Week 6: The Periodic Table
1. Definition and Historical Development
The periodic table is an organized tabulation of all known elements arranged in order of their
increasing atomic number. This arrangement is governed by the Modern Periodic Law, which
states that the physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers.
Historically, several scientists contributed to this development. In the mid-19th century, Johann
Dobereiner identified "triads" of similar elements, and John Newlands proposed the "law of
octaves". However, Dmitri Mendeleev is credited with the first extensive tabulation based on the
periodic recurrence of properties. Originally, Mendeleev used atomic weights, but in 1913,
Henry Moseley discovered through X-ray analysis that atomic number is the more fundamental
organizing principle, leading to the modern version of the table.
2. Importance of the Periodic Table
The table is an essential scientific resource because it organizes and systematizes the vast
chemistry of elements. It provides a visual framework that explains the causes of periodicity —
the repetition of properties at regular intervals — and allows chemists to identify similarities and
differences between various elements at a glance.
3. Structural Arrangement: Periods and Groups
The table is organized into horizontal rows and vertical columns. The horizontal rows are called
periods, and there are seven in total. Each period corresponds to the filling of a new principal
quantum shell, typically starting with an ns¹ configuration and ending with an np⁶ subshell
(except for the first period).
• Period 1 is the shortest, containing only Hydrogen and Helium.
• Periods 2 and 3 each contain 8 elements, filling the 2s/2p and 3s/3p subshells
respectively.
• Periods 4 and 5 contain 18 elements each, introducing the transition elements as the 3d
and 4d subshells are filled.
• Periods 6 and 7 contain 32 elements each, including the inner transition elements: the
Lanthanides (filling 4f) and Actinides (filling 5f).
The vertical columns are called groups. Elements within the same group possess the same
number of valence electrons, which gives them similar chemical properties. Elements are
classified into three major blocks: Representative (Main-Group) elements (s and p blocks),
Transition elements (d block), and Inner Transition elements (f block).
4. Family Names of Elements
Specific groups are identified by traditional and modern family names to reflect their distinct
characteristics:
Group (Roman/IUPAC) Family Name Description
Group IA (1) Alkali Metals Highly reactive metals with 1
valence electron.
Group IIA (2) Alkaline Earth Metals Reactive metals with 2 valence
electrons.
Group VA (15) Pnicogens Elements in the Nitrogen family.
Group VIA (16) Chalcogens Elements in the Oxygen family.
Group VIIA (17) Halogens Highly reactive non-metals.
Group 0 (18) Noble / Inert Gases Unreactive gases with stable
octet configurations.
5. Periodicity of Atomic Properties
Periodicity refers to the systematic variation of physiochemical properties across periods and
down groups.
Atomic Size (Radius)
Atomic radius is defined as half the distance between the nuclei of identical bonded atoms.
Across a period from left to right, atomic size decreases because the increasing nuclear charge
pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus. Down a group, atomic size increases due to the
addition of new electron shells and the shielding effect of core electrons.
Ionic Radius
The radius of a cation is smaller than its parent neutral atom because the loss of electrons often
leads to the loss of an entire shell and a relatively stronger nuclear pull. Conversely, the radius
of an anion is larger than its parent atom because the addition of electrons increases inter-
electron repulsion, causing the electron cloud to expand.
Ionization Energy (I.E.)
This is the energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom.
I.E. generally increases across a period due to the increase in effective nuclear charge, which
holds electrons more tightly. It decreases down a group because the outermost electrons are
farther from the nucleus and more shielded by inner shells.
Electron Affinity (E.A.)
E.A. is the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom. Generally,
E.A. increases across a period (becoming more exothermic) as atoms have a greater tendency
to gain electrons to achieve stability. It decreases down a group as the increasing atomic size
reduces the attraction between the nucleus and the incoming electron.
Electronegativity
This is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons toward itself. It follows the
same trend as ionization energy: increasing across a period and decreasing down a group.
6. Periodic Relationships
Elements exhibit several types of relationships within the table. In Group Relationships,
members share identical outermost electronic configurations and often the same oxidation
states. Horizontal Relationships show a continuous variation in configuration, meaning no two
elements in a period react identically. Finally, a Diagonal Relationship exists between the first
member of a group and the second member of the adjacent group, such as Lithium and
Magnesium or Beryllium and Aluminum. These pairs show striking similarities in their chemical
properties despite being in different groups.