 50000

102 Jack 30000

103 Harry 25000

Types of Join operations:

1. Natural Join:

 A natural join is the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S that are equal on their common attribute
names.
 It is denoted by ⋈.

Example: Let's use the above EMPLOYEE table and SALARY table:

Input:

1. ∏EMP_NAME, SALARY (EMPLOYEE ⋈ SALARY)

Output:

EMP_NAME SALARY

Stephan 50000

Jack 30000

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Harry 25000

2. Outer Join:

The outer join operation is an extension of the join operation. It is used to deal with missing information.

Example:

EMPLOYEE

EMP_NAME STREET CITY

Ram Civil line Mumbai

Shyam Park street Kolkata

Ravi M.G. Street Delhi

Hari Nehru nagar Hyderabad

FACT_WORKERS

EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY

Ram Infosys 10000

Shyam Wipro 20000

Kuber HCL 30000

Hari TCS 50000

Input:

1. (EMPLOYEE ⋈ FACT_WORKERS)

Output:

EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY

Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000

Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000

Hari Nehru nagar Hyderabad TCS 50000

An outer join is basically of three types:

a. Left outer join

b. Right outer join
c. Full outer join
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a. Left outer join:

 Left outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S that are equal on their common
attribute names.
 In the left outer join, tuples in R have no matching tuples in S.
 It is denoted by ⟕.

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table

Input:

1. EMPLOYEE ⟕ FACT_WORKERS

EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY

Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000

Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000

Hari Nehru street Hyderabad TCS 50000

Ravi M.G. Street Delhi NULL NULL

b. Right outer join:

 Right outer join contains the set of tuples of all combinations in R and S that are equal on their common
attribute names.
 In right outer join, tuples in S have no matching tuples in R.
 It is denoted by ⟖.

Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS Relation

Input:

1. EMPLOYEE ⟖ FACT_WORKERS

Output:

EMP_NAME BRANCH SALARY STREET CITY

Ram Infosys 10000 Civil line Mumbai

Shyam Wipro 20000 Park street Kolkata

Hari TCS 50000 Nehru street Hyderabad

Kuber HCL 30000 NULL NULL

c. Full outer join:

 Full outer join is like a left or right join except that it contains all rows from both tables.
 In full outer join, tuples in R that have no matching tuples in S and tuples in S that have no matching tuples
in R in their common attribute name.
 It is denoted by ⟗.
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Example: Using the above EMPLOYEE table and FACT_WORKERS table

Input:

1. EMPLOYEE ⟗ FACT_WORKERS

Output:

EMP_NAME STREET CITY BRANCH SALARY

Ram Civil line Mumbai Infosys 10000

Shyam Park street Kolkata Wipro 20000

Hari Nehru street Hyderabad TCS 50000

Ravi M.G. Street Delhi NULL NULL

Kuber NULL NULL HCL 30000

3. Equi join:

It is also known as an inner join. It is the most common join. It is based on matched data as per the equality condition.
The equi join uses the comparison operator(=).

Example:

CUSTOMER RELATION

CLASS_ID NAME

1 John

2 Harry

3 Jackson

PRODUCT

PRODUCT_ID CITY

1 Delhi

2 Mumbai

3 Noida

Input:

1. CUSTOMER ⋈ PRODUCT

Output:

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CLASS_ID NAME PRODUCT_ID CITY

1 John 1 Delhi

2 Harry 2 Mumbai

3 Harry 3 Noida

Integrity Constraints

 Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of information.
 Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other processes have to be performed in
such a way that data integrity is not affected.
 Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database.

Types of Integrity Constraint

1. Domain constraints

 Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for an attribute.
 The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date, currency, etc. The value of the
attribute must be available in the corresponding domain.

Example:

2. Entity integrity constraints

 The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null.
 This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in relation and if the primary key
has a null value, then we can't identify those rows.
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 A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field.

Example:

3. Referential Integrity Constraints

 A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables.

 In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the Primary Key of Table 2, then
every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1 must be null or be available in Table 2.

Example:

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4. Key constraints

 Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity within its entity set uniquely.
 An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the primary key. A primary key can
contain a unique and null value in the relational table.

Example:

Functional Dependency

The functional dependency is a relationship that exists between two attributes. It typically exists between the primary
key and non-key attribute within a table.

1. X → Y

The left side of FD is known as a determinant; the right side of the production is known as a dependent.

For example:

Assume we have an employee table with attributes: Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Emp_Address.

Here Emp_Id attribute can uniquely identify the Emp_Name attribute of employee table because if we know the
Emp_Id, we can tell that employee name associated with it.

Functional dependency can be written as:

1. Emp_Id → Emp_Name

We can say that Emp_Name is functionally dependent on Emp_Id.

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Types of Functional dependency

1. Trivial functional dependency

 A → B has trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of A.

 The following dependencies are also trivial like: A → A, B → B

Example:

1. Consider a table with two columns Employee_Id and Employee_Name.

2. {Employee_id, Employee_Name} → Employee_Id is a trivial functional dependency as
3. Employee_Id is a subset of {Employee_Id, Employee_Name}.
4. Also, Employee_Id → Employee_Id and Employee_Name → Employee_Name are trivial dependencies t
oo.

2. Non-trivial functional dependency

 A → B has a non-trivial functional dependency if B is not a subset of A.

 When A intersection B is NULL, then A → B is called as complete non-trivial.

Example:

1. ID → Name,
2. Name → DOB

Inference Rule (IR):

 The Armstrong's axioms are the basic inference rule.

 Armstrong's axioms are used to conclude functional dependencies on a relational database.
 The inference rule is a type of assertion. It can apply to a set of FD(functional dependency) to derive other
FD.
 Using the inference rule, we can derive additional functional dependency from the initial set.

The Functional dependency has 6 types of inference rule:

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1. Reflexive Rule (IR1)

In the reflexive rule, if Y is a subset of X, then X determines Y.

1. If X ⊇ Y then X → Y

Example:

1. X = {a, b, c, d, e}
2. Y = {a, b, c}

2. Augmentation Rule (IR2)

The augmentation is also called as a partial dependency. In augmentation, if X determines Y, then XZ determines
YZ for any Z.

1. If X → Y then XZ → YZ

Example:

1. For R(ABCD), if A → B then AC → BC

3. Transitive Rule (IR3)

In the transitive rule, if X determines Y and Y determine Z, then X must also determine Z.

1. If X → Y and Y → Z then X → Z

4. Union Rule (IR4)

Union rule says, if X determines Y and X determines Z, then X must also determine Y and Z.

1. If X → Y and X → Z then X → YZ

Proof:

1. X → Y (given)
2. X → Z (given)
3. X → XY (using IR2 on 1 by augmentation with X. Where XX = X)
4. XY → YZ (using IR2 on 2 by augmentation with Y)
5. X → YZ (using IR3 on 3 and 4)
5. Decomposition Rule (IR5)

Decomposition rule is also known as project rule. It is the reverse of union rule.

This Rule says, if X determines Y and Z, then X determines Y and X determines Z separately.

1. If X → YZ then X → Y and X → Z

Proof:

1.X → YZ (given)
2. YZ → Y (using IR1 Rule)
3. X → Y (using IR3 on 1 and 2)
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6. Pseudo transitive Rule (IR6)

In Pseudo transitive Rule, if X determines Y and YZ determines W, then XZ determines W.

1. If X → Y and YZ → W then XZ → W

Proof:

1. X → Y (given)
2. WY → Z (given)
3. WX → WY (using IR2 on 1 by augmenting with W)
4. WX → Z (using IR3 on 3 and 2)

Normalization

 Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.

 Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of relations. It is also used to
eliminate the undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and Deletion Anomalies.
 Normalization divides the larger table into the smaller table and links them using relationship.
 The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

Types of Normal Forms

There are the four types of normal forms:

Normal
Description
Form

1NF A relation is in 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

A relation will be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the
2NF
primary key.

3NF A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no transition dependency exists.

4NF A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-valued dependency.

5NF A relation is in 5NF if it is in 4NF and not contains any join dependency and joining should be lossless.

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First Normal Form (1NF)

 A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

 It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. It must hold only single-valued
attribute.
 First normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute, composite attribute, and their combinations.

Example: Relation EMPLOYEE is not in 1NF because of multi-valued attribute EMP_PHONE.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

7272826385,
14 John UP
9064738238

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

7390372389,
12 Sam Punjab
8589830302

The decomposition of the EMPLOYEE table into 1NF has been shown below:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385 UP

14 John 9064738238 UP

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389 Punjab

12 Sam 8589830302 Punjab

Second Normal Form (2NF)

 In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.

 In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the primary key

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach. In a school, a
teacher can teach more than one subject.

TEACHER table

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE

25 Chemistry 30

25 Biology 30

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47 English 35

83 Math 38

83 Computer 38

In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on TEACHER_ID which is a proper
subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates the rule for 2NF.

To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:

TEACHER_DETAIL table:

TEACHER_ID TEACHER_AGE

25 30

47 35

83 38

TEACHER_SUBJECT table:

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT

25 Chemistry

25 Biology

47 English

83 Math

83 Computer

Third Normal Form (3NF)

 A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and not contain any transitive partial dependency.
 3NF is used to reduce the data duplication. It is also used to achieve the data integrity.
 If there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the relation must be in third
normal form.

A relation is in third normal form if it holds atleast one of the following conditions for every non-trivial
function dependency X → Y.

1. X is a super key.
2. Y is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate key.

Example:

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EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

222 Harry 201010 UP Noida

333 Stephan 02228 US Boston

444 Lan 60007 US Chicago

555 Katharine 06389 UK Norwich

666 John 462007 MP Bhopal

Super key in the table above:

1. {EMP_ID}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, EMP_ZIP}....so on

Candidate key: {EMP_ID}

Non-prime attributes: In the given table, all attributes except EMP_ID are non-prime.

Here, EMP_STATE & EMP_CITY dependent on EMP_ZIP and EMP_ZIP dependent on EMP_ID.
The non-prime attributes (EMP_STATE, EMP_CITY) transitively dependent on super
key(EMP_ID). It violates the rule of third normal form.

That's why we need to move the EMP_CITY and EMP_STATE to the new <EMPLOYEE_ZIP>
table, with EMP_ZIP as a Primary key.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP

222 Harry 201010

333 Stephan 02228

444 Lan 60007

555 Katharine 06389

666 John 462007

EMPLOYEE_ZIP table:

EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

201010 UP Noida

02228 US Boston

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60007 US Chicago

06389 UK Norwich

462007 MP Bhopal

Boyce Codd normal form (BCNF)

 BCNF is the advance version of 3NF. It is stricter than 3NF.

 A table is in BCNF if every functional dependency X → Y, X is the super key of the table.
 For BCNF, the table should be in 3NF, and for every FD, LHS is super key.

Example: Let's assume there is a company where employees work in more than one department.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_COUNTRY EMP_DEPT DEPT_TYPE EMP_DEPT_NO

264 India Designing D394 283

264 India Testing D394 300

364 UK Stores D283 232

364 UK Developing D283 549

In the above table Functional dependencies are as follows:

1. EMP_ID → EMP_COUNTRY
2. EMP_DEPT → {DEPT_TYPE, EMP_DEPT_NO}

Candidate key: {EMP-ID, EMP-DEPT}

The table is not in BCNF because neither EMP_DEPT nor EMP_ID alone are keys.

To convert the given table into BCNF, we decompose it into three tables:

EMP_COUNTRY table:

EMP_ID EMP_COUNTRY

264 India

264 India

EMP_DEPT table:

EMP_DEPT DEPT_TYPE EMP_DEPT_NO

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Designing D394 283

Testing D394 300

Stores D283 232

Developing D283 549

EMP_DEPT_MAPPING table:

EMP_ID EMP_DEPT

D394 283

D394 300

D283 232

D283 549

Functional dependencies:

1. EMP_ID → EMP_COUNTRY
2. EMP_DEPT → {DEPT_TYPE, EMP_DEPT_NO}

Candidate keys:

For the first table: EMP_ID

For the second table: EMP_DEPT
For the third table: {EMP_ID, EMP_DEPT}

Now, this is in BCNF because left side part of both the functional dependencies is a key.

Fourth normal form (4NF)

 A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-valued dependency.
 For a dependency A → B, if for a single value of A, multiple values of B exists, then the relation
will be a multi-valued dependency.

Example

STUDENT

STU_ID COURSE HOBBY

21 Computer Dancing

21 Math Singing

34 Chemistry Dancing

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74 Biology Cricket

59 Physics Hockey

The given STUDENT table is in 3NF, but the COURSE and HOBBY are two independent entity. Hence,
there is no relationship between COURSE and HOBBY.

In the STUDENT relation, a student with STU_ID, 21 contains two courses, Computer and Math and two
hobbies, Dancing and Singing. So there is a Multi-valued dependency on STU_ID, which leads to
unnecessary repetition of data.

So to make the above table into 4NF, we can decompose it into two tables:

STUDENT_COURSE

STU_ID COURSE

21 Computer

21 Math

34 Chemistry

74 Biology

59 Physics

STUDENT_HOBBY

STU_ID HOBBY

21 Dancing

21 Singing

34 Dancing

74 Cricket

59 Hockey

Fifth normal form (5NF)

 A relation is in 5NF if it is in 4NF and not contains any join dependency and joining should be lossless.
 5NF is satisfied when all the tables are broken into as many tables as possible in order to avoid redundancy.
 5NF is also known as Project-join normal form (PJ/NF).

Example

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SUBJECT LECTURER SEMESTER

Computer Anshika Semester 1

Computer John Semester 1

Math John Semester 1

Math Akash Semester 2

Chemistry Praveen Semester 1

In the above table, John takes both Computer and Math class for Semester 1 but he doesn't take Math class
for Semester 2. In this case, combination of all these fields required to identify a valid data.

Suppose we add a new Semester as Semester 3 but do not know about the subject and who will be taking
that subject so we leave Lecturer and Subject as NULL. But all three columns together acts as a primary
key, so we can't leave other two columns blank.

So to make the above table into 5NF, we can decompose it into three relations P1, P2 & P3:

P1

SEMESTER SUBJECT

Semester 1 Computer

Semester 1 Math

Semester 1 Chemistry

Semester 2 Math

P2

SUBJECT LECTURER

Computer Anshika

Computer John

Math John

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Math Akash

Chemistry Praveen

P3

SEMSTER LECTURER

Semester 1 Anshika

Semester 1 John

Semester 1 John

Semester 2 Akash

Semester 1 Praveen

Relational Decomposition

 When a relation in the relational model is not in appropriate normal form then the decomposition of
a relation is required.
 In a database, it breaks the table into multiple tables.
 If the relation has no proper decomposition, then it may lead to problems like loss of information.
 Decomposition is used to eliminate some of the problems of bad design like anomalies,
inconsistencies, and redundancy.

Types of Decomposition

Lossless Decomposition

 If the information is not lost from the relation that is decomposed, then the decomposition will be
lossless.
 The lossless decomposition guarantees that the join of relations will result in the same relation as it
was decomposed.
 The relation is said to be lossless decomposition if natural joins of all the decomposition give the
original relation.

Example:
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EMPLOYEE_DEPARTMENT table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME

22 Denim 28 Mumbai 827 Sales

33 Alina 25 Delhi 438 Marketing

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore 869 Finance

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai 575 Production

60 Jack 40 Noida 678 Testing

The above relation is decomposed into two relations EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY

22 Denim 28 Mumbai

33 Alina 25 Delhi

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai

60 Jack 40 Noida

DEPARTMENT table

DEPT_ID EMP_ID DEPT_NAME

827 22 Sales

438 33 Marketing

869 46 Finance

575 52 Production

678 60 Testing

Now, when these two relations are joined on the common column "EMP_ID", then the resultant relation
will look like:

Employee ⋈ Department

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME

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22 Denim 28 Mumbai 827 Sales

33 Alina 25 Delhi 438 Marketing

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore 869 Finance

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai 575 Production

60 Jack 40 Noida 678 Testing

Hence, the decomposition is Lossless join decomposition.

Dependency Preserving

 It is an important constraint of the database.

 In the dependency preservation, at least one decomposed table must satisfy every dependency.
 If a relation R is decomposed into relation R1 and R2, then the dependencies of R either must be a
part of R1 or R2 or must be derivable from the combination of functional dependencies of R1 and
R2.
 For example, suppose there is a relation R (A, B, C, D) with functional dependency set (A->BC).
The relational R is decomposed into R1(ABC) and R2(AD) which is dependency preserving
because FD A->BC is a part of relation R1(ABC).

Multivalued Dependency

 Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are independent of each other but,
both depend on a third attribute.
 A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that are dependent on a third attribute
that's why it always requires at least three attributes.

Example: Suppose there is a bike manufacturer company which produces two colors(white and black) of
each model every year.

BIKE_MODEL MANUF_YEAR COLOR

M2011 2008 White

M2001 2008 Black

M3001 2013 White

M3001 2013 Black

M4006 2017 White

M4006 2017 Black

Here columns COLOR and MANUF_YEAR are dependent on BIKE_MODEL and independent of each
other.

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In this case, these two columns can be called as multivalued dependent on BIKE_MODEL. The
representation of these dependencies is shown below:

1. BIKE_MODEL → → MANUF_YEAR
2. BIKE_MODEL → → COLOR

This can be read as "BIKE_MODEL multidetermined MANUF_YEAR" and "BIKE_MODEL

multidetermined COLOR".

Join Dependency

 Join decomposition is a further generalization of Multivalued dependencies.

 If the join of R1 and R2 over C is equal to relation R, then we can say that a join dependency (JD)
exists.
 Where R1 and R2 are the decompositions R1(A, B, C) and R2(C, D) of a given relations R (A, B, C,
D).
 Alternatively, R1 and R2 are a lossless decomposition of R.
 A JD ⋈ {R1, R2,..., Rn} is said to hold over a relation R if R1, R2,....., Rn is a lossless-join
decomposition.
 The *(A, B, C, D), (C, D) will be a JD of R if the join of join's attribute is equal to the relation R.
 Here, *(R1, R2, R3) is used to indicate that relation R1, R2, R3 and so on are a JD of R.

Query Processing and Optimization:

Query: A query is a request for information from a database.

Query Plans: A query plan (or query execution plan) is an ordered set of steps used to access data in a
SQL relational database management system.

Query Optimization: A single query can be executed through different algorithms or re-written in
different forms and structures. Hence, the question of query optimization comes into the picture – Which of
these forms or pathways is the most optimal? The query optimizer attempts to determine the most efficient
way to execute a given query by considering the possible query plans.

Importance: The goal of query optimization is to reduce the system resources required to fulfil a query,
and ultimately provide the user with the correct result set faster.

 Query optimization provides faster query processing.

 It requires less cost per query.
 It gives less stress to the database.
 It provides high performance of the system.
 It consumes less memory.

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Steps for Query Optimization

Query optimization involves three steps, namely query tree generation, plan generation, and query plan
code generation.

Step 1 − Query Tree Generation

A query tree is a tree data structure representing a relational algebra expression. The tables of the query are
represented as leaf nodes. The relational algebra operations are represented as the internal nodes. The root
represents the query as a whole.

During execution, an internal node is executed whenever its operand tables are available. The node is then
replaced by the result table. This process continues for all internal nodes until the root node is executed and
replaced by the result table.

For example, let us consider the following schemas −

EMPLOYEE

EmpID EName Salary DeptNo DateOfJoining

DEPARTMENT

DNo DName Location

Example 1

Let us consider the query as the following.

πEmpID(σEName="ArunKumar"(EMPLOYEE))
The corresponding query tree will be −

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Example 2

Let us consider another query involving a join.

πEName,Salary(σDName="Marketing"(DEPARTMENT))⋈DNo=DeptNo(EMPLOYEE)
Following is the query tree for the above query.

Step 2 − Query Plan Generation

After the query tree is generated, a query plan is made. A query plan is an extended query tree that includes
access paths for all operations in the query tree. Access paths specify how the relational operations in the
tree should be performed. For example, a selection operation can have an access path that gives details
about the use of B+ tree index for selection.

Besides, a query plan also states how the intermediate tables should be passed from one operator to the
next, how temporary tables should be used and how operations should be pipelined/combined.

Step 3− Code Generation

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Code generation is the final step in query optimization. It is the executable form of the query, whose form
depends upon the type of the underlying operating system. Once the query code is generated, the Execution
Manager runs it and produces the results.

Cost Estimation: The main of Query Optimization is to choose the most efficient way of implement the
relation algebra operations at the lowest cost.

Query Optimization should not dependent solely, but it should also estimate the cost of executing the
different strategies and find the strategies with minimum cost estimate.

The cost function is used in query optimization is estimates and but exact cost function

The cost of an operation is heavily dependent on its selectivity that is proportion of select operation that
forms output.

Different algorithms are suitable for low or high selectivity queries

Cost of algorithm is dependent on cardinality.

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