Oscillations: Cambridge A Level Physics (9702)
An oscillation is a repetitive back-and-forth motion about a fixed equilibrium position. These
notes cover the fundamental principles of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM), energy changes,
and damping.
1. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Definition: SHM is defined as motion where the acceleration ($a$) of an object is directly
proportional to its displacement ($x$) from a fixed point and is always directed toward that
fixed point.
The defining equation for SHM is:
$$a = -\omega^2 x$$
● $\omega$ (Angular Frequency): Related to period ($T$) and frequency ($f$) by
$\omega = 2\pi f = \frac{2\pi}{T}$.
● The Negative Sign: Indicates that acceleration is always opposite to the direction of
displacement (restoring force).
2. Equations of Motion
If an object starts oscillating from the equilibrium position ($x = 0$ at $t = 0$):
● Displacement: $x = x_0 \sin(\omega t)$
● Velocity: $v = v_0 \cos(\omega t)$ where $v_0 = \omega x_0$
If an object starts from the maximum displacement ($x = x_0$ at $t = 0$):
● Displacement: $x = x_0 \cos(\omega t)$
Velocity at any displacement ($x$):
$$v = \pm \omega \sqrt{x_0^2 - x^2}$$
● Maximum velocity ($v_{max}$): Occurs at $x = 0$ (equilibrium), where $v_{max} =
\omega x_0$.
● Maximum acceleration ($a_{max}$): Occurs at $x = x_0$ (amplitude), where $a_{max} =
\omega^2 x_0$.
3. Energy in SHM
In an ideal SHM system (no friction), the total energy ($E_T$) remains constant and is the sum of
Kinetic Energy ($E_k$) and Potential Energy ($E_p$).
● Kinetic Energy: $E_k = \frac{1}{2}m\omega^2(x_0^2 - x^2)$
● Total Energy: $E_T = \frac{1}{2}m\omega^2 x_0^2$ (This is the $E_k$ at the equilibrium
position).
● Potential Energy: $E_p = E_T - E_k = \frac{1}{2}m\omega^2 x^2$
4. Damping and Resonance
● Damping: The loss of energy from an oscillating system due to resistive forces (e.g., air
resistance).
○ Light Damping: Amplitude gradually decreases over time.
○ Critical Damping: The system returns to equilibrium in the shortest possible time
without overshooting.
○ Heavy Damping: The system takes a long time to return to equilibrium without
oscillating.
● Resonance: Occurs when the driving frequency of an external force equals the natural
frequency of the system, resulting in a maximum amplitude of oscillation.
Worked Examples
Example 1: Calculating Period and Maximum Velocity
A mass on a spring oscillates with SHM. Its displacement is given by $x = 0.05 \sin(4\pi t)$,
where $x$ is in meters and $t$ is in seconds.
1. Calculate the period ($T$).
2. Calculate the maximum velocity ($v_{max}$).
Solution:
1. Compare $x = 0.05 \sin(4\pi t)$ to $x = x_0 \sin(\omega t)$.
○ $\omega = 4\pi$
○ $T = \frac{2\pi}{\omega} = \frac{2\pi}{4\pi} = \mathbf{0.5 \text{ s}}$
2. $v_{max} = \omega x_0$
○ $v_{max} = (4\pi) \times 0.05$
○ $v_{max} = \mathbf{0.628 \text{ m s}^{-1}}$
Example 2: Energy in a Pendulum
A particle of mass 200g oscillates in SHM with an amplitude of 3.0 cm and a period of 4.5 ms.
Calculate the total energy of the oscillation.
Solution:
● Convert units: $m = 0.2 \text{ kg}$, $x_0 = 0.03 \text{ m}$, $T = 4.5 \times 10^{-3} \text{
s}$.
● Find $\omega$: $\omega = \frac{2\pi}{T} = \frac{2\pi}{4.5 \times 10^{-3}} \approx 1396 \text{
rad s}^{-1}$.
● Total Energy $E_T = \frac{1}{2}m\omega^2 x_0^2$:
○ $E_T = 0.5 \times 0.2 \times (1396)^2 \times (0.03)^2$
○ $E_T = 0.1 \times 1,948,816 \times 0.0009$
○ $E_T \approx \mathbf{175.4 \text{ J}}$