Polynomials

MathDash
Last updated 2025-07-17

1 Lecture Notes

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A polynomial is an expression made up of terms like

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𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 12,

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where each term involves a power of 𝑥 multiplied by a constant coefficient. More for-

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mally,

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Definition 1.1 (Polynomial)

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A polynomial is an expression of the form

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𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + · · · + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,

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where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , . . . , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are constants and 𝑛 is a non-negative integer.

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Let’s look at some examples of polynomials in problem solving and learn more about
them.

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2 Terms, Coefficients, Degree, and Constant Term

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Example 2.1
Pretend you’re on a video game design team. The jump height ℎ (in meters) of your
character after pressing the space bar is modeled by

ℎ(𝑡) = −5𝑡 2 + 20𝑡 + 1,

where 𝑡 is time in seconds since the jump. Identify each term and say what it tells
you.

Break it up:
ℎ(𝑡) = (−5) 𝑡 2 + 20 𝑡 + 1.
Terms:

• −5𝑡 2 : Coefficient −5, Exponent 2.

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• 20𝑡 : Coefficient 20, Exponent 1.

• 1: Coefficient 1, Exponent 0.

General Pattern
• Terms: each looks like 𝑐𝑥 𝑘 .

• Degree: the biggest exponent 𝑘 that actually appears.

• Leading coefficient: the 𝑐 in front of that biggest-exponent term.

• Constant term: the coefficient of 𝑥 0 , a.k.a the number you get when you plug in
𝑥 = 0.

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3 End-Behavior: Where Does the Road Lead?
Example 3.1

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You launch two fake rockets in and meausre their heights over time:

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Rocket A: ℎ 𝐴 (𝑡) = −0.6𝑡 4 + 5𝑡 3 .

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Rocket B: ℎ𝐵 (𝑡) = 0.7𝑡 4 − 5𝑡 3 .

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As 𝑡 grows huge, which rocket zooms toward +∞ height, and which dives toward

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−∞?

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Solution
Let’s plug in some progressively larger values of 𝑡 to analyze the behavior as 𝑡 grows:

For Rocket A:

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𝑡 ℎ 𝐴 (𝑡)

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1 −0.6 ( 1) 4 + 5 ( 1) 3 = 4.4
10 −0.6 ( 10) 4 + 5 ( 10) 3 = −6000 + 5000 = −1000

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100 −0.6 ( 100) 4 + 5 ( 100) 3 = −60000000 + 5000000 = −55000000

For Rocket B:

𝑡 ℎ𝐵 (𝑡)
1 0.7 ( 1) 4 − 5 ( 1) 3 = −4.3
10 0.7 ( 10) 4 − 5 ( 10) 3 = 7000 − 5000 = 2000
100 0.7 ( 100) 4 − 5 ( 100) 3 = 70000000 − 5000000 = 65000000

As we can see, for Rocket A, as 𝑡 increases, ℎ 𝐴 (𝑡) becomes more negative, confirming
that it tends towards −∞. For Rocket B, as 𝑡 increases, ℎ𝐵 (𝑡) becomes more positive,
confirming that it tends towards +∞.

The reason we can focus only on these leading terms is that, as 𝑡 grows, the terms with
the highest power of 𝑡 will dominate the polynomial. This is because 𝑡 4 grows much

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-07-17) Polynomials

faster than any lower power of 𝑡 , such as 𝑡 3 , 𝑡 2 , or 𝑡 . Therefore, the influence of these
lower-degree terms becomes negligible in comparison.

Since 𝑡 4 is always positive and increases rapidly, the sign of the leading coefficient deter-
mines the end behavior:

• For Rocket A, the leading coefficient is −0.1, which is negative. This means that as
𝑡 becomes very large, ℎ 𝐴 (𝑡) will tend towards −∞.
• For Rocket B, the leading coefficient is +0.2, which is positive. Thus, as 𝑡 becomes
very large, ℎ𝐵 (𝑡) will tend towards +∞.

General Insight

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The tail of a polynomial’s graph is ruled by just two things: degree parity (even or odd)

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and leading coefficient sign. Think of them as a weather report for infinity.

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Theme 3.2 (End-Behavior Cheat-Sheet)

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Let 𝑃(𝑥) have degree 𝑛 and leading coefficient 𝑎.

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• If 𝑛 is even: both ends of the graph point the same way (up if 𝑎 > 0, down if

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𝑎 < 0).

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• If 𝑛 is odd: the ends point opposite ways (lower left to upper right if 𝑎 > 0,

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upper left to lower right if 𝑎 < 0).

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4 Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

Example 4.1
Sofia is programming a racing game. Car 1’s position in meters is 𝑝1 (𝑡) = 3𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 − 2,

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and Car 2’s is 𝑝2 (𝑡) = 5𝑡 2 − 6𝑡 + 7.

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Find a formula for the distance between them at time 𝑡 .

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Solution
Distance = | 𝑝1 (𝑡) − 𝑝2 (𝑡)| . First compute

𝑝1 (𝑡) − 𝑝2 (𝑡) = ( 3𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 − 2) − ( 5𝑡 2 − 6𝑡 + 7).

Line up like terms:

( 3𝑡 2 − 5𝑡 2 ) + ( 4𝑡 + 6𝑡) + (−2 − 7) = −2𝑡 2 + 10𝑡 − 9.

So distance is | − 2𝑡 2 + 10𝑡 − 9 | meters. Nice and tidy!

Rule We Used
We simply combined like terms: powers of 𝑡 that matched. That’s it.
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Definition 4.2 (Like Terms)

Two terms are like if their variables have exactly the same powers. You can then
add or subtract their coefficients.

5 Multiplying Polynomials

Example First

Example 5.1
A rectangular garden has length (𝑥 + 3) meters and width ( 2𝑥 − 1) meters. Express

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the area as a polynomial.

Solution

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Area = length × width:
(𝑥 + 3)( 2𝑥 − 1).

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Use distributive law (a.k.a. FOIL for binomials):

a s e 𝑥 · 2𝑥 + 𝑥 · (−1) + 3 · 2𝑥 + 3 · (−1) .

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|{z} | {z } |{z} | {z }

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2𝑥 2 −𝑥 6𝑥 −3
Combine like terms −𝑥 + 6𝑥 = 5𝑥 :

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So the area polynomial is 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3.
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3 .

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General Algorithm

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To multiply any polynomials, distribute each term of the first into every term of the sec-
ond and then add like terms. Visualize sprinkling each term across like glitter.

5.1 Review: Factoring Quadratics

Example 5.2
Factor 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6.

Solution
Look for two numbers that multiply to 6 (constant term) and add to 5 (middle coefficient).
Those numbers are 2 and 3.

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3).

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Why Does This Work?

When you expand (𝑥 + 𝑚)(𝑥 + 𝑛) you get 𝑥 2 + (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥 + 𝑚𝑛. So reversing the process
amounts to finding 𝑚, 𝑛 with sum = middle coefficient and product = constant term.

Theme 5.3 (Simple Trinomial Factoring)

For 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 find 𝑚, 𝑛 with 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 𝑏 and 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑐, then

𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = (𝑥 + 𝑚)(𝑥 + 𝑛).

Example Second: Leading Coefficient ≠ 1

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Example 5.4

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Factor 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 10.

Solution

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Method: “split the middle.”

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1. Multiply 6 (leading) and −10 (constant) to get −60. 2. Find two numbers with product

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−60 and sum 11 ⇒ 15 and −4. 3. Rewrite:

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6𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 10.

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4. Group:

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3𝑥 ( 2𝑥 + 5) − 2 ( 2𝑥 + 5) = ( 2𝑥 + 5)( 3𝑥 − 2).

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6 Strategic Substitution: The “Make It a Quadratic” Trick

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Example First

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Example 6.1

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Solve 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 4 = 0.

Solution
Notice powers are 4 and 2 (twice 2). Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . Then equation becomes
𝑦 2 − 5 𝑦 + 4 = 0,
a plain quadratic.

Factor:
( 𝑦 − 1)( 𝑦 − 4) = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 1 or 𝑦 = 4.
Switch back: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 gives
𝑥 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±1, 𝑥 2 = 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2.
So solutions: 𝑥 = −2, −1, 1, 2.

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Theme 6.2 (Quadratic in Disguise)

When exponents differ by a factor of 2, try the substitution 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑘 to reduce to a
quadratic.

7 Polynomial Division and Remainders: Breaking a

Polynomial Into Pieces
Sometimes we want to be able to divide polynomials to be able to factor them and ana-
lyze their behavior.

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Example 7.1

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Divide 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7 by 𝑥 − 3. Find the quotient and remainder.

Solution

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Dividing polynomials using long division is similar to dividing numbers. Let’s break

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it down step by step.

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Imagine you want to divide the polynomial 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7 by 𝑥 − 3. The process is akin

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to long division with numbers, where you repeatedly divide, multiply, and subtract.

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First, we want to think about how many times the leading term of the divisor goes into

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the leading term of the dividend, because as we analyzed above the leading term of the
divisor will dominate the behavior of the polynomial.

B rna Divide:
𝑥3
𝑥
= 𝑥2

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𝑥 − 3 𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +4𝑥 −7
𝑥2

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Multiply: 𝑥 2 · (𝑥 − 3) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2

This means that:

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + (𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7) = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 3) + (𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7)

So we want to now analyze the remainder, which is 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7.

𝑥 − 3 𝑥 2 +4𝑥 −7
𝑥

This means that:

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7 = (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 ) + (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) + 7𝑥 − 7 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥)(𝑥 − 3) + 7𝑥 − 7
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Again, we want to analyze the remainder, which is 7𝑥 − 7.

𝑥 − 3 7𝑥 −7
7

Putting it all together, we get:

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 − 3) + 14

(Check for yourself that this is correct by expanding the right hand side!)

𝑥 − 3 𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +4𝑥 −7
𝑥2 𝑥 7

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The division is complete, and the quotient is 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 7 with a remainder of 14.

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Definition 7.2 (Polynomial Division)
Polynomial division is a process similar to long division with numbers. When di-

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viding a polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥) by a nonzero polynomial 𝑔 (𝑥) , we express

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𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔 (𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥),

where 𝑞(𝑥) is the quotient and 𝑟(𝑥) is the remainder (with deg (𝑟(𝑥)) < deg (𝑔 (𝑥)) ).

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Example 7.3 (Long Division Example)

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Divide
𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 12
by

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𝑔 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2.

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Solution
Step 1: Divide the leading term 2𝑥 3 by 𝑥 (the leading term of 𝑥 − 2) to get 2𝑥 2 .

Step 2: Multiply 2𝑥 2 by 𝑥 − 2 to obtain 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 .

Step 3: Subtract this product from the first two terms of 𝑓 (𝑥) :

( 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 ) − ( 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 2 .

Step 4: Bring down the next term, −8𝑥 , to form 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 .

Step 5: Divide 𝑥 2 by 𝑥 to get 𝑥 . Multiply 𝑥 by 𝑥 − 2 to get 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 . Subtract:

(𝑥 2 − 8𝑥) − (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) = −6𝑥.

Step 6: Bring down the constant 12 to have −6𝑥 + 12. Divide −6𝑥 by 𝑥 to get −6. Multiply
−6 by 𝑥 − 2 to get −6𝑥 + 12 and subtract to obtain a remainder of 0.
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Thus, the quotient is

𝑞(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6,
and we have
2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 12 = (𝑥 − 2)( 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6).

Faster Way: Synthetic Division

Example 7.4
Use synthetic division to find the remainder of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7 when divided
by 𝑥 − 3.

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Solution

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Write coefficients: 1 −2 4 − 7. Bring down the root 3 to the left:

D a n l 3 1 −2 4 −7

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In each step, we multiply the root by the current value and add it to the next column.

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First we mulitplied 3 by 1 and wrote it underneath -2.

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3 1 −2 4 −7
3

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Then we add -2 and 3 to get 1. Now we multiply 3 by 1 and write it underneath 4.

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3 1 −2 4 −7
3 3

Again, we add 4 and 3 to get 7. Now we multiply 3 by 7 and write it underneath -7.

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3 1 −2 4 −7
3 3 21

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Finally, we add the terms in the rows to get the coefficients of the quotient and the re-
mainder.

3 1 −2 4 −7
3 3 21
1 1 7 14
Bottom row gives coefficients of quotient (1, 1, 7), which means 𝑥 2 +𝑥+ 7 and final number
14 is remainder. Matches long division!

Theme 7.5 (Synthetic Division)

To divide by 𝑥 − 𝑎, list coefficients, repeatedly multiply by 𝑎, add, and the last num-
ber is the remainder.
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8 Other Cool Theorems

8.1 Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem

Example First

Example 8.1
Find 𝑃( 3) quickly for 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 7.

Solution
We just computed using synthetic division that remainder on dividing by 𝑥 − 3 is 14. The
Remainder Theorem says remainder = 𝑃( 3) , so 𝑃( 3) = 14 without direct substitution!

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Formal Facts

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Theme 8.2 (Remainder Theorem)
When you divide a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) by 𝑥 − 𝑎, the remainder equals 𝑃(𝑎) .

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Theme 8.3 (Factor Theorem)

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The linear factor (𝑥 −𝑎) divides 𝑃(𝑥) exactly (no remainder) if and only if 𝑃(𝑎) = 0.

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In other words, 𝑎 is a root.

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8.2 Finding Rational Roots

Example First

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Example 8.4

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List all possible rational roots of 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 3.

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Solution
𝑝
Rational Root Theorem: any rational root must have
𝑞
𝑝 | constant term 3, 𝑞 | leading coefficient 2.
So 𝑝 ∈ {±1, ±3}, 𝑞 ∈ {±1, ±2}, giving possibilities
1 3
±1, ±3, ± , ± .
2 2

Theme 8.5 (Rational Root Theorem)

𝑝
If 𝑃(𝑥) has integer coefficients, every rational root can be written with 𝑝 dividing
𝑞
the constant term and 𝑞 dividing the leading coefficient.
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8.3 Viète’s Formulas: Coefficients Talking About Roots

Example 8.6
A quadratic 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 has roots 𝑟 and 𝑠. Without directly solving for the roots,
find 𝑟 + 𝑠 and 𝑟𝑠.

Solution
Compare with general quadratic 𝑥 2 − ( sum)𝑥 + ( product) :

Sum 𝑟 + 𝑠 = 5, product 𝑟𝑠 = 6. Indeed the roots 2, 3 satisfy this.

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Theme 8.7 (Viète’s Formulas for Quadratic)

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If 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 has roots 𝑟, 𝑠, then

a ly 𝑟 + 𝑠 = −𝑏, 𝑟𝑠 = 𝑐.

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More generally, for 𝑥𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + · · · + 𝑎0 , coefficients alternate signs and give

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symmetric sums of roots.

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8.4 Conjugate Root Theorem: Complex Numbers Peek In

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Example 8.8

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Suppose a polynomial with real coefficients has a root 3 + 4𝑖 . What other root must

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it have?

Solution

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Complex roots come in conjugate pairs, so 3 − 4𝑖 is also a root.

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Theme 8.9 (Conjugate Root Theorem)
For a polynomial with real coefficients, any non-real complex root 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 forces its
conjugate 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 to be another root.

(We won’t dive deeper into complex numbers today; just keep the pairing rule in your
toolkit.)

9 Sign Charts and When Is a Product Positive?

Example First

Example 9.1

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-07-17) Polynomials

Solve (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) > 0.

Solution
Roots: −2, 1, 5. Draw a number line with these points.

Check the sign in each interval:

−2 1 5

Pick test points:

• 𝑥 < −2 (say −3): (−)(−)(−) = (−) .

• Between −2 and 1 (say 0): (+)(+)(−) = (−) .

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• Between 1 and 5 (say 2): (+)(+)(+) = +.

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• 𝑥 > 5 (say 6): (+)(+)(+) = +.

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So solution: ( 1, 5) ∪ ( 5, ∞) , but open at 1 and 5 because strict >.

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Sign charts help determine positivity or negativity by using root “flip points.”

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a t s e
10 Graph Meets Algebra: Intersections as Zeros

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Example 10.1

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On the same set of axes, graph 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3. How many intersection points

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do they have?

Solution

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Intersection means that the 𝑦 and 𝑥 values are equal on both equations. So we set those

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equal and get
𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 + 3

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Bring all terms to one side: 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0. Factor: (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0, roots 𝑥 = 3, −1.
Two intersection points. Here the difference polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − ( 2𝑥 + 3) tells exactly
where the curves meet: its zeros!

Insight
Whenever two expressions are equal, subtracting one from the other leaves a polyno-
mial whose roots mark the intersection or equality points.

Your Packing List for Polynomials

We have slowly met every basic tool required for entry-level polynomial problems:
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MathDash (Last updated 2025-07-17) Polynomials

• Recognize and name the parts: degree, coefficients, constant term.

• Predict end-behavior from degree parity and leading sign.

• Add, subtract, and multiply by combining like terms, using special products for
speed.

• Factor quadratics (and certain cubics) by reversing multiplication patterns.

• Turn sneaky expressions into quadratics with substitution.

• Divide polynomials, both long and synthetic, and harness the Remainder / Factor
Theorems.

• List and test possible rational roots.

• Relate roots to coefficients via Viète, respect conjugate pairs, and draw sign charts

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for inequalities.

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• Translate word descriptions or graph intersections into “zero of a polynomial” lan-

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guage.

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Every time you face a new puzzle, ask yourself:

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“Can I shape this situation into a polynomial? If yes, which of my tools will

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crack it open?”

a e
Remember, mastery comes not from reading but from playing. Create your own stair-

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case expressions, garden areas, or rocket heights and see if you can guess their roots,
factors, or end-behaviors before doing the algebra. Soon your intuition will speak fluent

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polynomialese.

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Advanced Examples

Example 10.1

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Let 𝑓 be a polynomial of degree at most 3 satisfying

t 𝑓 ( 1) = 12 , 𝑓 ( 2) = 23 , 𝑓 ( 3) = 34 , 𝑓 ( 4) = 45 .

In
Find 𝑓 ( 5) .

Solution
To find 𝑓 ( 5) , we first express 𝑓 (𝑥) as a cubic polynomial:

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑.

Given the values:

𝑓 ( 1) = 21 , 𝑓 ( 2) = 23 , 𝑓 ( 3) = 34 , 𝑓 ( 4) = 45 ,
we can set up the following system of equations by plugging these values into the poly-
nomial:

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-07-17) Polynomials

𝑓 ( 1) = 𝑎( 1) 3 + 𝑏( 1) 2 + 𝑐( 1) + 𝑑 = 12 ,
𝑓 ( 2) = 𝑎( 2) 3 + 𝑏( 2) 2 + 𝑐( 2) + 𝑑 = 23 ,
𝑓 ( 3) = 𝑎( 3) 3 + 𝑏( 3) 2 + 𝑐( 3) + 𝑑 = 34 ,
𝑓 ( 4) = 𝑎( 4) 3 + 𝑏( 4) 2 + 𝑐( 4) + 𝑑 = 45 .

This simplifies to:

𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 21 ,
8𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 𝑑 = 23 ,
27𝑎 + 9𝑏 + 3𝑐 + 𝑑 = 34 ,
64𝑎 + 16𝑏 + 4𝑐 + 𝑑 = 45 .

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Solving this system of equations, we find:

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1
𝑎 = − 20 ,

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3
𝑏= 20
,

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1
𝑐= 4
,

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1

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𝑑= 5
.

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Now, substitute 𝑥 = 5 into the polynomial:

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𝑓 ( 5) = 𝑎( 5) 3 + 𝑏( 5) 2 + 𝑐( 5) + 𝑑.

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Calculate each term:
𝑎( 5) 3 = − 20
1
· 125 = − 125 ,

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20
𝑏( 5) 2 = 3
20
· 25 = 75
20
,
1 5
𝑐( 5) = 4
· 5 = 4,
1
𝑑= 5
.

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Combine these results:
𝑓 ( 5) = − 125 + 75
+ 5
+ 15 .

In
20 20 4

Convert all terms to a common denominator and sum:

𝑓 ( 5) = − 125
20
+ 75
20
+ 25
20
+ 4
20
= 13
15
.

13
Thus, the value of 𝑓 ( 5) is 15
.

Example 10.2
Use the Rational Root Theorem to find the roots of the polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 −
8𝑥 − 3.

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-07-17) Polynomials

Solution
𝑝
The Rational Root Theorem states that any rational solution, expressed as a fraction 𝑞 ,
of the polynomial equation 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + · · · + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = 0 must have 𝑝 as a factor
of the constant term 𝑎0 and 𝑞 as a factor of the leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 .

For the polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 3, the constant term 𝑎0 = −3 and the leading
coefficient 𝑎𝑛 = 2.

The possible values for 𝑝 (factors of -3) are ±1, ±3.

The possible values for 𝑞 (factors of 2) are ±1, ±2.

Thus, the possible rational roots are:

1 3
±1, ±3, ± , ±

h
2 2

s y
We test these possible roots by substituting them into the polynomial and notice that

D a 
𝑓 −

n
1
2
l  
=2 −
1
2
3
−3
 2
1
2
−8 −

1
2

1
+3=− −
4
3
4
+ 4 + 3 = 0.

t h O
Thus, 𝑥 = − 21 is a root of the polynomial.

a e
s
To find the other roots, we can perform polynomial division of 𝑓 (𝑥) by 𝑥 − 12 to obtain a
quadratic polynomial, which can then be solved using the quadratic formula or factor-

M U
ing.

y l
Perform polynomial division of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 3 by 𝑥 + 12 .

B rna
1. Divide the leading term of the dividend 2𝑥 3 by the leading term of the divisor 𝑥 to get
2𝑥 2 . 2. Multiply the entire divisor 𝑥 + 12 by 2𝑥 2 to get 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 . 3. Subtract 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 from
the original polynomial to get −4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 3. 4. Divide the new leading term −4𝑥 2 by 𝑥 to
get −4𝑥 . 5. Multiply the entire divisor 𝑥 + 12 by −4𝑥 to get −4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 . 6. Subtract −4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

e
from the current polynomial to get −6𝑥 − 3. 7. Divide the new leading term −6𝑥 by 𝑥 to

t
get −6. 8. Multiply the entire divisor 𝑥 + 21 by −6 to get −6𝑥 − 3. 9. Subtract −6𝑥 − 3 from
the current polynomial to get a remainder of 0.

In
Thus, the quotient is 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 and the remainder is 0. Therefore, the polynomial can
be expressed as:
1
𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 + )( 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6)
2

Now, solve the quadratic 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 = 0 using the quadratic formula:

√
−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
where 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −4, and 𝑐 = −6.

Calculate the discriminant:

𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−4) 2 − 4 · 2 · (−6) = 16 + 48 = 64

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-07-17) Polynomials

Substitute into the quadratic formula:

√
4± 64 4±8
𝑥= =
4 4

The solutions are:

12 −4
𝑥= = 3 and 𝑥 = = −1
4 4

Thus, the roots of the polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 3 are 𝑥 = − 21 , 3, −1.

s h y
D a n l
a t h e O
M U s
y
B rna l
te
In

15