1. State the concept of Non-Repudiation.

Non-repudiation ensures that a sender cannot deny sending a message and the receiver cannot deny
receiving it. It provides proof of origin and delivery using techniques like digital signatures.

2. Define a Denial of Service (DoS) attack and its impact on network availability.
A Denial of Service (DoS) attack is an attempt to make a system or network unavailable by
overwhelming it with excessive traffic or requests. It affects network availability by slowing down or
completely blocking access for legitimate users.

3. What is the role of digital certificates in authentication?

Digital certificates are used to verify the identity of users or servers. They bind a public key with an
entity and are issued by a trusted Certificate Authority (CA), ensuring secure communication.

4. Define mediated key exchange.

Mediated key exchange is a method where a trusted third party helps two communicating parties
securely establish a shared secret key.

5. What is the main advantage of public-key cryptography over symmetric cryptography?

The main advantage is that it eliminates the need for secure key distribution, as it uses a pair of
public and private keys.

6. What is the purpose of the RSA algorithm in cryptography?

The RSA algorithm is used for secure data transmission. It supports encryption, decryption, and
digital signatures using a pair of keys (public and private).

7. Define format string vulnerability.

A format string vulnerability is a security flaw that occurs when user input is unsafely used in format
functions like printf, allowing attackers to access or modify memory.

8. Define UDP hijacking. What is the difference between a virus and a worm?
UDP hijacking is an attack where an attacker takes control of a UDP session by sending spoofed
packets.
A virus requires a host file or program to spread, whereas a worm spreads independently across
networks without user intervention.

9. What is an intrusion detection system, and how does it work?

An Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is a security tool that monitors network or system activities for
malicious actions. It works by analyzing traffic and comparing it with known attack patterns or
detecting unusual behavior.
10. Differentiate between SSL and TLS in terms of security.
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) is an older protocol with weaker security, while TLS (Transport Layer
Security) is a newer and more secure version that provides stronger encryption and improved
security features.

Part-B

11. a. Discuss about confidentiality and authentication in securing network communication

with suitable examples.

Introduction:
In network security, confidentiality and authentication are two fundamental principles that ensure
secure communication over networks. They protect data from unauthorized access and verify the
identity of communicating parties.

Confidentiality:
Confidentiality ensures that sensitive information is accessible only to authorized users and is
protected from unauthorized disclosure.

Techniques used for confidentiality:

• Encryption: Data is converted into an unreadable format using algorithms.

• Symmetric Encryption: Uses a single shared key (e.g., AES).

• Asymmetric Encryption: Uses public and private key pairs (e.g., RSA).

Example:
When a user logs into an online banking system, the data (username, password) is encrypted using
protocols like TLS. Even if intercepted, the attacker cannot read the data without the key.

Authentication:
Authentication ensures that the identity of users, devices, or systems is verified before granting
access.

Methods of authentication:

• Password-based authentication

• Biometric authentication (fingerprint, face recognition)

• Digital certificates

• Multi-factor authentication (MFA)

Example:
When accessing email, the user enters a password and may also receive a one-time password (OTP)
on their phone. This confirms the user’s identity before granting access.
Role in Network Communication:

• Confidentiality protects the data being transmitted.

• Authentication verifies the identity of communicating entities.

• Together, they prevent unauthorized access, data breaches, and impersonation attacks.

Combined Example:
In secure web browsing (HTTPS):

• Authentication is achieved using digital certificates to verify the server.

• Confidentiality is ensured by encrypting the data exchanged between client and server.

11. b. Explain the role of access control and availability in network security and discuss
different methods to enforce them.

Introduction:
Access control and availability are essential components of network security. Access control
ensures that only authorized users can access resources, while availability ensures that systems and
data are accessible when needed.

Access Control:
Access control is the process of restricting access to network resources based on user identity,
roles, or permissions.

Role of Access Control:

• Prevents unauthorized access to sensitive data

• Protects system resources from misuse

• Ensures data integrity and confidentiality

• Enforces organizational security policies

Methods to Enforce Access Control:

• Authentication: Verifies user identity (passwords, biometrics, OTP)

• Authorization: Determines what resources a user can access

• Access Control Models:

o Discretionary Access Control (DAC): Owner decides access rights

o Mandatory Access Control (MAC): Access based on security labels

o Role-Based Access Control (RBAC): Access based on user roles

• Access Control Lists (ACLs): Define permissions for users or groups

• Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Adds extra layers of security

Example:
In a company, only HR personnel can access employee records using role-based access control.

Availability:
Availability ensures that network systems, services, and data are accessible to authorized users
whenever required.

Role of Availability:

• Ensures continuous system operation

• Minimizes downtime and service disruption

• Supports business continuity

• Protects against Denial of Service (DoS) attacks

Methods to Enforce Availability:

• Redundancy: Backup systems, servers, and network paths

• Load Balancing: Distributes traffic to avoid overload

• Regular Maintenance: Updates and patches systems

• Disaster Recovery Planning: Backup and recovery strategies

• Firewalls and IDS/IPS: Protect against attacks affecting availability

• Anti-DoS Techniques: Traffic filtering and rate limiting

Example:
Websites like banking systems use backup servers and load balancing to ensure services remain
available even during high traffic or failures.

12. a. Explain Password-based authentication and discuss the challenges associated with
password security.

Introduction:
Password-based authentication is the most common method used to verify a user’s identity in
computer systems and networks. It relies on a secret password known only to the user.

Password-Based Authentication:
In this method, a user provides a username and password to gain access to a system. The system
verifies the entered password by comparing it with the stored password (usually in encrypted or
hashed form).

Working Process:

1. User enters username and password.

2. The system retrieves the stored password hash.

3. The entered password is hashed and compared.

 4. If both match, access is granted; otherwise, access is denied.

Advantages:

• Simple and easy to implement

• Low cost

• Widely supported across systems

Challenges in Password Security:

1. Weak Passwords:
Users often choose simple passwords that are easy to guess.

2. Password Guessing Attacks:

Attackers use brute-force or dictionary attacks to crack passwords.

3. Password Reuse:
Using the same password across multiple sites increases risk.

4. Phishing Attacks:
Users may unknowingly reveal passwords to fake websites or emails.

5. Storage Vulnerabilities:
If passwords are not properly hashed or encrypted, they can be stolen from databases.

6. Keylogging and Malware:

Malicious software can capture passwords entered by users.

7. Shoulder Surfing:
Attackers may observe users entering passwords in public places.

Methods to Improve Password Security:

• Use strong and complex passwords (mix of letters, numbers, symbols)

• Implement Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)

• Store passwords using secure hashing algorithms (e.g., bcrypt)

• Enforce password policies (length, expiration)

• Use account lockout mechanisms after multiple failed attempts

12. b. How do Digital Signatures ensure authentication and integrity? Explain with an example.

Introduction:
Digital signatures are a cryptographic technique used to verify the authenticity and integrity of a
message or document. They are widely used in secure communications and electronic transactions.
Digital Signature Concept:
A digital signature is created using a sender’s private key and can be verified using the corresponding
public key. It ensures that the message is from a legitimate sender and has not been altered.

Ensuring Authentication:

• The sender signs the message using their private key.

• Only the sender possesses this private key.

• The receiver uses the sender’s public key to verify the signature.

• If verification is successful, it confirms the sender’s identity.

Ensuring Integrity:

• A hash (message digest) of the original message is created.

• This hash is encrypted using the sender’s private key to form the digital signature.

• The receiver decrypts the signature using the public key and compares it with a newly
generated hash of the received message.

• If both hashes match, the message has not been altered.

Working Steps:

1. Sender creates a message.

2. A hash of the message is generated.

3. The hash is encrypted with the sender’s private key (digital signature).

4. The message and signature are sent to the receiver.

5. Receiver decrypts the signature using the sender’s public key.

6. Receiver compares hashes to verify integrity and authenticity.

Example:
When a user signs a digital document (e.g., an online contract):

• The document is hashed and signed using the user’s private key.

• The receiver verifies the signature using the sender’s public key.

• If the document is modified after signing, the hash will not match, and the signature
verification will fail.

Advantages of Digital Signatures:

 • Provides authentication and integrity

• Prevents tampering of data

• Supports non-repudiation

• Widely used in secure communications (e.g., email, e-commerce)

13. a. Explain cryptographic hash functions and their properties with examples.

Introduction:
A cryptographic hash function is a mathematical algorithm that converts input data (message) into a
fixed-length string called a hash value or message digest. It is widely used in security applications to
ensure data integrity.

Cryptographic Hash Function:

A hash function takes an input of any size and produces a fixed-size output. The output appears
random and is unique for different inputs.

Examples of hash functions:

• MD5 (Message Digest 5)

• SHA-1 (Secure Hash Algorithm 1)

• SHA-256 (part of SHA-2 family)

Working Principle:

1. Input message is given to the hash function.

2. The function processes the data using mathematical operations.

3. A fixed-length hash value is generated.

4. Even a small change in input produces a completely different hash.

Properties of Cryptographic Hash Functions:

1. Deterministic:
Same input always produces the same hash output.

2. Fixed Output Length:

Regardless of input size, the hash value has a fixed length.

3. Pre-image Resistance:
It is computationally infeasible to determine the original input from its hash.

4. Second Pre-image Resistance:

It is difficult to find a different input that produces the same hash as a given input.

5. Collision Resistance:
It is hard to find two different inputs that produce the same hash value.
 6. Avalanche Effect:
A small change in input results in a large and unpredictable change in the hash.

Examples:

• If the input is:

"Hello" → Hash: 185f8db32271fe25f561a6fc938b2e264306ec304eda518007d1764826381969

• If input changes slightly:

"hello" → Completely different hash value

This shows the avalanche effect and sensitivity to input changes.

Applications of Hash Functions:

• Password storage (store hash instead of plain text)

• Data integrity verification

• Digital signatures

• Message authentication codes (MAC)

• Blockchain technology

13. b. Explain the working of HMAC and its security benefits.

Introduction:
HMAC (Hash-based Message Authentication Code) is a cryptographic technique used to ensure both
data integrity and authentication. It combines a cryptographic hash function with a secret key,
making it more secure than simple hashing.

Concept of HMAC:
HMAC uses a shared secret key and a hash function (such as SHA-256) to generate a fixed-length
authentication code. Only authorized users with the secret key can create or verify the HMAC value.

Working of HMAC:

1. A secret key and the input message are taken.

2. The key is padded to a fixed length.

3. Two constants are used: inner pad (ipad) and outer pad (opad).

4. The key is XORed with the inner pad and combined with the message.

5. This result is hashed using a hash function.

6. The output is then combined with the key XORed with the outer pad.

7. The final hash value is produced as the HMAC.

Simplified Formula:
HMAC = Hash[(K ⊕ opad) || Hash((K ⊕ ipad) || message)]

Formula:
HMAC = Hash[(K ⊕ opad) || Hash((K ⊕ ipad) || M)]

Verification Process:

• The receiver computes HMAC using the same key and algorithm.

• The computed value is compared with the received HMAC.

• If both match, the message is authentic and unchanged.

Security Benefits of HMAC:

1. Data Integrity:
Any change in the message results in a different HMAC value.

2. Authentication:
Only users with the secret key can generate a valid HMAC.

3. Resistance to Collision Attacks:

HMAC reduces risks associated with weaknesses in hash functions.

4. Protection Against Replay Attacks:

When combined with timestamps or sequence numbers.

5. Key-Based Security:
Provides stronger security than plain hash functions.

6. Efficiency:
Faster than public-key cryptography methods like digital signatures.

Applications of HMAC:

• Secure web communication (HTTPS)

• API authentication (e.g., cloud services)

• Message integrity verification

• VPNs and network protocols

Example:
When sending a secure message in a network:

• Sender generates HMAC using a secret key and message.

• Receiver recalculates HMAC using the same key.

 • If both values match, the message is verified as authentic and intact.

14. a (i) Explain routing table modification attacks and how they affect network security.

Introduction:
Routing table modification attacks occur when an attacker alters the routing information in a network
device (such as a router) to misdirect network traffic.

Routing Table Modification Attack:

A routing table contains paths that determine how data packets travel across a network. In this
attack, malicious users manipulate these entries to control or disrupt data flow.

How the Attack Works:

• The attacker gains access to a router or network system.

• They modify routing entries or inject false routing information.

• Traffic is redirected to unintended paths controlled by the attacker.

Effects on Network Security:

1. Traffic Interception:
Attackers can capture sensitive data (e.g., passwords, financial information).

2. Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attack:

Attacker positions themselves between sender and receiver.

3. Packet Loss or Delay:

Data packets may be dropped or delayed, affecting performance.

4. Denial of Service (DoS):

Incorrect routing can make services unavailable.

5. Data Manipulation:
Attackers may alter the content of packets before forwarding.

Example:
An attacker modifies a router’s table to redirect all traffic through their system, allowing them to
monitor or tamper with communication.

Conclusion:
Routing table modification attacks are dangerous as they compromise confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of network communication.
14. a (ii) How do attackers modify a routing table to intercept network traffic? What are the
defenses?

Introduction:
Attackers use various techniques to modify routing tables and intercept traffic. Understanding these
methods helps in implementing effective defenses.

How Attackers Modify Routing Tables:

1. Routing Protocol Exploitation:

• Exploiting protocols like RIP or OSPF by sending fake routing updates.

2. ARP Spoofing/Poisoning:

• Attacker sends fake ARP messages to associate their MAC address with a legitimate IP.

3. Compromising Routers:

• Gaining unauthorized access to routers and manually altering routing entries.

4. BGP Hijacking:

• Advertising false routes in Border Gateway Protocol to redirect internet traffic.

5. DNS Manipulation:

• Redirecting domain names to malicious IP addresses.

Defenses Against Routing Table Attacks:

1. Authentication of Routing Protocols:

• Use secure versions with authentication (e.g., OSPF with authentication).

2. Encryption:

• Use VPNs or encrypted communication (TLS, IPsec).

3. Access Control:

• Restrict access to routers using strong passwords and ACLs.

4. Network Monitoring:

• Use IDS/IPS to detect unusual routing changes.

5. Static Routing (where possible):

• Reduces dependency on dynamic updates.

6. Secure Configuration:

• Disable unused services and regularly update firmware.

Example:
In ARP spoofing, an attacker tricks devices into sending traffic to them. Using tools like Dynamic ARP
Inspection can prevent such attacks.

14. b. Explain the concept of UDP hijacking, how it is executed, and how organizations can
defend against it.

Introduction:
UDP hijacking is a network attack in which an attacker takes control of a User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) communication session by injecting or spoofing packets. Since UDP is a connectionless
protocol and lacks built-in security mechanisms, it is more vulnerable to such attacks.

Concept of UDP Hijacking:

UDP does not establish a secure connection before data transmission and does not verify the
sender’s identity. This allows attackers to send forged packets pretending to be a legitimate source,
thereby hijacking the communication.

How UDP Hijacking is Executed:

1. Packet Sniffing:
The attacker monitors network traffic to identify active UDP sessions and gather information
such as IP addresses and port numbers.

2. IP Spoofing:
The attacker creates fake packets with a forged source IP address, pretending to be a trusted
sender.

3. Session Prediction:
Since UDP lacks sequence numbers (in many cases), attackers can easily guess packet
details and inject malicious data.

4. Packet Injection:
The attacker sends crafted packets into the communication stream, which are accepted by
the receiver as legitimate.

5. Man-in-the-Middle Setup:
The attacker may position themselves between sender and receiver to intercept, modify, or
redirect traffic.

Impact of UDP Hijacking:

• Data Interception: Sensitive information can be captured.

• Data Manipulation: Attackers can alter transmitted data.

• Service Disruption: Communication may be interrupted.

• Unauthorized Access: Attackers may gain control over services using UDP.
Examples:

• DNS spoofing attacks using UDP

• VoIP call interception

• Online gaming session hijacking

Defenses Against UDP Hijacking:

1. Encryption Protocols:
Use secure protocols like IPsec to encrypt UDP traffic.

2. Authentication Mechanisms:
Implement message authentication (e.g., HMAC) to verify packet integrity.

3. Firewalls and Filtering:

Configure firewalls to block suspicious or unauthorized UDP packets.

4. Network Monitoring:
Use Intrusion Detection/Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS) to detect abnormal traffic.

5. Randomized Ports:
Use random source ports to make session prediction difficult.

6. Secure DNS (DNSSEC):

Prevents DNS spoofing attacks.

7. Access Control Policies:

Restrict which systems can send or receive UDP traffic.

15. a) i) Justify the role of firewalls in protecting enterprise networks from cyber threats.

Introduction:
A firewall is a network security device (hardware or software) that monitors and controls incoming
and outgoing network traffic based on predefined security rules. It acts as a barrier between trusted
internal networks and untrusted external networks.

Role of Firewalls in Enterprise Security:

1. Traffic Filtering:
Firewalls inspect data packets and allow or block traffic based on rules such as IP address,
port number, and protocol.

2. Access Control:
They restrict unauthorized users from accessing internal network resources.

3. Protection Against Attacks:

Firewalls help prevent attacks such as unauthorized access, malware, and certain types of
Denial of Service (DoS).

4. Network Segmentation:
Firewalls divide networks into segments, limiting the spread of attacks within an enterprise.
 5. Monitoring and Logging:
They log network activity, helping administrators detect suspicious behavior.

6. Application-Level Filtering:
Advanced firewalls (like next-generation firewalls) can inspect application-level traffic for
deeper security.

Example:
An enterprise firewall blocks unauthorized external users from accessing internal company servers
while allowing employees to browse the internet securely.

Conclusion:
Firewalls play a critical role in enterprise network security by controlling traffic, preventing
unauthorized access, and acting as the first line of defense against cyber threats.

15. a) ii) Describe the importance of DNS security and the threats associated with secured DNS.

Introduction:
The Domain Name System (DNS) translates domain names into IP addresses. DNS security ensures
that this process is protected from manipulation and attacks.

Importance of DNS Security:

1. Prevents Redirection Attacks:

Ensures users reach the correct website instead of malicious ones.

2. Maintains Data Integrity:

Prevents unauthorized modification of DNS records.

3. Supports Secure Communication:

Ensures trust in online services such as banking and email.

4. Protects Against Phishing:

Stops attackers from redirecting users to fake websites.

Threats Associated with DNS:

1. DNS Spoofing (Cache Poisoning):

Attackers insert false DNS records to redirect users.

2. DNS Hijacking:
Unauthorized changes to DNS settings to redirect traffic.

3. DNS Amplification Attacks:

A type of DoS attack using DNS servers to flood a target.
 4. Man-in-the-Middle Attacks:
Intercepting DNS queries and responses.

5. Malware-Based Attacks:
Malicious software alters DNS configurations on user devices.

Secured DNS (e.g., DNSSEC):

DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC) add authentication to DNS responses using digital signatures,
ensuring data integrity and authenticity.

15. b. Describe in detail the working of SSL/TLS, including the handshake process and
encryption techniques.

Introduction:
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security) are cryptographic protocols used to
secure communication over a network. TLS is the improved and more secure version of SSL. They
provide confidentiality, integrity, and authentication in applications such as web browsing (HTTPS),
email, and online transactions.

Working of SSL/TLS:
SSL/TLS operates between the application layer and transport layer to encrypt data before
transmission. It uses a combination of asymmetric encryption, symmetric encryption, and hash
functions.

SSL/TLS Handshake Process:

The handshake is the initial phase where the client and server establish a secure connection.

1. Client Hello:
The client sends a message to the server containing:

• Supported SSL/TLS version

• List of supported cipher suites

• Random number (client random)

2. Server Hello:
The server responds with:

• Selected protocol version

• Chosen cipher suite

• Random number (server random)

3. Server Certificate:
The server sends its digital certificate to authenticate its identity.

4. Server Key Exchange (if required):

Additional key information is sent depending on the cipher suite.
 5. Client Verification of Certificate:
The client verifies the server’s certificate using a trusted Certificate Authority (CA).

6. Client Key Exchange:

The client generates a pre-master secret and encrypts it using the server’s public key, then
sends it to the server.

7. Session Key Generation:

Both client and server use the pre-master secret and random numbers to generate a shared
session key.

8. Change Cipher Spec:

Both parties signal that future messages will be encrypted.

9. Finished Messages:
Both client and server send encrypted messages to confirm successful handshake.

Encryption Techniques Used:

1. Asymmetric Encryption:
Used during the handshake to securely exchange keys (e.g., RSA).

2. Symmetric Encryption:
Used for actual data transmission because it is faster (e.g., AES).

3. Hash Functions:
Used for data integrity (e.g., SHA-256) to ensure messages are not altered.

Security Services Provided:

• Confidentiality: Data is encrypted.

• Authentication: Server identity is verified using certificates.

• Integrity: Hashing ensures data is not modified.

Example:
When a user visits an HTTPS website, the browser and server perform the TLS handshake. Once
completed, all data (login credentials, transactions) is securely encrypted.

16. a. Discuss the importance of Message Authentication Codes in cryptographic security.

Introduction:
A Message Authentication Code (MAC) is a cryptographic technique used to verify both the integrity
and authenticity of a message. It uses a secret key along with a hash function or block cipher to
generate a fixed-size code.

Concept of Message Authentication Code (MAC):

A MAC is generated by applying a cryptographic algorithm to a message along with a shared secret
key. The sender computes the MAC and sends it along with the message. The receiver recomputes
the MAC using the same key to verify the message.

Working of MAC:

1. Sender takes the message and a secret key.

2. A MAC algorithm is applied to generate a tag (MAC value).

3. The message and MAC are sent to the receiver.

4. Receiver uses the same key to generate a MAC for the received message.

5. If both MAC values match, the message is authentic and unaltered.

Types of MAC:

• HMAC (Hash-based MAC): Uses hash functions like SHA-256

• CMAC (Cipher-based MAC): Uses block ciphers like AES

Importance of MAC in Cryptographic Security:

1. Data Integrity:
Ensures that the message has not been modified during transmission.

2. Authentication:
Verifies that the message is sent by a legitimate sender who possesses the secret key.

3. Protection Against Tampering:

Any change in the message results in a different MAC value.

4. Efficiency:
MAC algorithms are faster than digital signatures, making them suitable for real-time
applications.

5. Resistance to Forgery:
Without the secret key, attackers cannot generate a valid MAC.

6. Widely Used in Protocols:

Used in secure protocols such as TLS, IPsec, and SSH.

Applications of MAC:

• Secure communication over networks

• Data transmission in banking systems

• API authentication

• Wireless network security

Example:
In secure communication, a sender sends a message with a MAC. The receiver verifies it using the
shared key. If an attacker modifies the message, the MAC verification fails, indicating tampering.

16. b. Discuss Secure Electronic Transaction (SET) in depth, including its advantages and
implementation.

Introduction:
Secure Electronic Transaction (SET) is a security protocol developed to ensure safe and secure
online payment transactions, especially for credit card payments over the internet. It was designed
by companies like Visa Inc. and Mastercard to provide confidentiality, authentication, and integrity in
electronic commerce.

Concept of SET:
SET uses cryptographic techniques such as digital signatures, encryption, and certificates to
secure payment information. It ensures that sensitive details like credit card numbers are not
exposed to unauthorized parties.

Participants in SET:

1. Cardholder: Customer making the purchase

2. Merchant: Seller offering goods/services

3. Issuing Bank: Customer’s bank

4. Acquiring Bank: Merchant’s bank

5. Payment Gateway: Processes payment authorization

6. Certificate Authority (CA): Issues digital certificates

Working / Implementation of SET:

1. Registration Phase:

• Cardholder and merchant obtain digital certificates from a CA.

2. Purchase Request:

• Customer places an order and sends encrypted payment information.

3. Dual Signature:

• SET uses dual signatures to link order information and payment information securely without
revealing them to each other.

4. Payment Authorization:

• Merchant forwards payment details to the payment gateway.

 • The issuing bank verifies the cardholder and approves/rejects the transaction.

5. Payment Capture:

• After authorization, the merchant requests payment transfer.

• Funds are transferred from the customer’s account to the merchant’s account.

Security Features of SET:

• Confidentiality: Payment data is encrypted

• Authentication: Digital certificates verify identities

• Integrity: Digital signatures ensure data is not altered

• Non-repudiation: Transactions cannot be denied

Advantages of SET:

1. High Security:
Uses strong encryption and authentication mechanisms.

2. Protection of Card Details:

Merchant does not see the customer’s credit card number.

3. Trust and Reliability:

Digital certificates ensure trust between parties.

4. Data Integrity:
Prevents tampering of transaction data.

5. Prevents Fraud:
Reduces risk of unauthorized transactions.

Limitations (Optional for Extra Marks):

• Complex implementation

• Requires digital certificates for all parties

• Higher computational overhead

• Less widely used compared to modern protocols like TLS

Example:
In an online shopping transaction, SET ensures that the customer’s payment details are securely
transmitted to the bank without exposing them to the merchant.