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MATHEMATICS
Class 10 — CBSE 2026-27

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NoteVix CBSE Class 10 Mathematics | Full Chapter Notes | 2026-27

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ch. Chapter Key Topics

Euclid's Division Lemma, HCF, LCM, Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic,

1 Real Numbers
Irrational Numbers

2 Polynomials Degree, Zeroes, Relationship between zeroes and coefficients, Division Algorithm

Pair of Linear Equations in Two

3 Graphical method, Substitution, Elimination, Cross-multiplication
Variables

Standard form, Factorisation, Completing the square, Quadratic formula,

4 Quadratic Equations
Discriminant

5 Arithmetic Progressions AP, First term, Common difference, nth term, Sum of n terms

Similar triangles, Basic Proportionality Theorem, Pythagoras Theorem, Criteria of

6 Triangles
similarity

7 Coordinate Geometry Distance formula, Section formula, Area of triangle, Midpoint formula

8 Introduction to Trigonometry Trigonometric ratios, Specific angles, Complementary angles, Identities

Some Applications of
9 Angle of elevation, Angle of depression, Heights and distances
Trigonometry

Tangent to circle, Number of tangents, Tangent-radius perpendicular, Tangent

10 Circles
lengths

11 Areas Related to Circles Area and perimeter of circle, Sector, Segment, Combinations

12 Surface Areas and Volumes Cuboid, Cylinder, Cone, Sphere, Hemisphere, Frustum, Combinations

13 Statistics Mean (3 methods), Median, Mode, Ogive, Cumulative frequency

14 Probability Classical probability, Complementary events, Cards, Coins, Dice

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Real Numbers
Ch.1 NoteVix
Euclid's Division Lemma | HCF | LCM | Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic | Irrational Numbers

1.1 Euclid's Division Lemma and Algorithm

Euclid's Division Lemma: For any two positive integers a and b, there exist unique integers q and r such that:

a = b x q + r, where 0 <= r < b

a = dividend, b = divisor, q = quotient, r = remainder

Euclid's Division Algorithm: A method to find HCF of two positive integers.

Step 1: Apply lemma to a and b. a = bq + r

Step 2: If r = 0, then HCF = b. If r > 0, apply lemma to b and r.

Step 3: Continue till remainder = 0. Last non-zero divisor = HCF.

Example: HCF(135, 225):

225 = 135 x 1 + 90 --> 135 = 90 x 1 + 45 --> 90 = 45 x 2 + 0

HCF = 45

1.2 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

Every composite number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and this factorisation is UNIQUE

(apart from the order in which the prime factors occur).

Example: 180 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 = 22 x 32 x 5 (unique factorisation)

HCF(a, b) = Product of smallest power of each common prime factor

LCM(a, b) = Product of greatest power of each prime factor

HCF(a, b) x LCM(a, b) = a x b (for two numbers)

Example: a = 12 = 22 x 3, b = 18 = 2 x 32

HCF = 21 x 31 = 6 | LCM = 22 x 32 = 36

Verify: HCF x LCM = 6 x 36 = 216 = 12 x 18 ✓

1.3 Irrational Numbers

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Irrational number: Cannot be expressed as p/q where p, q are integers and q > 0.

Decimal expansion is non-terminating and non-recurring.

Proof that root 2 is irrational (by contradiction):

Assume root 2 = p/q (in lowest terms, so HCF(p,q) = 1).

Squaring: 2 = p2/q2 --> 2q2 = p2 --> p2 is even --> p is even.

Write p = 2m. Then 2q2 = 4m2 --> q2 = 2m2 --> q is even.

But then HCF(p,q) >= 2, contradicting HCF = 1. So root 2 is irrational.

Similarly: root 3, root 5, root 7, root 11, root p (any prime) are all irrational.

Sum/product rules:

rational + irrational = irrational. rational x non-zero irrational = irrational.

1.4 Rational Numbers and Decimal Expansions

Terminating decimal: p/q where q = 2n x 5m (only prime factors 2 and 5).

Examples: 3/8 = 3/(23) = 0.375 (terminates). 7/25 = 7/52 = 0.28 (terminates).

Non-terminating recurring decimal: p/q where q has prime factors other than 2 or 5.

Examples: 1/3 = 0.333... (recurring). 1/7 = 0.142857... (recurring).

Note: Every rational number has either terminating or non-terminating recurring decimal expansion.

★ Euclid's Algorithm: a = bq+r. Keep applying till r=0. Last non-zero divisor = HCF.

★ HCF x LCM = a x b. Valid for two numbers only. Use this to find LCM from HCF quickly.

★ To test if p/q terminates: factorise q. If only 2s and 5s, it terminates.

★ Proof of irrationality: always use contradiction method (assume rational, show contradiction).

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Polynomials
Ch.2 Degree | Zeroes | Relationship Zeroes-Coefficients | Division Algorithm NoteVix

2.1 Types and Zeroes of Polynomials

Type Degree General Form Max zeroes

Linear 1 ax + b, a > 0 1

Quadratic 2 ax2 + bx + c, a > 0 2

3 2
Cubic 3 ax + bx + cx + d, a > 0 3

Zero of polynomial p(x): A value k such that p(k) = 0.

Geometrically: Zeroes of a polynomial = x-coordinates where its graph cuts the x-axis.

Linear graph: straight line, cuts x-axis at most once.

Quadratic graph: parabola, cuts x-axis at 0, 1, or 2 points.

Cubic graph: can cut x-axis at 1, 2, or 3 points.

2.2 Relationship Between Zeroes and Coefficients

For QUADRATIC ax2 + bx + c with zeroes alpha and beta:

Sum of zeroes: alpha + beta = -b / a

Product of zeroes: alpha x beta = c / a

For CUBIC ax3 + bx2 + cx + d with zeroes alpha, beta, gamma:

alpha + beta + gamma = -b / a

alpha*beta + beta*gamma + gamma*alpha = c / a

alpha * beta * gamma = -d / a

Forming polynomial from zeroes:

Quadratic with zeroes alpha and beta:

p(x) = x2 - (alpha + beta)x + (alpha x beta)

= x2 - (sum of zeroes)x + (product of zeroes)

Example: Zeroes are 2 and -3:

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2 2
p(x) = x - (2 + (-3))x + (2 x (-3)) = x + x - 6

2.3 Division Algorithm for Polynomials

Division Algorithm: For polynomials p(x) and g(x) where g(x) > 0:

p(x) = g(x) x q(x) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or degree(r) < degree(g)

p(x) = dividend, g(x) = divisor, q(x) = quotient, r(x) = remainder

Use: If one zero of a cubic is known, use it to divide and find remaining zeroes.

Example: If p(x) = 2x3 - 11x2 + 17x - 6 and one zero is 2:

Divide by (x - 2) to get quotient 2x2 - 7x + 3.

Factorise quotient: (2x - 1)(x - 3). Remaining zeroes: 1/2 and 3.

★ Sum of zeroes = -b/a. Product of zeroes = c/a. For quadratic ax2+bx+c.

★ For cubic: sum of zeroes = -b/a. Sum of products of pairs = c/a. Product = -d/a.

★ Form quadratic from zeroes: x2 - (sum)x + (product). Very frequently asked!

★ Division Algorithm: dividend = divisor x quotient + remainder. Degree(remainder) < degree(divisor).

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Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables

Ch.3 Graphical | Substitution | Elimination | Cross-multiplication NoteVix

3.1 Graphical Representation and Consistency

General form: a x + b y + c = 0 and a x + b y + c = 0

1 1 1 2 2 2

Condition Graph Type of System No. of Solutions

a1/a2 =/= b1/b2 Lines INTERSECT at one Consistent Exactly ONE solution
point (independent)

a1/a2 = b1/b2 = c1/c2 Lines are COINCIDENT (same Consistent (dependent) Infinitely MANY solutions
line)

a1/a2 = b1/b2 =/= c1/c2 Lines are PARALLEL (no Inconsistent NO solution
meeting)

3.2 Algebraic Methods

1. Substitution Method:

Step 1: From one equation, express one variable in terms of the other.

Step 2: Substitute into the second equation to get one variable.

Step 3: Back-substitute to find the other variable.

2. Elimination Method:

Step 1: Multiply equations to make coefficients of one variable equal.

Step 2: Add or subtract equations to eliminate that variable.

Step 3: Solve for remaining variable, back-substitute.

3. Cross-Multiplication Method:

For a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0:

x / (b1c2 - b2c1) = y / (c1a2 - c2a1) = 1 / (a1b2 - a2b1)

x = (b1c2 - b2c1) / (a1b2 - a2b1)

y = (c1a2 - c2a1) / (a1b2 - a2b1)

Valid when a1b2 - a2b1 =/= 0

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★ Intersecting lines: unique solution. Parallel lines: no solution. Coincident lines: infinite solutions.

★ Test: compare a1/a2 vs b1/b2. Equal? Then compare with c1/c2 — coincident or parallel.

★ Elimination: easiest method for most CBSE questions. Substitution: good when one variable is simple.

★ Word problems: frame 2 equations, solve. Read carefully — age, speed, coins, fractions etc.

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Quadratic Equations
Ch.4 Standard Form | Factorisation | Completing the Square | Discriminant | Nature ofNoteVix
Roots

4.1 Standard Form and Solution Methods

Standard form: ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real numbers and a > 0

Three methods to solve quadratic equations:

(1) Factorisation method

(2) Completing the square

(3) Quadratic formula (Sridharacharya formula)

QUADRATIC FORMULA (Sridharacharya formula):

x = [ -b +- root(b2 - 4ac) ] / (2a)

where D = b2 - 4ac is called the DISCRIMINANT

4.2 Nature of Roots — Discriminant

Discriminant (D = b2 - 4ac) Nature of Roots Graph of parabola

D>0 Two distinct real roots: x = (-b + root(D))/2a and x Parabola cuts x-axis at TWO
= (-b - root(D))/2a points

D=0 Two equal (repeated) real roots: x = -b / (2a) Parabola TOUCHES x-axis
at ONE point

D<0 No real roots (roots are complex/imaginary) Parabola does NOT touch
x-axis

4.3 Completing the Square — Method

Steps to complete the square for ax2 + bx + c = 0:

Step 1: Divide throughout by a (if a > 1): x2 + (b/a)x + c/a = 0

Step 2: Move constant to RHS: x2 + (b/a)x = -c/a

Step 3: Add (b/2a)2 to both sides: (x + b/2a)2 = (b2 - 4ac) / 4a2

Step 4: Take square root and solve for x.

Example: x2 - 4x - 5 = 0

x2 - 4x = 5 --> (x - 2)2 = 5 + 4 = 9 --> x - 2 = +3 or -3 --> x = 5 or x = -1

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★ D = b2 - 4ac. D>0: two real roots. D=0: equal roots. D<0: no real roots.

★ Equal roots condition: D = 0. Find k in such equations by setting b2 - 4ac = 0.

★ Quadratic formula: x = [-b +- root(b2-4ac)] / 2a. Works for ALL quadratics.

★ Factorisation: split middle term. Find two numbers whose sum=b and product=ac.

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Arithmetic Progressions
Ch.5 AP | First Term | Common Difference | nth Term | Sum of n Terms NoteVix

5.1 Definition and Key Concepts

Arithmetic Progression (AP): A sequence where each term after the first is obtained by adding a fixed number
(common difference d) to the previous term.

General form: a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, ... where a = first term, d = common difference

Examples:

2, 5, 8, 11, ... (a=2, d=3)

10, 7, 4, 1, ... (a=10, d=-3) — decreasing AP

5, 5, 5, 5, ... (a=5, d=0) — constant sequence

Common difference: d = a2 - a1 = a3 - a2 = any term minus previous term

5.2 Key Formulae

nth term of AP: an = a + (n - 1) x d

Sum of first n terms: Sn = n/2 x [2a + (n - 1)d]

Alternative formula for Sn (when last term l is known):

Sn = n/2 x (a + l) where l = an = last term

Relationship: an = Sn - Sn-1 (nth term = difference of consecutive sums)

Worked examples:

Find 15th term of AP: 2, 7, 12, 17, ...

a=2, d=5. a15 = 2 + (15-1) x 5 = 2 + 70 = 72

Find sum of first 20 terms of AP: 3, 8, 13, ...

a=3, d=5, n=20. S20 = 20/2 x [2(3) + (20-1) x 5] = 10 x [6 + 95] = 10 x 101 = 1010

If an = 3n + 2, is it an AP? a1=5, a2=8, a3=11. d=3 (constant). YES, it is an AP.

Three terms in AP: Take as a-d, a, a+d (sum = 3a). Makes algebra simpler.

Four terms in AP: Take as a-3d, a-d, a+d, a+3d (sum = 4a).

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★ nth term: a_n = a + (n-1)d. Sum: S_n = n/2 x [2a + (n-1)d]. Learn both perfectly.

★ If last term l is known: S_n = n/2 x (a+l). Much faster when last term given.

★ Three terms in AP: assume (a-d), a, (a+d). Their sum = 3a. Simplifies equations!

★ a_n = S_n - S_(n-1). If S_n given, find a_n using this formula.

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Triangles
Ch.6 Similar Triangles | BPT | Criteria of Similarity | Pythagoras Theorem | Areas NoteVix

6.1 Similar Figures and Triangles

Similar figures: Same shape but not necessarily same size.

All corresponding angles equal AND all corresponding sides proportional.

Congruent figures: Same shape AND same size (a special case of similarity where ratio = 1).

Two triangles are similar if:

(i) Corresponding angles are equal, AND

(ii) Corresponding sides are proportional (in same ratio).

6.2 Basic Proportionality Theorem (Thales' Theorem)

BPT (Thales' Theorem): If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle, it divides the other two sides
proportionally.

If DE || BC in triangle ABC, then: AD/DB = AE/EC

Converse of BPT: If a line divides two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, it is parallel to the third side.

6.3 Criteria of Similarity

Criterion Condition What to check

AA (Angle-Angle) If two angles of one triangle = two angles of the Most useful — if 2 angles match, triangles are
other similar

SAS (Side-Angle- If one angle is equal and the sides including it are One angle equal + ratio of including sides
Side) proportional equal

SSS All three sides are proportional All three ratios equal: a1/a2 = b1/b2 = c1/c2
(Side-Side-Side)

6.4 Areas and Pythagoras Theorem

Ratio of areas of similar triangles = Square of ratio of corresponding sides

Area(triangle 1) / Area(triangle 2) = (side1/side2)2

PYTHAGORAS THEOREM:

In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse = sum of squares of the other two sides

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BC2 = AB2 + AC2 (right angle at A)

CONVERSE OF PYTHAGORAS THEOREM:

If BC2 = AB2 + AC2, then angle A = 90 degrees

★ AA criterion: most commonly used. If two angles match, all three match (angle sum = 180).

★ Ratio of areas = square of ratio of sides. Remember: SQUARE of the ratio, not the ratio itself.

★ BPT: DE || BC means AD/DB = AE/EC. Also means AD/AB = AE/AC = DE/BC.

★ Pythagoras: only for right-angled triangles. Converse: if a²+b²=c², then angle is 90 degrees.

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Coordinate Geometry
Ch.7 Distance Formula | Section Formula | Midpoint | Area of Triangle NoteVix

7.1 Key Formulae

DISTANCE FORMULA:

Distance between points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2):

d = root[ (x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 ]

Distance from origin: d = root(x2 + y2)

SECTION FORMULA (internal division):

Point dividing (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) in ratio m:n (internally):

x = (mx2 + nx1) / (m + n)

y = (my2 + ny1) / (m + n)

MIDPOINT FORMULA (section formula with m=n=1):

Midpoint of (x1,y1) and (x2,y2):

M = ( (x1+x2)/2 , (y1+y2)/2 )

AREA OF TRIANGLE with vertices (x1,y1), (x2,y2), (x3,y3):

Area = (1/2) x |x1(y2-y3) + x2(y3-y1) + x3(y1-y2)|

If Area = 0, the three points are COLLINEAR.

Centroid of triangle: G = ( (x1+x2+x3)/3 , (y1+y2+y3)/3 )

Point on x-axis: (x, 0). Point on y-axis: (0, y).

To prove a quadrilateral: Find all 4 sides and both diagonals using distance formula.

Parallelogram: opposite sides equal. Rectangle: opposite sides equal + diagonals equal.

Rhombus: all sides equal + diagonals NOT equal. Square: all sides equal + diagonals equal.

★ Distance formula: root[(x2-x1)^2 + (y2-y1)^2]. Most important formula in this chapter.

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★ Section formula: ( (mx2+nx1)/(m+n) , (my2+ny1)/(m+n) ). Don't mix up m and n!

★ Area of triangle = 0 means the 3 points are collinear. Use this condition to find unknowns.

★ Midpoint = section formula with ratio 1:1.

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Introduction to Trigonometry
Ch.8 Trig Ratios | Specific Angles | Complementary Angles | Identities NoteVix

8.1 Trigonometric Ratios

For a right-angled triangle with acute angle theta:

Opposite (O) = side opposite to theta

Adjacent (A) = side adjacent to theta (not hypotenuse)

Hypotenuse (H) = side opposite to right angle

sin(theta) = O/H = Opposite / Hypotenuse

cos(theta) = A/H = Adjacent / Hypotenuse

tan(theta) = O/A = Opposite / Adjacent = sin(theta) / cos(theta)

cosec(theta) = 1 / sin(theta) = H/O

sec(theta) = 1 / cos(theta) = H/A

cot(theta) = 1 / tan(theta) = A/O = cos(theta) / sin(theta)

Memory aid: SOH-CAH-TOA

sin = Opposite/Hypotenuse, cos = Adjacent/Hypotenuse, tan = Opposite/Adjacent

8.2 Values at Standard Angles

Angle 0 deg 30 deg 45 deg 60 deg 90 deg

sin 0 1/2 1/root(2) root(3)/2 1

cos 1 root(3)/2 1/root(2) 1/2 0

tan 0 1/root(3) 1 root(3) Not defined

cosec Not defined 2 root(2) 2/root(3) 1

sec 1 2/root(3) root(2) 2 Not defined

cot Not defined root(3) 1 1/root(3) 0

8.3 Complementary Angles and Identities

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COMPLEMENTARY ANGLE RELATIONSHIPS (A + B = 90 deg):

sin(90-theta) = cos(theta) cos(90-theta) = sin(theta)

tan(90-theta) = cot(theta) cot(90-theta) = tan(theta)

sec(90-theta) = cosec(theta) cosec(90-theta) = sec(theta)

FUNDAMENTAL TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES:

sin2(theta) + cos2(theta) = 1

1 + tan2(theta) = sec2(theta)

1 + cot2(theta) = cosec2(theta)

Derived forms:

sin2(theta) = 1 - cos2(theta) | cos2(theta) = 1 - sin2(theta)

sec2(theta) - tan2(theta) = 1 | cosec2(theta) - cot2(theta) = 1

★ SOH-CAH-TOA: sin=O/H, cos=A/H, tan=O/A. Memorise this for all ratios.

★ sin30=1/2, cos30=root3/2. sin45=cos45=1/root2. sin60=root3/2, cos60=1/2.

★ Three identities: sin²+cos²=1, 1+tan²=sec², 1+cot²=cosec². Learn ALL three!

★ Complementary: sin(90-theta)=cos(theta). Used to simplify expressions like sin47/cos43.

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Some Applications of Trigonometry

Ch.9 Angle of Elevation | Angle of Depression | Heights and Distances NoteVix

Angle of elevation: Angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when looking UP at an object.

The observer looks upward. Object is above the horizontal.

Angle of depression: Angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when looking DOWN.

The observer looks downward. Object is below the horizontal.

Key fact: Angle of elevation from A to B = Angle of depression from B to A (alternate angles).

Method to solve problems:

Step 1: Draw a clear diagram labelling all given and unknown values.

Step 2: Identify the right triangle formed.

Step 3: Apply appropriate trig ratio (SOH-CAH-TOA).

Step 4: Solve the equation.

Common setups:

tan(theta) = height / horizontal distance (most common)

sin(theta) = height / slant distance

cos(theta) = horizontal / slant distance

Common values to use:

tan 30 deg = 1/root(3) | tan 45 deg = 1 | tan 60 deg = root(3)

If two angles given from same horizontal: two equations, two unknowns

Important problem types:

Type 1: Height of tower/pole from ground level given angle of elevation.

Type 2: Two observers on ground seeing the same object at different angles.

Type 3: Observer on top of a building seeing objects below (angle of depression).

Type 4: Bird/plane spotted from two points — find speed or height.

Key tip: Use root(3) = 1.732 and 1/root(3) = 0.577 when numerical answer required.

If shadow problems: sun's angle = angle of elevation. Shadow length = horizontal distance.

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★ Angle of elevation: looking UP (object above you). Angle of depression: looking DOWN.

★ Elevation from A to B = Depression from B to A (alternate interior angles — draw to see).

★ Always draw the figure first. Label theta, height h, base d. Then write tan(theta) = h/d.

★ tan 45 = 1 means height = base distance. Very common answer!

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Circles
Ch.10 NoteVix
Tangent | Number of Tangents | Tangent-Radius Perpendicular | Tangent Lengths

10.1 Key Definitions and Theorems

Tangent to a circle: A line that touches the circle at exactly ONE point.

The point where tangent touches circle = point of tangency / point of contact.

Secant: A line that intersects the circle at TWO points.

Number of tangents from an external point: Exactly TWO tangents can be drawn from any external point.

Number of tangents from a point ON the circle: Exactly ONE (the tangent at that point).

Number of tangents from a point INSIDE the circle: ZERO (no tangent possible).

10.2 Important Theorems

THEOREM 1: The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point of contact.

If OT is radius and PT is tangent at T, then OT is perpendicular to PT.

angle OTP = 90 degrees

THEOREM 2: The lengths of tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.

If PA and PB are two tangents from external point P to a circle with centre O:

PA = PB (tangent lengths are equal)

Proof of Theorem 2 (tangent lengths equal):

OA perpendicular to PA and OB perpendicular to PB (by Theorem 1).

In triangles OAP and OBP:

OA = OB (radii), OP = OP (common), angle OAP = angle OBP = 90 degrees

By RHS congruence: triangle OAP = triangle OBP

Therefore PA = PB (CPCT)

Important results:

If two tangents from P subtend angle theta at centre, angle between tangents = 180 - theta

OP bisects angle between tangents AND angle between radii.

angle OPA = angle OPB (tangent from external point bisects the angle at P)

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★ Tangent perpendicular to radius at point of contact. angle(radius-tangent) = 90 degrees always.

★ Two tangents from external point: PA = PB (equal length). Very frequently used!

★ Right angle at tangent-radius: use Pythagoras. OP2 = OA2 + PA2.

★ In circle problems: always look for right angles (tangent-radius), equal lengths (two tangents from same
point).

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Areas Related to Circles

Ch.11 Circle Area | Sector | Segment | Perimeter | Combinations NoteVix

11.1 Key Formulae

CIRCLE: radius r

Area = pi x r2

Circumference = 2 x pi x r = pi x d (d = diameter)

SECTOR: angle theta degrees at centre, radius r

Area of sector = (theta / 360) x pi x r2

Length of arc = (theta / 360) x 2 x pi x r

Perimeter of sector = 2r + arc length

MINOR SEGMENT (between chord and arc):

Area of minor segment = Area of sector - Area of triangle

Area of triangle OAB (for sector with angle theta) = (1/2) x r2 x sin(theta)

MAJOR SEGMENT: Area of circle - Area of minor segment

Use pi = 22/7 unless told to use 3.14

Areas of common sectors:

Semicircle (theta=180): Area = (1/2) x pi x r2

Quadrant (theta=90): Area = (1/4) x pi x r2

Combination problems: Add or subtract areas of circles/sectors/triangles/rectangles.

Draw clear figure, identify each region, add or subtract areas.

Perimeter of region: Sum of all boundary lengths (arcs + straight lines).

Don't forget to include straight edges in perimeter!

★ Sector area = (theta/360) x pi x r2. Arc length = (theta/360) x 2 x pi x r.

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★ Segment = Sector MINUS Triangle. Minor segment (small region near chord).

★ For 60-degree sector with equal sides: triangle is equilateral. Area = (root3/4) x r2.

★ Always use pi = 22/7 unless the problem specifies 3.14.

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Surface Areas and Volumes

Ch.12 All Formulae | Combinations of Solids | Frustum | Conversions NoteVix

12.1 All Surface Area and Volume Formulae

Solid Curved/Lateral SA Total SA Volume

Cuboid (l,b,h) 2h(l+b) 2(lb+bh+hl) lbh

Cube (side a) 4a2 6a2 a3

2
Cylinder (r,h) 2 x pi x r x h 2 x pi x r x (r+h) pi x r x h
2
Cone (r,l,h) pi x r x l pi x r x (r+l) (1/3) x pi x r x h
2 2 3
Sphere (r) 4 x pi x r 4 x pi x r (4/3) x pi x r
2 2 3
Hemisphere (r) 2 x pi x r 3 x pi x r (2/3) x pi x r

Slant height of cone: l = root( r2 + h2 )

FRUSTUM of a cone (truncated cone with top radius r1, bottom radius r2, slant height l):

Slant height: l = root[ h2 + (r1 - r2)2 ]

Curved SA: pi x (r1 + r2) x l

Total SA: pi x (r1 + r2) x l + pi x r12 + pi x r22

Volume: (1/3) x pi x h x (r12 + r22 + r1 x r2)

Unit conversions:

1 litre = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL

1 m3 = 106 cm3 = 1000 litres

Conversion of solids (melting and recasting):

Volume of original solid = Volume of new solid (volume is conserved)

Example: sphere melted to form cylinder: (4/3)pi r3 = pi R2 H

Combination of solids: Total SA = sum of visible surfaces only (NOT buried surfaces).

Total Volume = sum of volumes of all parts.

★ Cone: (1/3)pi r2h. Sphere: (4/3)pi r3. Hemisphere: (2/3)pi r3.

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★ Hemisphere TSA = 3pi r2 (curved 2pi r2 + flat base pi r2). NOT 2pi r2!

★ Frustum: both radii needed. Slant l = root[h2+(r1-r2)2].

★ Conversion: volume conserved. Sphere melted to cylinders: (4/3)pi r3 = n x pi R2H.

★ 1 litre = 1000 cm3. Tank problems always use this conversion!

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NoteVix CBSE Class 10 Mathematics | Full Chapter Notes | 2026-27

Statistics
Ch.13 Mean (3 Methods) | Median | Mode | Cumulative Frequency | Ogive NoteVix

13.1 Mean of Grouped Data

METHOD 1 — Direct Method:

Mean = (Sum of fi xi) / (Sum of fi) where xi = class mark

METHOD 2 — Assumed Mean Method:

Mean = a + (Sum of fidi) / (Sum of fi) where di = xi - a (a = assumed mean)

METHOD 3 — Step Deviation Method:

Mean = a + [ (Sum of fiui) / (Sum of fi) ] x h

where ui = (xi - a) / h and h = class width

Class mark (midpoint): xi = (lower limit + upper limit) / 2

13.2 Median and Mode

MEDIAN of grouped data:

Median = l + [ (n/2 - cf) / f ] x h

where: l = lower class boundary of median class

n = total frequency (sum of all f)

cf = cumulative frequency of class BEFORE median class

f = frequency of median class

h = class width

Median class: the class in which the (n/2)th observation lies

MODE of grouped data:

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Mode = l + [ (f1 - f0) / (2f1 - f0 - f2) ] x h

where: l = lower boundary of modal class

f1 = frequency of modal class (class with highest frequency)

f0 = frequency of class BEFORE modal class

f2 = frequency of class AFTER modal class

h = class width

EMPIRICAL RELATION: Mode = 3 x Median - 2 x Mean

Cumulative frequency table: Running total of frequencies.

Ogive (cumulative frequency curve):

Less than ogive: plot (upper class boundary, cumulative frequency).

More than ogive: plot (lower class boundary, cumulative frequency from bottom).

Finding median from ogive: Draw perpendicular from n/2 on y-axis to curve, then to x-axis.

★ Mean: direct (f*x), assumed mean (a + fd/f), step deviation (a + fu*h/f). Step deviation is fastest!

★ Median formula: l + [(n/2 - cf)/f] x h. Find median class first (where n/2th value lies).

★ Mode formula: l + [(f1-f0)/(2f1-f0-f2)] x h. Modal class = class with HIGHEST frequency.

★ Empirical: Mode = 3Median - 2Mean. Use to find one if other two are given.

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NoteVix CBSE Class 10 Mathematics | Full Chapter Notes | 2026-27

Probability
Ch.14 Classical Probability | Complementary Events | Cards | Coins | Dice NoteVix

14.1 Probability — Definition and Formulae

CLASSICAL PROBABILITY:

P(E) = Number of favourable outcomes / Total number of equally likely outcomes

Range: 0 <= P(E) <= 1

P(sure/certain event) = 1

P(impossible event) = 0

COMPLEMENTARY EVENTS:

P(E) + P(not E) = 1

P(not E) = 1 - P(E)

P(E) and P(not E) are complementary events

14.2 Standard Sample Spaces

Experiment Sample Space Total Key Probabilities

Outcomes

Toss 1 coin {H, T} 2 P(H) = P(T) = 1/2

Toss 2 coins {HH, HT, TH, TT} 4 P(2H)=1/4, P(exactly 1H)=2/4=1/2, P(0H)=1/4

Toss 3 coins 8 outcomes 8 P(3H)=1/8, P(exactly 2H)=3/8

Roll 1 die {1,2,3,4,5,6} 6 P(any)=1/6. P(even)=3/6=1/2. P(prime: 2,3,5)=3/6=1/2

Deck of cards 52 cards 52 4 suits x 13 each. Face cards=12. Aces=4. Red=26.

Black=26.

Playing cards — important facts:

52 cards total. 4 suits: Spades, Hearts, Diamonds, Clubs.

Each suit: Ace, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King = 13 cards.

Red suits: Hearts + Diamonds = 26 cards.

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Black suits: Spades + Clubs = 26 cards.

Face cards (picture cards): Jack, Queen, King = 3 per suit = 12 total.

Number cards: Ace + 2 through 10 = 10 per suit = 40 total.

Aces = 4. Kings = 4. Queens = 4. Jacks = 4.

Important probability fractions:

P(ace from 52) = 4/52 = 1/13

P(red card) = 26/52 = 1/2

P(face card) = 12/52 = 3/13

P(king of red) = 2/52 = 1/26

★ P(E) = favourable/total. Always between 0 and 1. P(E) + P(not E) = 1.

★ Deck of 52: 4 suits x 13 = 52. Face cards = 12 (3 per suit). Aces = 4. Red = 26.

★ P(at least one): use complement. P(at least one H in 2 tosses) = 1 - P(no H) = 1 - 1/4 = 3/4.

★ Class 10 probability is THEORETICAL (equally likely outcomes). NOT experimental.

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