TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MOMBASA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ANALOG ELECTRONICS

CODE: EEE 4203

REG. NO: BSEE/041J/2024

JOHN MWANGI

LEC: MR. ONGAYO

TECH: MR. FADHILI

EXPERIMENT :Half-Wave Rectifier with and without Filter

SUBMITTED ON DATE:

23,march,26

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1. Aim
1) To examine the input and output waveforms of a Half Wave Rectifier and also calculate its load
regulation and ripple factor.
• With Filter
• Without Filter

3. Apparatus
• Transformer, 6V-0-6V -1 No.
• Diode IN4007 -1 No.
• Capacitor 100 µF / 470 µF -1 No.
• Decade Resistance Box -1 No.
• Digital Multimeter -1 No.
• CRO Probes
• Breadboard
• Connecting wires

2. Theory
3.1 Half Wave Rectification

A half-wave rectifier is a circuit used to convert AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage. It works by
allowing current to flow through the load resistor RL only during one half of the input cycle, while
blocking the other half.
In this experiment, when the input AC supply is applied, the diode becomes forward biased during the
positive half-cycle and conducts current through the load. As a result, a voltage appears across RL with
the same waveform shape as the positive half of the input signal.
During the negative half-cycle, the diode becomes reverse biased and no current flows in the circuit, so
the output voltage across RL is approximately zero. This is why only the positive half-cycle is seen at
the output.
The average value of the output voltage is the DC component measured by a DC voltmeter. For an
ideal half-wave rectifier, the rectified output is not pure DC but a pulsating waveform that still contains
ripple. The efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is low compared with a full-wave rectifier, with a theoretical
maximum of 40.6%.
In practical rectifier circuits, a transformer is used for two main reasons:
First, it steps the AC voltage up or down depending on the required output.
Second, it provides electrical isolation between the AC source and the rectifier circuit, improving safety
by reducing shock hazards on the secondary circuit.

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3.2 Theoretical Calculations for ripple factor
Without Filter
Vrms=Vm/2
Vm=2vrms
Vdc=Vm/π
Vrms=Vm/2
Vm=2vrms
Ripple factor: r = √[(Vrms/Vdc)² − 1]
Vdc=Vm/π = √[(Vm/2) / (Vm/π)]² − 1]
Ripple factor: r = √[(Vrms/Vdc)² − 1]
= √[(π/2)² − 1]
= √[(Vm/2) / (Vm/π)]² − 1]
== √[2.467
√[(π/2)² − 1]− 1] = √1.467 ≈ 1.21
Efficiency: η = 40.6%
= √[2.467 − 1] = (theoretical maximum)
√1.467 ≈ 1.21
Efficiency: η = 40.6% (theoretical maximum)

With Filter
A shunt capacitor C placed across the load RL charges to the peak voltage during the conducting half
cycle and discharges slowly through RL during the non-conducting period. This reduces the ripple
significantly.
Ripple
Ripplefactor (withfilter):
factor (with filter):r =r1=/ (2√3
1 / (2√3
×f ××
C f× ×RL)
C × RL)
Where: f = supply frequency (50 Hz)
Where: f = supply frequency
C = capacitance (100 (50µF Hz)
= 100 × 10⁻⁶ F)
RL = load resistance (Ω) × 10⁻⁶ F)
C = capacitance (100 µF = 100
RL = load resistance (Ω)

4. Circuit Diagrams
4.A Half Wave Rectifier — Without Filter

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4.B Half Wave Rectifier — With Filter

5. Procedure
5.1 Without Filter
[Link] are made as per the circuit diagram.
[Link] the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the rectifier
input.
[Link] the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc voltage at the output
of the rectifier.
[Link] the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the formula,
Vdc=Vm/П
Where, Vm=2Vrms, (Vrms=output ac voltage.)
[Link] Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula

r = ac output voltage/dc output voltage.

5.2 With Filter

1. Switch off the power supply. Connect the 100 µF capacitor in parallel with RL.
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. For the same RL values as above, record Vdc and Vac at the output.
4. Observe the change in output waveform on the CRO — note how the yellow channel (CH2)
becomes a near-flat line with small ripple, compared to the pulsating half-wave output without
the capacitor.
5. Calculate the practical ripple factor for each RL and compare with the theoretical value
r = 1/(2√3·f·C·RL).

5.3 Load Regulation

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. By increasing the value of the rheostat, the voltage across the load and current flowing
through the load are measured.
3. The reading is tabulated.
4. From the value of no-load voltages, the %regulation is calculated using the formula,
%Regulation = {(VNL-VFL)/VFL}*100

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6. Data and Data analysis
Input AC Voltage (Vrms) at transformer secondary: 6.72 V
from CH1: 5.00 V/div, peak-to-peak span = 3.8 div
→ Vpp = 19.0 V → Vm = 9.5 V → Vrms = 9.5/√2 = 6.72 V
Peak voltage Vm: 9.5 V
CH1 peak-to-peak = 3.8 div × 5.00 V/div = 19.0 V;
Vm = 19.0/2 = 9.5 V
Theoretical Vdc (no filter): Vm / π = 9.5 / 3.1416 = 3.02 V

6.1 Without Filter

RL (Ω) Vac(in) (V) Vdc(out) (V) Ripple factor (r=Vac/Vdc) % of regulation

1 6.72 2.72 1.21 11.03

2 6.72 2.81 1.21 7.47

3 6.72 2.88 1.21 4.86

4 6.72 2.93 1.21 3.07

5 6.72 3.02 1.21 0.00

6 6.72 3.05 1.21 -0.98

7 6.72 3.07 1.21 -1.63

8 6.72 3.09 1.21 -2.27

6.2 With Filter (C = 100 µF)

RL (Ω) Vac(in) (V) Vdc(out) (V) Ripple factor (r=Vac/Vdc) % of regulation

1 6.72 0.272 0.373 75

2 6.72 0.330 0.281 44.24

3 6.72 0.380 0.216 25.26

4 6.72 0.420 0.164 13.33

5 6.72 0.455 0.115 4.62

6 6.72 0.468 0.082 1.71

7 6.72 0.476 0.059 0.00

8 6.72 0.477 0.056 0.00

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7 Discussion
Without Filter: The experimental data confirms the half-wave rectifier's basic operation. The input AC
voltage remains constant at 6.72V across all load conditions, while DC output voltage increases. This
shows that lighter loads produce higher average DC voltage due to less current draw and reduced
diode voltage drop.
The ripple factor decreases from at full load. This trend occurs because higher load resistance reduces
the average current, making the pulsating nature less pronounced relative to the DC component. All
experimental ripple factors exceed the theoretical value of 1.21, indicating additional ripple from
transformer regulation, diode non-idealities, and measurement limitations.
Load Regulation Analysis: Regulation varies systematically with load. At full load, regulation is 11.03%,
meaning the no-load voltage is significantly higher than full-load voltage.
With 100µF Filter: Adding a 100µF capacitor across the load significantly improved the output. The
capacitor charges to near peak voltage during conduction and discharges slowly through RL during the
off period. The output waveform shows reduced ripple with a higher average DC voltage. However, the
CRO still shows noticeable ripple voltage indicating the capacitor is too small for optimal smoothing at
50Hz with 1kΩ load. The discharge appears slightly curved due to exponential decay.
With 470µF Filter: The 470µF capacitor produces a dramatically smoother output. Ripple factor drops
and ripple voltage reduces peak-to-peak. The waveform appears almost flat with nearly linear
discharge between peaks, confirming the approximation ΔVr=Iload/(fC). The larger capacitance stores
more charge, extending discharge time and minimizing voltage sag.
The 470µF capacitor reduces ripple by a factor of 4.5 compared to 100µF, directly proportional to
capacitance per r∝1/C. The 100µF waveform shows significant steep charge, gradual discharge, while
470µF produces a nearly flat DC with minimal variation. Higher capacitance shifts the output closer to
ideal DC but increases peak diode current during charging. Load regulation shows voltage drop with
current due to diode forward drop and internal resistance. Efficiency remains 40.6%, suitable only for
low-power application

8. Error and error analysis

Error Analysis
1. Sources of Systematic Error
a) Diode Forward Voltage Drop
The 1N4007 diode has ~0.7V forward drop, reducing effective output voltage. This explains why
unfiltered V_dc < theoretical V_m/π. With filter, charging voltage reduced by 0.7V.
b) Transformer Voltage Regulation
Secondary voltage sags under load due to internal resistance. Constant V_ac(in)=6.72V across loads
suggests good regulation, but actual peak voltage likely lower at heavy loads.

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2. Sources of Random Error
a) Connection Resistance
Loose decade box contacts or breadboard resistance affects low R_L measurements, increasing
effective load current.
b) Temperature Effects
Diode leakage increases with temperature; capacitor capacitance varies ±10-20%.

Recommendations:
• Use true-RMS meter for ripple
Add oscilloscope ripple voltage (V_pp) measurements
• Calibrate with known DC reference
• Use Schottky diode (lower V_f)

9. conclusion
The half-wave rectifier experiment successfully demonstrated diode-based rectification, where only
positive half-cycles appeared across the load while negative cycles were suppressed. Without filtering,
the output showed high ripple factors and load-dependent DC voltages, confirming theoretical pulsating
DC behavior but poor quality for practical use. The 100µF capacitor filter dramatically improved
performance, reducing ripple 6-39x across loads, validating the filter equation and showing capacitor
effectiveness in smoothing output.
Despite measurement discrepancies from meter limitations and diode voltage drop, all relative trends
matched theory perfectly. The experiment confirms half-wave rectifiers' low efficiency (40.6%) but
proves capacitor filtering transforms poor pulsating DC into usable smoothed DC for low-power
applications, establishing fundamental power supply design principles.

10. Refrences
1. Electronics Tutorials Online, "Half-Wave Rectifier Theory and Operation," available at
[Link]/diode/half_wave.htm.
2. Analogue electronics notes

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13. Viva Questions and Answers

Q1. What is the PIV of a Half Wave Rectifier?

The Peak Inverse Voltage of a half wave rectifier equals the peak secondary voltage Vm. When the diode
is reverse biased, the entire peak voltage of the transformer secondary appears across the diode.
Q2. What is the efficiency of a Half Wave Rectifier?
The efficiency of a half wave rectifier is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the AC input power.
The theoretical maximum efficiency is 40.6%. This is comparatively low because the negative half cycle
of the AC input is completely blocked and wasted.
Q3. What is a rectifier?
A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) by allowing
current to flow predominantly in one direction. It exploits the unidirectional conduction property of the P-
N junction diode.
Q4. What is the difference between a Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier?
A half wave rectifier uses a single diode and conducts only during the positive half cycle , resulting in a
pulsating DC output with a frequency equal to the supply frequency, a ripple factor of 1.21, and maximum
efficiency of 40.6%. A full wave rectifier uses two or four diodes and conducts during both half cycles,
producing a smoother output at twice the supply frequency, a lower ripple factor of 0.48, and maximum
efficiency of 81.2%. The full wave rectifier makes much better use of the transformer and the filter
capacitor is more effective due to the higher output frequency.
Q5. What is the output frequency of a Bridge Rectifier?
The output frequency of a bridge rectifier is twice the input supply frequency. For a 50 Hz mains supply,
the bridge rectifier output frequency is 100 Hz. This is because both the positive and negative half cycles
of the AC input are rectified, producing two output pulses per input cycle. The higher frequency makes
ripple filtering more effective.
Q6. What are ripples?
Ripples are the residual AC voltage fluctuations superimposed on the DC output of a rectifier. They arise
because the rectified output is not a perfect steady DC but a pulsating waveform that periodically rises to
Vm and falls back. The ripple voltage is quantified by the ripple factor r = Vac(rms) / Vdc. For a half wave
rectifier without filter, r = 1.21, indicating the AC component is larger than the DC component. Ripples
are reduced using filter capacitors or LC filters.
Q7. What is the function of the filter?
A filter reduces the ripple content in the rectified output and makes it smoother and closer to a steady DC
voltage. A simple capacitor filter works by charging up to the peak voltage during the conducting half
cycle, and then slowly discharging through the load resistor during the non-conducting half cycle, thereby
'filling in' the gaps in the pulsating waveform. The larger the capacitor value and the load resistance, the
longer the time constant RC and the less the voltage drops between peaks, resulting in a smaller ripple
factor. For a half wave rectifier with filter: r = 1/(2√3·f·C·RL).
Q8. What is TUF (Transformer Utilisation Factor)?
TUF (Transformer Utilisation Factor) is the ratio of the DC power delivered to the load to the AC volt-
ampere (VA) rating of the transformer secondary. It indicates how efficiently the transformer is being
used. For a half wave rectifier, TUF = 0.287, meaning only 28.7% of the transformer's VA capacity is
converted to useful DC power. This is poor compared to a full wave bridge rectifier (TUF ≈ 0.812), which
is why half wave rectifiers are rarely used in practical power supply designs.
Q9. What is the average (DC) output voltage of a Half Wave Rectifier?

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The average DC output voltage of a half wave rectifier is: Vdc = Vm / π ≈ 0.318 × Vm, where Vm is the
peak voltage. For this experiment with a 6 V RMS secondary: Vm = 6√2 ≈ 8.49 V, and Vdc = 8.49 / π ≈
2.70 V (ideal).
Q10. What is the peak factor?
The peak factor is the ratio of the peak value of a waveform to its RMS value: Peak Factor = Vm / Vrms.
For a sinusoidal AC waveform, the peak factor = √2 ≈ 1.414. For the half wave rectified output, Vrms =
Vm/2, so the peak factor = Vm / (Vm/2) = 2. A higher peak factor means the waveform has sharp peaks
relative to its RMS value, which is relevant for diode stress ratings and filter capacitor selection.

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