CIVL 255: SURVEYING I
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Learning objectives and outcomes
Objectives
• To introduce students to the various distance
measurements in engineering surveying.
• To provide students with knowledge of sources of errors
during distance measurements.
Outcomes
• Students should be able to identify the different distance
measurement in engineering surveying.
• Students should be able to identify sources or errors and
how to correct them during measurement procedures
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Introduction
• Surveying is the art of measuring distances, angles and
positions on or near the surface of the earth.
• The two types of surveying are:
• Plane surveying: Earth surface is considered a plane of x-y
dimensions. Z-dimension (height) referenced to the mass
spherical surface of the earth (MSL). Most engineering and
property survey are plane survey correction to curvature is
made for long strips (Higher).
• Geodetic Surveying: Earth surface is considered spherical in
resolution (actually ellipsoid) x-y. for Z is referenced to MSL
(surface of earth). Very precise surveys (boundaries and
coastal networks).
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Introduction
• Three types of distances that are used in engineering
surveying:
• Slope distance
• Horizontal distance
• Vertical distance
• Horizontal and vertical distances are used in survey drawings,
setting out plans and engineering design work.
• Slope distances and vertical distances are used when setting
out design points on construction sites.
• Distances can be measured and set out directly or indirectly
on the field.
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Introduction
• Horizontal and slope distances can be measured by
using fiberglass, steel tape or EDM (electronic distance
measuring) + difference in elevation and slope distance.
• Vertical distance can be measured by using tape as in
construction work or level and leveling rod
Steel tape Theodolite Total station Level ( stadia
GPS
principle )
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Direct Distance Measurement
• This is carried out with tapes and usually involves laying
the tape on the surface of the ground.
• When measuring over very steep or undulating ground,
the tape may be held horizontally and this technique is
known as stepping.
• It may also be necessary to occasionally suspend a tape
between two supports in catenary (sag).
• Height difference is obtained by allowing a tape to hang
freely with a weight attached to its free end, as it is done
when transferring a height from floor to floor in a multi –
storey building.
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Direct Distance Measurement…
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Steel tapes (Taping or chainage)
• Chainage is applied to measurement
with a steel tape or synthetic tape
(plastic or fiberglass).
All standard in lengths
• 100 m, 50m, 30 m, 20 m.
• It is fairly quick, easy and cheap, and
hence is the most common form of
distance measurement.
• Chainage is prone to errors and
mistakes.
• For high accuracy, steel tape should be
used which is graduated in mm and
calibrated under standard temp (20
degree) and tension (5kg).
• Be careful, break easily.
• Synthetic tape is more flexible
graduated in 10mm
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Some Taping instruments
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Taping Procedures
• Ranging rods set up between points A and B
• From A to B, set zero of tape at A
• Tape unwound towards B
• A third range rod is “ranged” in at C
• Tape straightened, held tight and read at rod C
• C marked with a pin for next bay, tape moved from A and zero set at C and so
on.
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Taping procedures…
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Taping procedures…
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Taping procedures…
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Taping procedures (examples)
a.
b.
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Taping procedures (examples)…
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Taping corrections
• Once a line is being measured, it is necessary to convert
the measured length into a horizontal length. Series
corrections have to be applied. Five possible corrections
have to be considered.
These are:
• Erroneous Tape Length
• Slope
• Tension
• Temperature
• Sag
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Taping correction…
• For synthetic tapes, only Erroneous Tape Length and slope
corrections will be applied.
• The best accuracy that can be achieved is in the order of
1:1000.
• When using steel tapes, if only Erroneous Tape Length and
slope corrections are considered, the best possible
accuracy that can be obtained is in the range 1:5000, if
tension and temperature are added into consideration,
accuracy can be increased to better than 1:10000 ~ 1:
20000.
• Sag only applies if tape is supported only at ends
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Erroneous Tape Length
• Tape has a nominal length under certain conditions, a
tape stretches with time.
• Standardisation needs to be carried out frequently by
using reference tape or baseline.
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Erroneous Tape Length…
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Slope correction
• All plan distances are always quoted as horizontal
distances L, therefore any distance not measured on the
horizontal will need to be corrected for slope. Slope
correction must ALWAYS be considered, and either
eliminated in the field or mathematically compensated.
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Tension correction
• A tape has a given length when pulled with a certain
tension. If the tension changes then so does the
tape length.
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Temperature correction
• Most materials expand and contract with
temperature change, and this effects taped
distances. If a tape has stretched due to heat it will
read shorter than it would at its normal (or standard)
temperature.
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Sag correction
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Combined errors
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Indirect Distance Measurement
• These are grouped into two:
• Optical Distance Measurement (Stadia Tacheometry)
• Electronic Distance Measurement (Total Stations)
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Optical
1. Stadia
2. Sub Tense Bar
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Stadia Tacheometry
• In stadia tacheometry, a levelling staff is held vertically at one
end of the line being measured and a level or theodolite is set
up above the other.
• The staff is read using the stadia lines engraved on the
telescope diaphragm.
• The vertical angle along the line of sight is also recorded.
Vertical angels are read on one face only.
• If a level is used the line of sight will be horizontal assuming
that the level has no collimation error.
• If a theodolite is used the line of sight can be either horizontal
or inclined
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Stadia Tacheometry…
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Tacheometric calculations
• Horizontal distance PX=D=K s 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
1
• Vertical distance V= Ks sin 2𝜃 + C sin 𝜃 .
2
• Reduced level of X= RLX = RLp + hi + V- m
where
K= the multiplying constant of the instrument, usually 100
C= the additive constant of the instrument, usually 0
s = the staff intercept, that is the difference between the two
stadia readings
𝜃 = the vertical angle along the line of sight
hi = the height of the trunnion axis above point P
m =the middle staff reading
+v =used if there is an angle of elevation
-v= used if there is an angle of depression
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Worked examples: Use of stadia Tacheometry
Formulae
A 1’’ reading theodolite having a multiplying constant of 100
and an additive constant of 0 was centred and levelled a
height of 1.48m above a point C of reduced level 46.87
A levelling staff was held vertically at points D and L in turn
and the readings shown in the table below were taken
Calculate (i)the reduced levels of points D and L
(ii) the horizontal length of DL
Staff Staff Readings (m) Vertical circle readings Horizontal circle readings
D 3.240, 3.047, 2.853 87o 38’ 53’’ 56o 49’ 31’’
L 2.458, 2.230, 2.002 92o 21’ 36’’ 98o 07’ 18’’
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Accuracy and sources of Error in Stadia
Tacheometry
• The accuracy of basic stadia tacheometry
depends on two categories of error
• Instrumental errors
• Field errors
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Application of Stadia tacheometry
• Vertical staff tacheometry is ideally suited for detail
survey by radiation techniques.
• Since the best possible accuracy obtainable is only
1 in 1000, the method is best restricted to the
production of contoured site plans and should not
be used to measure distances where precisions
better than this is required.
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EDM
• EDM is very useful in measuring distances that are
difficult to access or long distances.
• It measures the time required for a wave to be sent
to a target and reflect back.
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EDM…
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EDM…
• Electronic distance measurement in general is a term used as a
method for distance measurement by electronic means.
• In this method instruments are used to measure distance that rely on
propagation, reflection and reception of electromagnetic waves like
radio, visible light or infrared waves.
• Sun light or artificially generated electromagnetic wave consists of
waves of different lengths. The spectrum of an electromagnetic wave
is as shown below:
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EDM…
• Among these waves microwaves, infrared waves and visible
light waves are useful for the distance measurement. In EDM
instruments these waves are generated, modulated and then
propagated. They are reflected at the point up to which
distance is to be measured from the instrument station and
again received by the instrument.
• The time taken by the wave to travel this 2x distance may be
measured and knowing the velocity of wave, the distance may
be calculated. However time is too short, measuring the time
taken is difficult.
• The improved techniques use phase difference method in
which the number of completed wave and incomplete wave is
measured. Knowing the length of wave, distances are
calculated.
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EDM Classifications
• Described by form of electromagnetic energy.
• First instruments were primarily microwave (1947)
• Present instruments are some form of light, i.e. laser or
near-infrared lights. Range up to 100 km.
• Described by range of operation.
• Generally microwave are 30 - 50 km range. (med)
• Developed in the early 70’s, and were used for control surveys.
• Light EDM’s generally 3 - 5 km range. (short)
• Instrument rely on propagation of modulated light waves
• Very useful in civil engineering projects and construction
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Systematic errors
• Microwave
• Atmospheric conditions
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Humidity - must have wet bulb and dry bulb temperature.
• Multi-path
• Reflected signals can give longer distances
• Light
• Atmospheric conditions
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Prism offset
• Point of measurement is generally behind the plumb line.
• Today usually standardized as 30mm.
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Accuracy
• Distance is computed by (no. of wavelengths generated
+ partial wavelength)/2.
• Standard or Random errors are described in the form
of +/-(Constant + parts per million).
• Constant is the accuracy of converting partial wavelength to
a distance. (1- 5mm) regardless of measured dist.
• ppm is a function of the accuracy of the length of each
wavelength, and the number of wavelengths. (3-5mm/km)
For EDM, constant error = 2mm and ppm = 3mm/km then;
Error of measurement in distance of 0.5 km = 2 + 3 (0.5) = 3.5 mm
and Error of measurement in distance of 4.0 km = 2 + 3 (4) = 15 mm
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Operations of EDM instruments
• The electromagnetic waves propagate through the
atmosphere based on the equation
• Where ‘v’ is the velocity of electromagnetic energy in meters
per second(m/sec); f is the modulated frequency in hertz (Hz)
and, is the wavelength measured in meters. Mainly the
waves that are propagated can be represented like a sine
wave as shown in figure below.
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Errors in EDM instruments
Personal Errors
• Inaccuracy in initial setups of EDMs and the reflectors over the preferred stations
• Instrument and reflector measurements going wrong
• Atmospheric pressures and temperature determination errors
Instrumental Errors
• Calibration errors
• Chances of getting maladjusted time to time generating frequent errors
• Errors shown by the reflectors
Natural Errors
• Atmospheric variations in temperature, pressure as well as humidity. Micro wave EDM
instruments are more susceptible to these.
• Multiple refraction of the signals.
The advantage of using EDM instruments is the speed and accuracy in measurement.
Several obstacles to chaining are automatically overcome when these instruments are
used.
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