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EEM Notes

The document discusses the Hall effect, detailing how an electric current in a conductor interacts with a magnetic field to produce a voltage across the conductor. It includes equations for calculating the Hall voltage and current density, along with examples involving semiconductor materials and their properties. Additionally, it touches on crystal structures and the diffraction of X-rays by crystals, emphasizing the relationship between atomic arrangements and material properties.

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2 views81 pages

EEM Notes

The document discusses the Hall effect, detailing how an electric current in a conductor interacts with a magnetic field to produce a voltage across the conductor. It includes equations for calculating the Hall voltage and current density, along with examples involving semiconductor materials and their properties. Additionally, it touches on crystal structures and the diffraction of X-rays by crystals, emphasizing the relationship between atomic arrangements and material properties.

Uploaded by

shristikumari8235
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
Aan effect 2— or1re yall effect dtffexance an etectrte current \ Frans cunnent fn the conducter and te an..appired =o on pocymeite fretd perpendicular do thé cunnent- : fe the quoduction of a tettage fon of: Call), Yottage accross vense te an electric fg dete eS fed sunle sMiddte Haye AN er Nottmet Luonent fe eae net Hehe Fagen Rad Thumb—> force, . | —> Tn a metal or 9 Zemfeonducter carn-fng a | Current t replace fn gnansvense magnetfe | field giand edectofe’ yretd € % ‘fnduced fa une dfnectton perpendfeutar {0 yhe bath | : | | direction ‘of eunnent, and nna ette fietd ants -phenemen er & Called +HYalt epfeck. | > “he - eledinée ffeld produced & “Called tfaul field . -aaths reiads}igos + — > Consider a lab of conductor: carping. auprert are dhe x- dfreetfen . “Let B se magnetic field applied of +¥Q oy direction . The force” eJoctren. fn. 4 lab ag er the -ve oc-direction. nfs fore, er ali! wyepruscnt -fance ° pe qcrd’) due 40 applied smoanelf myo pm and defected joudasda Arbre ond edit ocermulabed then Tt makes o,4 9 bed, plate utilt be Gv): and atble'gi 4, (EP) as ~yesult A potentta dit ow you Voltage @) fs produced betas qhen two face, - Ae eo of wo atoge. Se th slab (0) aleng re dtrect ton. Half be field Cn. bn = Ve w _Pepanston te : Mognttude of force due to magnetite field. Pe ae |fe = eg 8] veld. eotnfe,: field. Mog nttude of force due 4 el at Equiltartarn Condition - py fa x Fe Bias Ler . a. c we SE peste —> The GlectrS current fn slab te qiven - T= Ane vg T= wt) mevd 2.(h = xt) Vg 2 UAE (wt) ne —@ Comparing ® and © CH ‘ Bo @d)ng fy = Yn} —©® Ww én .f —@ B (were e+ |in= sa] — 6 wo Equation. (6) put nto ean G) © Me pee BxwW (wot) ne Wn B) all coe fticfent_ /_1_- Nat_ H efid -(4;) 3 Copper strip 2em wedge and tm thie placed fn a magnelt, field with B= trey sf 4 cworent of 2004 f set up fh the strip. Cafeatate — ths fall \oltagg dhak appear -qchoss Sthip. “fssume » SH = 6x10"? mip, CHall Coefficient) 44 a) = aem = 2x02 Mm teimm = 103m Boz iS wh/m2 Tr > 2004 Vu = 2 Fy = extovt mse = 1 Vy = tL BI t ne ey = extort ( fs x20¢ 1 Lg = 6 x16? C300) = 1g00 x107F = o18 v 8. m type Genmintum Sample sras a denth that a io ms. Tp f annan &e 4 ~fall expusiment haveng magne fietd ot 0-5 + and cunnent densfty, Sh soo Afnt fing she Hay weltage & Sample %&% 3mm wide, , he i Srot a sowrne te? (02) xto as x Ro" BF yorl = 35x10 v Q. Th a Semiconductor udith, ie teefiitent 145 cm3/c a adidth 2 and thickness oo2em utith 4 magnets field wef 2T along Bmaller * dfimenstons . th Cunpent of 150m fe Passed» thro dt . find 4he Current den sty and yal Velocity. > La 5148 om fe = 14s x107 & w/e he |, w= 2m vo mtom 2 uy Te 0:2 cm = Of2 x1072 MH B= 2T T=, 150 mA = isoxioeA j= 7 u £50 x 10? O-2 x1072 ABXIO~Z " as, 10°? ‘ : 7 3 a X55. = 3-450 x10 3350 Af me Vy = BE 1 Ret ox lds xISo xe? XLO7 0-2 rtorS = 2145 % to = oO 21ts— Hall Effect foumula *— = Hall voltare magnet e. Ctireld rE On (for ntyb) (fox rgb po hole conch) 3 = current density W = Width of Sermtconductor Calon magnette: fretd). t= thickness Semiconductor ay wmagfreld applred) . 7. |, a ~ WE oe = Ha ffeck fy Ae Doeife velocity, Va = ae . Bw Mobilita were Ry Hall angle tan8, = <5n8 = Ue B. 8. An eleetnke field of toov/m fs . applied “tog Sample Of nm pe Semiconductor ushage, Hall coefficlent 28 ~ 0-012. m3/c. Determine the Current density Ue = 0-6 as Conduchtult of Semreondictor mar/us € = too v[/m Ry = - 0-012 5m 3/0 tte = 076 w2/¥8. dost q22 a Uptk 45 mosis tte = TAH ote ae ot 0012s 0-6 =_t x -6-0125> = eS BO Asm? loose . wat 2% al ue ~ ky | Ls 60 G. Assuming) Heng ane xxto?® atoms m3 Sample~. find the yeu confivetent. & i Bpezsreelalo = ! . Bx107 = peas xtal? 3/6 y, find the all Aes of Sodium assumf, beg Structure of call stde 4:28 4. i Sas 5 Bec ll in 7 e Q~ 4-28 A el Dy ays goss A102 xl-6 xO 'F anim Be . ‘ Sie ee 16 x10°20 (4-28 x 16'0)3 aso x 102s % = g-4s x10 9 Ve Q. The ed of holes f 0-0? may bee: ushak be 4the.- seatetuity of p- tpe Sillcon ef Hall Coeffictenk a ae rio Smif = gise lor ms Wa = 0-025 m3/vN eee... aye ter neem | es ae =? ‘ L wun whe. . d-oas 2 Pa-as x18 m3/e bea. isp ub os aRy Si Ferro Hue wy | > a-arx oS i/o O02 wr /y see yu axe Faw Q. Whe Hall Gefficent eof a abpecinen *& B66 x1d F mys/o + dfs: yeateHulty re 8-93 x103 2. find mobility and Concenination. of electrons. . By ~ 966 x tort m/e © $2 B93 KIT? IM. hy 5 23 ms 4 w= BH Ye = Ry yk = 3-66 x10% 9-93 x 103 = 4-03 x10? , l ° 14 1 . ee 1 “= = agg xo bx Le x10'7 1022 46 a Bd Schnodin er Wave Equation s~ a Schoo [Link] dented an. Equation based de-brogat dual ibehavleun of- electron ® and Yeni nberg uncen-+ant mere brEndkb le r& nous as Aehnodinger ware, Equatfon - “he total energy of electron ob ony Partele are given. oye Es ke + Pe en : sbmy* +5 sen) Ke can be expressed oF sb yz bm MY? og ty tony ™ =z “m Now ubstance -fhen he: value rw from de ~ broabhe equation my = J , ode gets t @ = pch-y2 oS ee aw ; \ 2 he : m2 = Bie oa 2 Sieg ®@ TFuting pe Yalu of. bev? Prem e9h ® inte oquation © ue get — 6 one i RAzm aay, he oe = €-V — @ : At _h? De (e-v) — & Ber _ boutne Particle. dike asectron WrA direction Can be ox puessed - - : oy 4 Res Ae ynr ae —©, Now pub) the» value of A? from @9h- @ , fnto oO we: qet.- ha w yar 2, eee poe cenw) =: ant Cquclion ©. ean be ve yy 52 pm Fy erie antealca aa ap ied =O — @° m= mass ef Electron: y epotential ener of alestron. , -€ = total éner of éleetrons W= wave functon oF Cleckron. He : x Edee 4m “WX Bete (ened) =0n —©, alten 4s=,.7 ce € ode” LA condachon oe band / hoot - Band ger ; Semlcondy efor - —> Marimum Yalance. band and mfnfmum ot Gonduct'on band oceun at game momentum — Nolue , _enerae and | Conductor | | ) I dfreck~ Band ah Semcon du chop : SS Lmaxknum. valance and smfnfmum of ] ConducHon band. Electron. makina’ g trans-iscth. ‘ender te make ~iffon from. valance band +0 conducteon band meed mo under goes any change fr. ts momentum . P-. Cormbound = 5° Samiconducter & Huy “yrsent qekt oS a transition. from martmum point & valance band to wn -bmum —botnt. +0 cConductius band the eledtren. Sougquined change en for the, ~oha win momentunr, fr. addition ppteeete the enugy foP er ip These dPneot Semicond - +H bjemenks Semicon- -uctop are. used -ductor 4uch ag LED. i ail’eon » Cenmon?uwL Endiveot. : Bs Cryst) 2 sf “~ crystal 8 g Roltd fr whreh , atom: are ‘arranged .fn Some wegulan wepitation pattenn,...%n all direction % called eo untt cell $- ve a unit. cell. 2 4 Cormeinge' Ppattenn whieh. Sepeats Ftself shrough the hee dimensfonal batten, of Solid. Zh generates —the crystal Jathce wsben sjepeated - r&n.. space, - indefinett unit coll are anranged dike buitding block Sng Cnet: af A x Crystal dattees t— eoystal JotHee, or-dpace ae defined a on. aha of poknt Po three dfmenefon. fn... whieh Grex petnt hos -dannoundin Eden tically wo thar | wether -point fn the Onna | a s | xt Automate packing factor (Apr) 3_ the APF & the Sum of the Sphere vol al atoms within a unit celf Cassuming the atom hard ==2 _€#o @9%@ —— rr /6 Oo ores on Pn ee . a +> When a Mon- polor dfeleatre 3 held ¢ g &xterna) electnfe field (€) +the canter of positive charge ( proton) én each moleentes % pulled Sr the direction, and the center of electr®e field ener eang’ sepuled ee paae dfrection opposite, -to cheatrie freld. —> “Thene-foxe the guge center of Positive ond -megatve char fn the molecules ane. gepenated , the” molecules dtsorted and & gatd- to. be _ polathees —S when no éttennal ffeld, appifed te the dfelectnte with polar mo leoubet hen the diffevent When an external ejectn fo field 8 applied . +he Erdividual arpole moment” 4el} -tends fo alfne Woh the, freld when Summed “ever all molecert es -theFr appears ome net atpole moment fa. the dfrect’on © he axpennad 7 | fretg that % the. Atebectnfe 2% polarieed. | A palonis action sol i PeB Cpsinted cfreulk board) | €-6 diagram i ~Homfe. gtructune De polanteation = : ; ie > Polayfsolien % the profaitly of. cutatn electromagnet syadfelens fn whieh ane dfreatfone ® and’ imagnetude ot the iebyottng “-ateetrfe field ane sulated Zn apecitied sal : ¥ Plantoction. of tight = stan > the puocess of gnansfoumabfon. of unpolantsed dfgnt — Fnto pelanised sight fe Catled & polarfalfon Hwa o of palanisdlion - | “Tyee patanfe ab'on © pielootrfe @ — dorfe. polanisalion @ Ovientational polanisaHon @ Tiestadal pelanzsation , @. when a dfpale moment % . formed fo an, gnsulating smotenfal because of ans extern appre loon field j thts behaviour of tewmed at dfel eotn fe polarisation . , @ we polargeation typically occurs to the tonke, crystal elements Much ag Aacdl and Kel. @ ce pemanent -dfpele moment Sa dhe, matenfa) glu ike do osventabfonal polar&ation, sthfe enientadtionod poarkalin %& geen Sn. matenRal auch as Hef and 420. BK © Tntesifacka) polarisation oceans ashen adhere & an aceumulal on. * of. choy. at an Enter face betuloowm tuto mater) because, of ee of fekd,. : a pplication ~ 3P mouw'es - sundtasses Plast Sndustetes . a“ PcB.(. painted cfreuit Board) :— _X Pe Ye a> Copper Jamtnated and non~ conductive pufnted xsfrouft board , in which. al) alectafeal -and etectronts Components ane ‘Connected together én One wommen board writ physical dupport fon olf -komponentS whith base wt boang . j — PcB 4e used to prouide eleotni eh ty. and gonnectiufty.' batween. the Components, whch Ef functon. the. «Say tt das deszaned | iL? + —> Tt &s found f any eseetnonics deuice Jike, TN, mobile digital cameng,,, Computers Tarts she graphic cands 2f@. Bw puocess af creating. “ecg Ateb ti— Delgn dnd Output _, Pee alesi fe usually done & Converting oun sfecuft Schemahe diagram {+0 Q PCR stayout using PCB dayout Software , fteb 2t- pes desi by teotreal panameserd. ¢ ¢ Curnenk maximums - + Nottages of. pes S tnbacrtdbee. o Impedace_ + Shtebdine : . Types an Jocaftfon of , " DSedafled met aline ddasting Cfreutt Cormponents and schemat<. 4tep 2:—- Use a dchematie Cabtune:, -lool -to creas, Yee Pe tad Step 42 - Design gour Pew Stadsup — He & Lporbant do Conciden early on fa the Pee des tan due to &mpedance , 2w2dhi'ch Sera +o how much and howd gui ctectnictty ean, +nauel down a 44 ce Steb sre ptace Ne, Compenen’s. Btep 6 im Theent deft. holes atep Pt oitabels 5 Identifrer + Marking ob) pefesencs designators tO the e helps to Showbing. peal tie Compéna On +he board. Atep 8 :- -Censsote Peston / Joypout files. Pep omanu foctunsna Process — — Atank alith double sided Copper clad pomes syattexh plate Pet] re | Panel plate (etteect | ein < cat op\ ~ __ | copper plate, ‘Fanel pla | a bi ma [Benge [reo | oe] tanec plate] Pel ar [Piste rater geal v + [ereh zy [ee to pesined Hin'sh. K TInteinste Seni conductor x ee Sewiconducter & Bayes nd n-type semiconductor % Direct sae Ind?rect band aor Senueonducter x atnetate and, de- jentnate Semuc end ctor. Pjevious year questions . 2o21 o® Peseribe buiefly the important Concept and eutts of she gsontg - penny model Cpmdodic Potential model) 4 yrontg and Tenney @xamfned the behaurour efectrons 8% ag puro die patential ey. sonsiden fn a eyetatively. simple and a dimensional model. 3 % assumed oF the — -potentfal eneigy. of an deetron ae the Shape of a quae . he RePod of potentfal 22 Ca+b). | v= i fox O(x) ‘Re krone 4 p % gq Arnale K zg an pen Fe “4 | etectron. “ praoblem- The efectnon. “moves Bn the ene- dimensional Crystal of length t. Tae powu'odi potential dhat the electrons 2x pruence fm the Crystal Jathee. @® ae: gt | wie = Me 4 Since ‘the enwvigy of a | Cee CUCU Dhieh | usith&. the smeauly free electron model wd alse have an eran gy ez CHK /2mMe we can suumiee “that othe . effective mass of the electron ofr a meta & | the dame as the mess Sr oNacuum. ( Houders os Soon 8 ae _ Prtnoduce a | qerfodte FE Yotetion. SRastde a ase | | | to gonna the: _etfective mass & mobo: the Same as. ithe” mass Aa! Yaaauen, PEC) ke of ine. election a _qpound “an. Pedtated atom. Sbi2k —> when N atoms. ane amanged do faint tne eget phen, - thene fe an of ufduap xstectnon. Be _fanetione Vea) , 420 a 29° 39 ote oid eof ghe @leetnon », vet) fnetde ane enystod Ps perfodie oth “ pertod.. Ap: ; pha ve ; Sanface ( crystal . Sun face. : <2. Te electron, potentfad ” Erangey C Peds” Y Veo) > Snside the crystal ue puvodfe aiitn the Same periods ety. a as that of. “the crysta. Fas [Link]- ousrde the Crystal , by ehofee , vz0 C#he Alectron = & free and Pe=0) @ ® dfectnonfe» -polantedlon, SH ba Se edrons Ba. matenkad fn Sus Ponte 4o an external weointe field . tn othe, words , when an, Slectrie field fs applied , the ole divety. charged electnan, wth?n, do Materials .n molecules shi. satgrty ah one.» dfrection. causfng 9 temporary Spe Sepancitien ‘of tharges and the creation of a dépole moment. —> Im the presence of an elecinfe freld , electron. clouds and. atoms fh pola tovatent bonds may” be ahitted , fnelud Qa Ssant polarication that % abloned wth ahe eleatn®e ffetd. nh acts +o atoe enen and. Contrtbutes +o he CapacHive maiww of the maderhdl, Shectronte polantxotdn Altant coutative Ante wef positive and ~ Negative eleatnt changes én opposite dfrecHon. adithin an. tnsulaton , on dirrelectrite 5 Enduced bap an - external — electn'’ ied, > Covalent bonds ane polaniked due a permanent drpete arrfees a +he bond and +he Covalent bond & Said | yo be polarized. (o) what % avamagnelfe, matenfals § Imagine a cfreutan obbtt wf radius wT) anouhd an. atom aulith tHe centre notnerdin that of an. jhe otom. ff a magnelic~field B a turned gh ta Ys ViePofdy 5 find an axpuassion vfor,extng anquilar momentum prouided do the electrons. uxhak change usill be caused fn magnete moment? Pon Sphenfeatt fymmeinte atoms , the magnetic moment fs given. by one electron. if 4here ane nN electrons per unit volume, nen find she magnetfe susceptibility pa | — Piamagnelism fs ad mo mnetig feature | eae oh hich. Shectrels irs a of Substances Spin faster tr HesPonse fo ah external sma! ne tke field ' grrerain magnetie doxces that ousfst dP otepel the. outside mognebls field. when we pub ina magnet field : diamagnetic motedal dre orm otepebled the. magneble tet or arg foe magnetyed an @ oppose dfrechion. of the. magneb, field. 09-54th iol Coeffieterct and ¥ ong eae he oyeas of puree > The Halt Coeffeterit f deffned as the sable of the tnduced deetrfe field te the, product of the -eurrent denstty and the oppared magnetic field orp te%a shasacterht the material from whh the Conductor ig made , Sfnce’ fs malue depends: of the 4Yybs , number 5 and -pxopertes of the change narsiers thal ‘constitute » the Cunnent : Nut eI — lak Mobility , +he product of Conductivit and the 4all:.constank. fox a condue-tord op a emf conductor, 4 wyeasure of the mobility of. the electrons on holes fo. a Semiconducten. : “Half Coefficrent = ony a ¥ “Me 4 Apeticalion of t{aul fitect 1 > Poroxinite Sensors — S “<> tal Sensors and “au! probes 2 > Urea and _ angular aplacemert gransducers = Phase ange, measurement . yr O Explatn Entnfnsfe and — Exinfnge BN Oar mies des gant ty, formed ? _» Tatninsf Gemiconductor one chemi pure» other adords , free from le denmed Sntnins te © Pui are eg Semiconductors, > éxinfns& Serm?conductens are these femiconducters thak are, doped ulith. frpurites , Sped ts —> The dmpurtives changes the efectrfeas pyopoties of 4he "semiconductor making electnonfe deufces f& mere auttable for Jake dfode and -rans&ters - ee eee Zernteon ductor” matenfal & jhe addifon. ‘of. group TT tonmed by we can day ctofnatent. ghements on 4 Empurity, do the pure ( ntwinste) Semicon ducte? , I, The medype Semiconducter material 2 formed © oy. the adding. of gooub Elements hat. zs pentavadent Smpurr to g pure ob Shieh ste - gemtcondy ctor. ee © ® Hoo) does q +fole conduct da +he, Semiconductons 7? Explatsy. re free _efecfrons and hele bath Contrfbule 40 Conduction abbut the crystat dallice - xhot £3, the etediron xf free unt ef folls Srto a note , this fs Called necembfnation , gP an external aleatn he fretd 2% abplted to +the Somiconducto , the efectnons and teles util conduct tu a hele fs a Yocant place ef the absence. of electron 2 +he walence band. abn, a &emiconducten crystal shas dange mumbo sf electrons fn +he valence band , & nr St Xample has heey doped Sith Lo" ansenfe atom fem. caleutale {he conductiuity the Sample at 127 %G (400K). the about n-type 42 example & fuxtha, doped Sith 4x10" poxen, atom fer? - Coleulate the Conductiuity of the sample af (24%. Explafn. clfveat and Coy kaplan. atmeit and frdfhect band gap Goriconductens atti Jn dinect bandage femicon ductor , Ahe bottom The condgetion band and top of the wolence band. wes at the game value, of}: Th qhie, electron can dineofl ext fe on de-exate by the absorption of emission of photon and” “hee 2% m0 phonoh Eavolvement tr dhe poiocess of excttatton and de- excitatron - rE Wh 2 oe 2 vy ya EN ' eas —> Indfrect bandgap ebemiconducter ,-top of the vajence. band “and bottom of the Conduction, bang. Hesot diffevent wolues of. ff an elerinen goes: from she 0p of the valence band, go the pettom of the Conduction lang ef has Jo change Hs -enesigy a8 Bel) ap udave veeted |. _—> Th a. dinect bandgap Zemiconducden the top ef the valance band (v@) and she bottom of fhe conduction band CCB) oceny, at the come value of Momentum. th oy, > Tndfnect bandgap demtconductin the. maxtmum, enaxguy, the Valence. band (vB) -oces at a different ralue of wyomentum. f° the nfoimum = fn hee Conducton, Band (C8) ene anade Metalfungteal grade siueen (Mor st), He Sibhoon. maw. be 3997/> purse , AdasHtonal poocessing & Completed unfh the ultrapure efectnonife grade albeon ie i s) fe olvtafned , ep dllfeon rqotal ft eornenonly sealed ‘ene rade, attreor.. GC pAaerat s 11a) + roar te bi \igatastiicon, pontly. dhan, dhe ryooe common. q ah, albou, af foon and. sUfeon. ah 15-40'/ A A do fn atileon Content , paifrnant by. uged ? tron. tange volumes fm. sleet and cast porodualton . —> abeetronty fe dhe» saw matertal jhaf fe used fou the psyoparaston of ‘gfngde ~! crystal Sfifcon , eas ts actually a Poly coystalntne matesias of- high punt: > electron’a -anade. sidfeon. fe. one of the purest form of sidicon, 2 fs abbvorirnately 99-99999% Cetght nine) percent Pung form ‘of stifedn. e649 ‘fs' puvufied from ING 3 oP Metablungreal grade aidfeon. ff fs ojso a Yeny pune foum of givicon. | | | | | approximate 987. put fs Contafns Sropurities | of Tron. and ~Aharai ow + > white 98% of element sidicon, fhown ag vyetoatungieal ade gipieon 5 to xe preduced | oh a VJarge” deole, she 24 guinements at extreme puntty. Pore efeatnonfca deufee fabefcalion syequine additonal , reariffeatton, Steps én order -{0 Baigdare es Blecdronte grade, SibPcon., | e dexstand ' 3 what do you eur + OO gmt plate the cneriay Piety deposition. wethod of fra. groutth, aay guitable dfagra- _y ne ebita xfal growth siefeys det ate 3 alten ane crystal ot. FOP Of he fomnalion of Sige | siouctune of PE eal anys ta} dfredts the gnoudh, of she, depasried orgstat. Sth the Simpler ers , apita iol groutsh. Bye pouvenss ot depositing a hn cots Ces 4020 uifonens) OF aingde - eng . ety i out 9 Single snystal Ju - , ‘gPhaly Wq shenical wrapor depostt 00. Ceve). tq ) chemfea} vapour depositfon, wethedof film out - va etron , on CAD 3G —> thet vapouy dep ost +5 saanfoily used _ yefhod creating shin fits Gsed fr... geraiconduch or each tie 2, —> cvd & q chemleal process used +o produce hit Pp sty ; high. rom fos mance , Gourd. wise ater “The. pyocess of fe offen used in the- geniconducten dnduteines fo pyoduce grin tidus. tn a real} © cvp » foyocess , +he wWafey ( Substrate) £ exposed. fo one oP mere volatile pxecursons , shich ureodl and /o% decompore -6n the 4ubstrate Surface fo puoduce | ghe geained | deposit. Preguantty. vofatie las products ane’ alse produce whch. ane syemoved by “gas Floud though the sreachion. chambeb. © i ; Preseyke SOR ; ? | S-zone Pornace | LES i —_—_—__—_— garne ee Fo L wre prer OP ert URRTT 2 WBE | Bip Bchemmslie diagnam ef cvo” Het O eeplatn the. theory. af high, temperature Rupereonductons. —> The high ~temprealune deparrconcttutty Be a techn ologe that: facisitates ytHhe. use. oF eesqmle, materials fore Conducting and. © tnanswittfn electricity ulethy HH, er one vu(gekktance Joss uditnout the need #0 achieue. sew +empoxotune Supaurcond u cHtulty, 4 a yempamature — Fupsrconduckons ed nt vyatesiat dhah honaves ag ab 1ompurasure => 37 h defined. Supasconductons chou, gah (-196 256 97 Bain *F). the boiling igus , en. point Of aiguid nitrog @ What & 9 PC@2 what Kind of “changes Should be wade to wan padurs wut dayere PCBs 2. > pee,on pinied cfrait board, & dhe ] wother of efectnonie pHoducts . The numba of the printed cfreit board Can be dturded thto ingle - Sided pce, double ofded pep” and mudd layer, PeBs, > Mudd dayese pem tan be called must dase PcR utith =owoe thah = dw ayers » Auch as fous. of 4 efent and 40 en, Mutt Day pea efncuth poand wuge, moat Single sfded OU double sided chrewh beard do tnemeote chreeth a a = ¥ -Mivantages of Mubtitayer, PeBs . amatt and Compacl Pee va Component Dorsity Ligrd wd eat Commendable. Retin idity. and. Dura brie Duiprement adton. of com plese cfnewtts Fast Renfermance , disadvantages ot Mubsitayer PtBg- fltgh expense, —> Comblecc puocedune am Fequitess Latest Machinery — Mncreased fabrroation Teme ae Difffeut+ to find. @proes. i eeu @ xplatn. tet! proces of pattern fn Pare prctoednletng yany of Aeuaxal povocesses of produ ckng. ating. plafes Photo gnapnte wyeans . Irn ganna » 9 plate Coated ott a photosensttve aubstonce fs exposed to an fmage , usually 4 Rid y the prate fe then freated fh vou ous wsal)s dependfn upor. usnether fk fe yo be used Pr a oetief- en Gravure) patot og process a PBZ Spwcnduclons s-- > Ta yeax str, Kamen tings wos wer bing adith eye He ‘absenved thak ak 4-2 Kelrf the seafetance. af mercy becomes weay xend. teil : t Oo at #2K 43 HH TOK) ) —dupexconducter -%& a matenfal whteh Shows Kane yeshstance. : Below Centaky -tempexature ft ahouls, thee puotben ty ® called dupercond- | -uchulty: : _, The = femperatune -R Hrown 38 oritreal em pexatuse . a 2 critical temperature the mater'al Be mpmal = State. _5 Below ent fi'cal temas afure” the naterta) | & fh. Superconducting. StAbG aT > Mereuny (+9) below 4:2 Becomes Aupsyconducter bet Aq (silver) dees mot. a a. “he tk) Messenalt CHreee of magn ett field. = pigh yemper ature ; tig magnet fil oh cunnenk density vanish ep Al oh Te _> huporconducter hhows expansion ands Peeror ye’ — Aupecon ductor aie. Pesfect aigmagr wateuial * : _sNo loss ae * enagyy cond chon: - genviat'er ofS trong. mag-netfe field. Meateutal Gr » Crabfeum = rth Slum Briy :, : : 12k “nda » pas Awreun' : 469 Boon (435 sialic ae HZ Pleroalectriesty a chase —>'Prexoelectntety, g& | the elool rfe that acer va ut fn cestain solid myaterreds th syesponse +o applied Meehantcaf See the wWosd peoxarlectr? wand ecteFeti resulting from pnesture . > Prezo cheat Fert ¢ effect fe the n, Od of costal appeals, te ilpon ponse as an eheetrite “change. &n. applied wechanical ai Force vette) Surface tf rage = ry edorkhn prfrefple te > When prevoelectintc vyatesufol fy 1 umdes, Meahanieal stoess, 9 Placed: | of positive and Negative chan center mm the wafer fal ates ta whtoh phen syesult fh oh Plae 6 ” Ehectnfe field who vreuture pe otha, ocleairfe field Other — ste on othe compueos {he ate wyaferras x nay — ynene ane, watescale both natural and wan wade thal exthtbre the +4 of prexoeleatnie effect. c oi coroelectr GeeurrFh Some naturally wateskal Fdludes fou) YUar4s 4 bextinds Cane sug-at - yochelfe. salt , <> An @xansple of- wanmad & precoclectn®. vyotesutal 4” Banbury qitanafe , Jead- xatrconate, titanate. Apple aon — _» Tirezotechme lege & used th high fe technolo Wankel, auch a8. wyedical {ech nology - LuttHasound nanguttor Sound usave ). a oechue the — > Mechanfeaf and autowot ve eng frat on genuconductor ce ee : Buc z = “a ks fe * ¥ + eH present fa d arfe e@ qos got wu : 5 ik Shour a — wo wpe dl a ' a : : Typfous year Quilon — 2.020 / cd) What Ss dtefectnPe negonance, 9 Didectrfes En gras >» can ke dlescrbed a8 matextals thatU aye uy poor conductors of electn’g Cwuarif - ate pastc: insulators and contetn ne "nde elect-ron. wt Dieleatrbes can be easily polaxizned usher ae etectrig field Js applied “go it. A Aielectnt, yesoncttax €s a piece, of drelectofe, rjaterfaf , usually. ceyamée , that designed ao funetlon as a sesonatoy for sa dhe- UdaLUEs , fr. the microXaue and vulld&meter ulaue bands. : @ What 7 a Gepenr par 2 + spain of electrons oo. Zupexconductorr that ave attract bound ahd row equal and oppostfe | momentum and apir. the Copper pau ane faumed by electron— phonen. Fnfeacdkiow -an eleetron 8 the coder dattee. ali distort the dattee, atound Ff , creating. an aa fete postftve. chasge de ita. anound #f8elf. @) @ ofa e sent aphi'c adhe electnen soul panes, of estate energy bands for an “kag smetef, demi-metal and fumtcenductor. Explaty abe dhe difference. between A dumi-metal and = gemicenductas - us. #£7h ane wdlan, bay sn band Owwlap ea, Ud cee - ehe, & ‘ue band gab tn og As, Sy femtconducty + thu & a Smay bo Md et Th an hang gee ApiunetpaSiel eter sichion, band & almost empiy te, ho slechen & ovesinkli fox Conductien . — Metals auc dhe Kubttances thak ave, valanally tound bola) the eadth. Ke Conduction bond fe ithe filed w Fouls ied worl, she valence band B bavtfealiy empty: — re P setoiel noun! {rom Sod onset, Je fig onueay, oui th sbehoue a8 free edtrons. f ae forbidden ge an the case — hee & ane sonductien band ahd the of tne yolence. band. | —> th Sunleonductans fhe bands aru nor t 7 qo the foxmy Jef qo be tena, populated slfth electrons a y a eennzwgy a © Pemyedie Me of eedrone ay hales- whe effective wyaas fs deternthed be the a eS eC) —» whe we wass fe the een Sect, ne hiles fr the cngetaf 40 fi the newton *s Jaw) for ai : be breaswud dfn te ee a Senor nl onyatal us Sune fected Bh i oe Seduchfor. 8B and tuned Apunce, hth o — Po effedthae mas Can be coleudated by mip et 2 opr? 42m | i> (Byte tang - O@ What do yoy understand ty Condudtiuity? Considey yhe wonductul a Sent V ee > endn +t CPuy, . Ul dop aaa crease the, con duettulty on Ge unit eleetnont , - ja Concentration and win (uh) on eer (hole) waobdtity 2 Conduchiuity fs the weasune of dhe eae at she on eleotni® oh an heot can. Pass ‘throuah, a watenta{ — conductiuf fe the ab?lt Solution as rans t eheke act $4 —— athe conduchiutty of a Somconductae #3 gic by. the € ypseasion. +e avhure ate ve the electroh vy Obid 5 tot fe the hole. wyobiity and e 4 the. Sen chasige, . Cen. the wyohilities decnease ~ atith. & creasing. dempexdivw and doping concenthaHon. = Medite + fe uh: _, Doptng does mat Anchease. Yhe conductiuits. 4uppase that we haue an fntn Paste ample with n= p sbut the hote amt woes i tes Pa Smaller. Th sae dope the matesial ueey alight, altth p- tybe | ther. pram. toueunr , th& sdeuld cleereose@ the. conductfait became Pf toatl oe wou hates STH foulor mobil | the expense of — esectrons | edfihe eee! . Obufoualy all | -fuxth ex doting Pnepeareg Suffres to susutt att conductiut nen - fog. olitfL. © extent of dopfng - So, ame Poplng does, mot stasis &ncne ase the, Conduct u ite Z ©)Mhat fe proelectoic , dfnect and Converse effects 2 The f, roeleatnrel & +he prope at age engeie es pyoduce efectrizof enatay te fs Aubjecded to g change of: ee Brena, « / 7, ctyoroetectniehty 5 Ihe spetease of mm —=y > Le tas age Sto a vyatesetaf change, of —tem poss ecw kr att woateterals shat- Jalon a Ppolate enystat Symyetoy Das | ¢ Yo. @ what f meant bY direleatn® Co oe oy vena, zthe ont’ of cdeatrBacke mR Podantx alien : > Diet eatnfe, Constant ef a 4ubstance opr vjatesriat oe Gg measuse of- Ss abist qo Ateye efeetrfeaf enegy - _5 Dreteatr&, Constant (Er) vS depned a3 ne satte -f the eleatn ke — pesimeakilr of the rjcteseiop do the clectofe” perm ea bitty freee space Cte, vac and ats Gate Con danhued from a Bp Seen bifPed wap acon ~vriodel - = afectron te rpolauralion orcuns due ite Fr yoplacement of the. Contes. yhe mes raed. charged ebectron cloud refaluw qo ine ostitive. muclerts -of on abom- the electrfe fretd . aes mt ~~ postfyea nucleus Cantrotd. of adeodron coud. 2, 2 ar Atom. placed Th Blectrfe [ald . \ _5 sheckronts palaufdlion sefexs to she Soper clion of. center of poritine charge and ae CE ts ates eds atl onaterntaf. The Aeperofiion can be caused by, a Sufficient hfgh. - eleatnfe freld . —>Glectronfe polarix obaslity depends on Ee eaten pe the ator and En dependent ot “Tempuilww 3 wr () What axe pasa magnet _Dateutaty { the Spin. porta nets my RUSE € “ela, electron .ron-fi Pan you) Yb teal youes wlth tempore for act cperanjagnedic wjaterias 7 —> moan melite Substances aye those adrn voted bsp magn etfe field aun Empatred. ofectrons = Conte ee ase ANOLE Bubostay, hat od etized oh. cthe. pesence fF an Haas magnetfe field. L —_ OO% explain the hall effect alith Suitable. AW Sxarmple . = Be producto. of 4 potentfal difference. acnoss an ebectnfeaf conductor when 9 enagnetfe fretd u& applied an 9 dfrectton. pexpendfeular to thot of the Flow of aunt. —» Frat &ffect & a Rxoress & wshfeh 9 qransvense alectrfe field seusloped fa a Zet?d © smatecta) usher dhe, mnatesrtay rasuryfng, an etectnke cwuent a placed fra ma nett. fread that fs panpendialas, jo the cusurent- The Hall Effect uJos dfscousned Sy Edulfr. Hescbert fas fn 1849. | — +~ metal ep Zamfoondu cfax, casoaytn, | w Gooert TF, placed? Rivsa a thaneas \ magnetite fierd B, and eheatnie fied €, — fe Enduced th the dimection pexpend?- weulax fo both. cent and. magnetfe. | Ffeld , +hfs Phenomensn. 1% Called | Halk @ffect and Electr fetd oP | 2 Snduced. & Called +fatl voltage (mt), Bx enstag gentthond Sofery. bat poston. for ote! bag ConTrof - ° i ® af fe Fesrna- fray attatisttes » ~ Zane Formi=Dinag function uate, “feud -tempouatune ? ty, <> fam’ Dfoag staisies & a Powtutay ca pouttele atotisttes deurloped Ennkey feumt and. paul Dfrag shat detesimfna, he statisHeol dfetrPbuition - of. fermfong que the eneigy Afates by a fo promod «equilib . Apsten, _, font Dirac: statfetfes means that othe otal Woe funcHon -of- fermions must ke antisyummethic under an. exchan: of eu pass of fermions. (that %, on exchanges any. -fexmion Sith anotten, ehe uhave funchi qets oe eusrall mfnus den) ‘ —> glectroms ane, an éxample of a ype of pouutele called a fermion. ether fermion include. protens and meutrens : —> he feumt- Drag fundiow mass, uit tempoatunr.» tne, eM PexaTuw freneare, the electrons gatn moe and move enera¢ due to ushteh, th Ca euth. ose do the Conductfon band. TeOK | 380K f { “Ts 2s00 6 ~Lo -0f -02 Oo2 oct Era 0) — Opreinet te a hale fr SemPcondu ctay? Explath yhe merement ef hele Fr Semiconductor. — a hole & an absence of an eleciror Bra pasticulose place fi an atom Attheugh. at Pe moh ia physread pasdide fn the dame dense as an efectron, a hale can be passed -from atom te atom & ai Zemiconductor maternal - Gleeinons and heles , both ave the change cossfens fn ony. Semeconductor Substance, ~* fetes axe foymed arhen efeetnons oh afoms move suf of the watence hand ( fhe Aufexmestk Shers the atom that & Compiefety fitted ul#h electrons). Ente athe conducts band. _5 stole f2Qq metal ap Semiconductor crystal Jattice, Can move {hough tne doildever, ag eteetrons san, and act Aime te post tively charged = Pasctictes - fel arm poste yale in nee operation of AZemiconductor deutees a | | \ | Such. as -fransistens , dtedes and Tntegnated | CPo cuits - > Fe maument of hates of ttectnfal c fn Bamicenducter Fs Called secombinakin fe the external pteatnte fretd 1 applied 4o phe Remiconductex Me electrons and a hofes wilt conduc’ fr. oppostte dq Preetions: i if a) fl =: Consides1 @q - tye Sic + _ ® beer dopedt inlet atte eae a Concentnatiena— SF on Sem-3 ere fo Conus shes ¢e m-st poe conductul ty, acn-t er to Porcens what &s she coner concentrator we need - ET @@ what aye de enexale and nen— , —* pogermnaté fellfeonductons 7 explacry vofity authable Emerg band diagram. demiconductoys ane a ctype &a uwhich. a high. obseuved 5 act as —y pegenvedle &y Acmicondu ctoys deuel of: depkng can be anaking dhe. “em?conductor metal dhan a4 Zemiconducton. = 4 degernxate gemiconducter fk a Semioon- aductox adhat has a band gab amallue than ffs equithsfurn Feym? deuet- —? Non- Desenmate Kemifeonductaxg ang @ pe of Zemé conductaxs Con afr fog madevate deuet ef dopfng and dhe. dopant atoms aye ud depaated f00m eqch. othe. — allffhe meg tia thle fntex actons . ote adem? conduathy: > A lon-_degenseate Ft. mofestdal has a Larger band. gah fits aquidi bsefum, Resym? Lent. +har pe p-type femiconductors ase J Ne ty fomé Example of degenerate germiconductors, — xno Beo oe fome, &xample of Non - eqarunate, emt conductons- ' be ~ Phat Ton waegenenate— Non-degensnot L OE aig Eh degen év yo Secs a ©/ Explain she pyocess of fe Oo ronta grade Su con. moat te example % dfagnam : Tet aly > chednonfe grade aittoon (E05 on east) ae a al pusifred wnaion of rey hy - eal grade. Sidfeoh with. extrem, f° you) “enpusities chultabte Sor srofenoaso doufees applications. no Bfectnonte grade Aibeon. fe the ros)’ matesdaf used fos. the growth of. Aingde. enystal aivicon Pr the Mahuta 7 Fng. of Bidteon . [Link]- — the fos m aliony of eleetnomée grade iltcon or from metalurgical grade aikicon. & aceom pLebed ( chemfeal , ere oct ocossea. The baste Concept Bea ae dhe Convexsfon ns Mas foa velatthe dfticen Cornpound , whieh & “pusdffed at Ale Huiation + and Aubseq m poses | po 5a,- FOI dlemental Zibveon of highn ee > mne Ateetronte ade fibfeon- sa che i! a aatiad pom, eae - metallunefeay ditioon, used ee i Semboonductors #0 be used & Computers and Seusral electronte deutces. 4i(mas) yet ocd Tiydnoclexkoation | of Mas Loud boiling 7 . << (p tattation, ——» gral 4- “tmpunitles | ginads Vapourtzction and : evo. af gids, i 4c) Studs sitda, tHe alc chionosdlone | Sidt KH pe COURK | apes | 4 | He Z in Hed Hy drogen. and ud ve cours 4 Pooduction of &48 thom mus. P @ @ Yoo mv firihed Dafon, & py 4 ° ep > method of manuf oéluxing dtimBeondBaks. mforor uIapors Freludos a double, ahi potrnasy. minnos, pollshing Aieb .and 7 Atngte° ahde f frod waPoron pottehing atoy he method Aauing, the afdod umPrnos. aiecheng adiep fs © Capable of hf fatness feuek wafer processing. + up byes of gfne dust os poueticles , there by ty M Fponeare jhe yield ~of Zumiconduckor, deukees » Fohere prodictiut due. sto- Shen pli fiteasion. rf processes, hight wolity epuocessin path. Lowder mans faking Cost than. Conuantonaf methods. > ‘The [Link] Susfaces, ave made pasifeckty. far and. gfaen- a -minnoy fpinbsh means Mechan@--) chemicaf rauichtg ustrg, collordad SiLkca. aan Methad of- manu fackung a muuv Kultchuhg wafer, fr whieh a double side potishing Step fox anfrrase cpotfching both. Zusfaces ef a Aifcon oo) Safer a fre. etching &s Pex foxes fn a botch. ~manney, and g piuasdty. mfnnox patched. asapercs aie, ohanu fasured,. OA ray of dol) - fernfassuitiue- Co ° mateniaf has Keo syestetance fr the Supuyeonducting. atate, then fhe temperature ef the matewaf fs belo) +he entyFeaf -temperatuye , ifs yesfstance abyup louors do kone , fox €xornple — HMereuty Shows Karo yests toince below 4 kelufo. —> low -lemperolune Superconductors suefous Fo moterfalr adith a esdtfoal -fernbenaliue below 206 9 and aye cooled maint by. Squid = etfum C Te > 42 &). —> lod tempndluse yequbuds for, Aupoxcondyctor because a metalt uonductoyr shar an eleotnfeat speatetance that deeneases the douwSex the tempendtiye 2, ushen the. conductox <«& Cafled yo a temperature belod sts esfffoal fempecativw » the Clectnieal wesfegance drops to rene, ang thect phenomenon fe Called | duper cond uettulte,. tet — a a7 9 Buea nduckors CZ» superlo Kerhtance, ° 5 ENG: —Ternp-

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