Math in the Modern World | Unit 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

Aklan State University

College of Teacher Education
A.Y. 2025–2026

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

UNIT 3
Problem Solving and Reasoning
1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

2. Polya's Four Steps in Problem Solving

3. Problem Solving Involving Patterns

4. Problem Solving Involving Strategies

5. Intuition and Certainty

Miss Erica G. Valencia, LPT

COS Instructor, CTE

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 Math in the Modern World | Unit 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

Introduction
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics
and mathematical concepts.

2. Write clear and logical proofs.

3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya's Four Steps.

4. Organize one's methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

Mathematics is not just about numbers and calculations — it is fundamentally a discipline of reasoning
and problem solving. Every time you decide how to approach a math problem, justify a solution, or
recognize a pattern, you are thinking like a mathematician.

This unit introduces you to the core tools of mathematical thinking: the different types of reasoning
(inductive and deductive), the strategies used in problem solving (Polya's Four Steps), and the
important distinction between intuition and certainty. Mastering these tools will help you become a more
confident, systematic, and creative thinker — inside and outside the classroom.

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 Math in the Modern World | Unit 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

Topic 1: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

1.1 What is Reasoning?

Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from evidence or premises. In mathematics, two main
forms of reasoning are used: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. Understanding the
difference between these two is essential for constructing valid arguments and proofs.

1.2 Inductive Reasoning

Definition: Inductive reasoning is the process of observing specific examples or cases and drawing a
general conclusion (called a conjecture) based on those observations.

Think of it as moving from the specific → general.

KEY TERM: Conjecture

A conjecture is a statement believed to be true based on observations, but which has not yet been
formally proven. It may later turn out to be true or false.

Example 1.1 — Number Patterns

Observe the following sums:

1=1
1+3=4
1+3+5=9
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16

Conjecture: The sum of the first n odd numbers equals n².

Note: This conjecture happens to be TRUE and can be proven formally by mathematical induction.

Example 1.2 — Geometric Pattern

A student observes:
• A triangle has 3 sides. Its interior angles sum to 180°.
• A quadrilateral has 4 sides. Its interior angles sum to 360°.
• A pentagon has 5 sides. Its interior angles sum to 540°.

Conjecture: A polygon with n sides has interior angles that sum to (n − 2) × 180°.
This is also TRUE. The formula (n − 2) × 180° is a well-established theorem in geometry.

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 Math in the Modern World | Unit 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

Example 1.3 — A False Conjecture

Observation: Consider the expression n² + n + 41 for n = 1, 2, 3, ...
n = 1 → 43 (prime)
n = 2 → 47 (prime)
n = 3 → 53 (prime)
n = 4 → 61 (prime)

Conjecture: The expression n² + n + 41 always produces a prime number.

⚠ Counterexample

When n = 40: 40² + 40 + 41 = 1600 + 40 + 41 = 1681 = 41 × 41, which is NOT prime.

This shows that a single counterexample is enough to disprove a conjecture.

💡 TIP — Strengths and Limitations of Inductive Reasoning

✔ Useful for discovering patterns and forming initial hypotheses.

✔ Foundation of scientific inquiry and mathematical exploration.

✘ A conclusion reached by induction is NOT guaranteed to be true.

✘ A single counterexample is enough to disprove a conjecture.

1.3 Deductive Reasoning

Definition: Deductive reasoning is the process of applying general rules, principles, or established
facts to reach a specific, logically certain conclusion.

Think of it as moving from the general → specific.

Structure of a Deductive Argument (Syllogism)

The classical form of deductive reasoning is the syllogism:

Part Description / Example

Major Premise A general statement accepted as true. Example: All prime numbers
greater than 2 are odd.
Minor Premise A specific statement. Example: 7 is a prime number greater than 2.
Conclusion Therefore: 7 is odd.

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Example 1.4 — Everyday Deduction

Major Premise: All even numbers are divisible by 2.
Minor Premise: 128 is an even number.
Conclusion: Therefore, 128 is divisible by 2.

Example 1.5 — Algebraic Deduction

Major Premise: If a = b and b = c, then a = c. (Transitive Property of Equality)
Minor Premise: x = 2y and 2y = 10.
Conclusion: Therefore, x = 10.

Example 1.6 — Geometric Deduction

Major Premise: If two angles are supplementary, then they sum to 180°.
Minor Premise: ∠A and ∠B are supplementary.
Conclusion: Therefore, ∠A + ∠B = 180°.

💡 TIP — Why Deductive Reasoning is Powerful

✔ If the premises are true and the reasoning is valid, the conclusion MUST be true.

✔ It is the foundation of all formal mathematical proofs.

✔ Unlike inductive reasoning, deduction provides certainty — not just probability.

1.4 Comparing Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

INDUCTIVE REASONING DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Moves from specific → general Moves from general → specific
Conclusion is a conjecture (probable) Conclusion is logically certain (if premises are
true)
One counterexample disproves the conjecture If reasoning is valid, conclusion cannot be false
Used to discover patterns and hypotheses Used to formally prove theorems
Example: Noticing 2+4=6, 4+6=10, 6+8=14 → all Example: All even numbers have the form 2k. 2k
even+even = even + 2m = 2(k+m) which is even. ∴ Even + Even =
Even.

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 Math in the Modern World | Unit 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

Topic 2: Polya's Four Steps in Problem Solving

2.1 Who is George Polya?

George Polya (1887–1985) was a Hungarian mathematician who revolutionized the way we think about
problem solving. In his landmark 1945 book How to Solve It, Polya described a systematic four-step
method for approaching mathematical problems. His method is now used worldwide in mathematics
education.

Polya's key insight was that problem solving is a skill that can be learned and practiced. He believed
that understanding the process of thinking through a problem is just as important as finding the correct
answer.

STEP 1 Before you can solve a problem, you must fully understand it. Ask yourself: What
Understand the is being asked? What information is given? What information is missing? Can you
Problem restate the problem in your own words?

Choose a strategy or approach. Common strategies include: looking for a pattern,

STEP 2 drawing a diagram, making a table, working backward, solving a simpler related
Devise a Plan
problem, or using a formula.

STEP 3 Execute the strategy you chose. Be careful and systematic. Show all your work. If
Carry Out the the strategy does not work, go back to Step 2 and try a different approach.
Plan

STEP 4 Review your answer. Does it make sense? Can you verify it by substituting back?
Look Back / Is there another way to solve the problem? What did you learn from solving this
Reflect problem?

2.2 Worked Example Using Polya's Four Steps

PROBLEM

A farmer has chickens and cows in a barn. He counts 20 heads and 56 legs. How many chickens
and how many cows are there?

Step 1 — Understand the Problem

• Given: 20 animals total (chickens + cows = 20 heads)
• Given: 56 legs total (chickens have 2 legs, cows have 4 legs)
• Find: Number of chickens (c) and number of cows (w)
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Step 2 — Devise a Plan

Set up a system of equations:
c + w = 20 ... (equation for heads)
2c + 4w = 56 ... (equation for legs)

Step 3 — Carry Out the Plan

From equation 1: c = 20 − w
Substitute into equation 2:
2(20 − w) + 4w = 56
40 − 2w + 4w = 56
2w = 16
w = 8 → c = 20 − 8 = 12

Step 4 — Look Back

Check: 12 chickens + 8 cows = 20 heads ✓
Check: 12(2) + 8(4) = 24 + 32 = 56 legs ✓
Answer: There are 12 chickens and 8 cows.

2.3 Additional Practice Problems

Problem 1 — The Handshake Problem

If 8 people are in a room and each person shakes hands exactly once with every other person, how
many handshakes occur?

Solution: Use the formula for combinations: C(n,2) = n(n−1)/2

C(8,2) = 8 × 7 / 2 = 28 handshakes.

Problem 2 — The Staircase Problem

A staircase has 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n steps on each level. How many steps in total for a staircase with 10
levels?

Solution: Use the Gauss formula: Sum = n(n+1)/2

Sum = 10(11)/2 = 55 steps.

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Topic 3: Problem Solving Involving Patterns

3.1 The Power of Patterns

Recognizing patterns is one of the most fundamental skills in mathematics. Patterns appear in number
sequences, geometric figures, algebraic expressions, and even in everyday life. By identifying a
pattern, you can predict future terms, write a general formula, and solve complex problems efficiently.

3.2 Types of Number Sequences

Type of Sequence Key Characteristic and Formula

Arithmetic Sequence Each term increases or decreases by a constant difference d.
Formula: aₙ = a₁ + (n−1)d Example: 3, 7, 11, 15, ... (d = 4)
Geometric Sequence Each term is multiplied by a constant ratio r. Formula: aₙ = a₁ ·
rⁿ⁻¹ Example: 2, 6, 18, 54, ... (r = 3)
Fibonacci Sequence Each term is the sum of the two preceding terms. Formula: Fₙ =
Fₙ₋₁ + Fₙ₋₂, with F₁ = 1, F₂ = 1 Sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,
...
Triangular Numbers Represent dots arranged in equilateral triangles. Formula: Tₙ =
n(n+1)/2 Sequence: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, ...
Square Numbers Each term is a perfect square. Formula: aₙ = n² Sequence: 1, 4,
9, 16, 25, ...

3.3 Worked Examples — Patterns

Example 3.1 — Find the Next Three Terms

Sequence: 5, 8, 11, 14, ...
Pattern: This is arithmetic with d = 3.
Next three terms: 17, 20, 23
General formula: aₙ = 5 + (n−1)(3) = 3n + 2

Example 3.2 — Find the 10th Term

Sequence: 4, 12, 36, 108, ...
Pattern: Geometric with a₁ = 4 and r = 3.
Formula: aₙ = 4 · 3ⁿ⁻¹
10th term: a₁₀ = 4 · 3⁹ = 4 · 19,683 = 78,732

Example 3.3 — Fibonacci in Nature

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The number of petals on many flowers follows the Fibonacci sequence: daisies have 13 or 21 petals,
sunflowers have 34 or 55 spiral arms. The spiral arrangement of seeds and leaves also follows
Fibonacci numbers.

Example 3.4 — Visual Pattern

Observe: a sequence of figures where each figure adds one more row of dots. Figure 1 has 1 dot,
Figure 2 has 3 dots, Figure 3 has 6 dots.
Pattern: These are triangular numbers: Tₙ = n(n+1)/2
Figure 8: T₈ = 8(9)/2 = 36 dots

3.4 Problem Solving Strategies for Patterns

• Make a table to organize the data.
• Find the differences between consecutive terms (1st differences, 2nd differences).
• If 1st differences are constant → arithmetic sequence.
• If ratios between terms are constant → geometric sequence.
• If 2nd differences are constant → quadratic formula applies.
• Sketch the pattern visually when dealing with geometric or spatial patterns.

💡 TIP — Difference Method

Given: 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ...

1st differences: 3, 5, 7, 9, ... (not constant)

2nd differences: 2, 2, 2, ... (constant!)

When the 2nd difference is constant, the formula is quadratic: aₙ = n² + 1

Verify: a₁ = 1+1 = 2 ✓, a₂ = 4+1 = 5 ✓, a₃ = 9+1 = 10 ✓

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Topic 4: Problem Solving Involving Strategies

4.1 Why Strategies Matter

Not all problems can be solved using a single formula. Many real-world and recreational math problems
require creative strategies. A strategy is a general approach or method for attacking a problem. Polya
identified several key strategies in his work, and mathematicians have expanded this list over the years.

Strategy: Draw a Diagram or Picture

What it is: Represent the problem visually — this often reveals relationships that are hard to see in
words alone.
Example: Problem: Three houses need to be connected to three utility lines (water, gas, electricity)
without any lines crossing. Solution approach: Draw the houses and lines; this classic problem shows it
is impossible in a plane (graph theory).

Strategy: Make a Table or Chart

What it is: Organize given data systematically to reveal patterns or narrow down possibilities.
Example: Problem: How many ways can you make change for ₱1.00 using 1-peso, 25-centavo, and
10-centavo coins? Create a table with each denomination as a column.

Strategy: Look for a Pattern

What it is: Examine several cases, look for regularity, and generalize.
Example: Problem: What is the units digit of 7¹⁰⁰? Check: 7¹=7, 7²=49, 7³=343, 7⁴=2401 → units digits
cycle: 7,9,3,1,7,9,3,1 (period 4). 100 ÷ 4 = 25 remainder 0 → units digit is 1.

Strategy: Work Backward

What it is: Start from the desired result and trace your steps back to the starting condition.
Example: Problem: I think of a number, triple it, subtract 7, and the result is 20. What is the number?
Work backward: 20 + 7 = 27 → 27 ÷ 3 = 9. The number is 9.

Strategy: Guess and Check (Systematic Trial)

What it is: Make an educated guess, test it, and refine based on the result. Works well when the
answer set is limited.
Example: Problem: The product of two consecutive integers is 182. What are the integers? Guess: 13
× 14 = 182 ✓. Answer: 13 and 14.

Strategy: Use a Variable / Write an Equation

What it is: Represent unknown quantities with variables and write an equation to model the problem.
Example: Problem: Two cars leave the same place in opposite directions. Car A travels at 60 kph and
Car B at 80 kph. After how many hours are they 420 km apart? 60t + 80t = 420 → t = 3 hours.

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Strategy: Solve a Simpler Problem

What it is: Simplify the problem (fewer terms, smaller numbers) to find a pattern, then generalize.
Example: Problem: What is the sum of all integers from 1 to 1000? Simplify: 1 to 10 → 55. Notice:
n(n+1)/2. For n=1000: 1000(1001)/2 = 500,500.

Strategy: Logical Elimination

What it is: List all possibilities and systematically eliminate those that do not satisfy the conditions.
Example: Problem: Four friends — Ana, Ben, Cara, Dan — each like a different subject: Math,
Science, English, History. Ana does not like Science or History. Ben likes Math. Use a logic grid to
eliminate and find each person's preference.

💡 TIP — How to Choose a Strategy

1. Read the problem carefully and identify what type of problem it is.

2. Recall problems you have solved before that look similar.

3. Ask: Is there hidden structure? A pattern? A relationship?

4. Try the simplest strategy first. If it fails, try another.

5. There is often more than one valid strategy — flexibility is key!

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Topic 5: Intuition and Certainty

5.1 Understanding Intuition in Mathematics

Intuition refers to the immediate sense that something is true without going through a full logical proof.
In mathematics, intuition plays an important role — it guides us toward conjectures and promising
problem-solving strategies. However, mathematical intuition can sometimes be misleading.

KEY TERM: Mathematical Intuition

Intuition is a quick, gut-level sense of what is true. It is the starting point for mathematical exploration.
It is NOT a substitute for proof.

Example 5.1 — When Intuition is Correct

Claim: The sum of two odd numbers is always even.
Intuition says: "Yes, odd + odd = even." And this is confirmed by proof.
Proof: Any odd number has the form 2k+1. So (2a+1) + (2b+1) = 2a+2b+2 = 2(a+b+1), which is even. ✓

Example 5.2 — When Intuition is Wrong (The Birthday Problem)

Question: In a group of 23 randomly chosen people, what is the probability that at least two share the
same birthday?

Most people's intuition says: 'With 365 days in a year and only 23 people, the probability must be very
low — maybe 5 or 10%.'

Surprising Result

The actual probability is approximately 50.7%!

With just 70 people in a room, the probability rises to over 99.9%.

This counterintuitive result is known as the Birthday Paradox. It shows that our intuition about
probability is often unreliable.

Example 5.3 — The Monty Hall Problem

You are on a game show. There are 3 doors: behind one is a car, behind the others are goats. You pick
Door 1. The host opens Door 3 (revealing a goat). Should you switch to Door 2?

Intuition says: It's 50-50. Doesn't matter if I switch.

Mathematics says: You SHOULD switch! Switching gives a 2/3 probability of winning. Staying gives
only 1/3.
This is confirmed by conditional probability. Our intuition fails us because we don't naturally account for
the host's knowledge and behavior.
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5.2 Mathematical Certainty and Proof

In contrast to intuition, mathematical certainty is achieved through formal proof. A proof is a step-by-
step logical argument that shows a statement must be true (or false) without any doubt.

Type of Proof Description and When to Use

Direct Proof Assume the hypothesis is true and use logical steps to arrive at
the conclusion directly. Used when the logical path forward is
clear.
Indirect Proof (Proof by Assume the negation of what you want to prove, then show this
Contradiction) leads to a contradiction. Used when direct proof is difficult.
Mathematical Induction Prove a base case, then prove that if the statement holds for n=k,
it holds for n=k+1. Used for statements involving all natural
numbers.
Proof by Counterexample Disprove a statement by providing a single example where it fails.
Used to show a universal claim is false.

Example 5.4 — Direct Proof

Theorem: The sum of two even numbers is even.
Let a = 2m and b = 2n for integers m and n.
Then a + b = 2m + 2n = 2(m + n).
Since m + n is an integer, 2(m+n) is even. ∎

Example 5.5 — Proof by Contradiction

Theorem: √2 is irrational.
Proof: Assume, for contradiction, that √2 is rational. Then √2 = p/q in lowest terms (gcd(p,q)=1).
Squaring: 2 = p²/q² → p² = 2q² → p² is even → p is even.
Write p = 2k. Then 4k² = 2q² → q² = 2k² → q is even.
But then both p and q are even, contradicting gcd(p,q) = 1. Contradiction! ∎
Therefore, √2 is irrational.

Example 5.6 — Mathematical Induction

Theorem: 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n(n+1)/2 for all positive integers n.
Base Case (n=1): LHS = 1. RHS = 1(2)/2 = 1. ✓
Inductive Step: Assume true for n = k: 1 + 2 + ... + k = k(k+1)/2.
Add (k+1) to both sides:
1 + 2 + ... + k + (k+1) = k(k+1)/2 + (k+1) = (k+1)(k/2 + 1) = (k+1)(k+2)/2
This is exactly the formula for n = k+1. ✓ ∎

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5.3 The Role of Intuition in Mathematical Discovery

While intuition cannot replace proof, it plays a vital role in mathematical discovery. Famous
mathematicians like Carl Friedrich Gauss and Srinivasa Ramanujan were known for their extraordinary
mathematical intuition — they could 'see' results that others could not. However, they also understood
that intuition must eventually be backed by rigorous proof.

KEY INSIGHT

Intuition: "I think this might be true." → Leads to exploration and conjecture.

Reasoning: "I can see a pattern here." → Leads to a hypothesis.

Proof: "I can show this must be true." → Leads to certainty.

These three work together in the cycle of mathematical thinking.

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UNIT SUMMARY AND REVIEW

Key Takeaways
Concept Core Idea
Inductive Reasoning Specific → General. Forms conjectures. One counterexample
disproves a conjecture.
Deductive Reasoning General → Specific. If premises are true and logic is valid,
conclusion is certain.
Polya's Four Steps Understand → Plan → Execute → Reflect. A systematic
framework for any problem.
Pattern Recognition Identify arithmetic, geometric, Fibonacci, or other sequences
using formulas and difference methods.
Problem-Solving Strategies Draw a diagram, make a table, work backward, look for a pattern,
use variables, guess-and-check, etc.
Intuition vs. Certainty Intuition guides exploration but can mislead. Formal proof
provides certainty.
Types of Proof Direct proof, proof by contradiction, mathematical induction,
counterexample.

Self-Check Questions
5. What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? Give one example of each.
6. State the four steps of Polya and explain what happens during the "Look Back" step.
7. Find the 15th term of the arithmetic sequence: 7, 11, 15, 19, ...
8. Find the next three terms of: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ... What type of sequence is this?
9. Prove directly that the product of two odd integers is always odd.
10. Explain why a conjecture formed by inductive reasoning cannot be considered a proven
theorem.
11. You think of a number, double it, add 8, and the result is 30. Using the "Work Backward"
strategy, find the number.

REMINDERS FROM YOUR TEACHER

1. Mathematics is not just about getting the right answer — it is about justifying HOW and WHY your
answer is correct.

2. Always show your work and reasoning. A correct answer without justification is incomplete.

3. Practice recognizing patterns by working through as many examples as possible.

4. When stuck on a problem, revisit Polya's four steps — especially Step 2 (Devise a Plan).

5. Question your intuition. Test your conjectures before accepting them as facts.

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REFERENCES

Books and Textbooks

• Aufmann, R. N., Lockwood, J. S., Nation, R. D., & Clegg, D. K. (2018). Mathematical Excursions
(4th ed.). Cengage Learning.
• Blitzer, R. (2019). Thinking Mathematically (7th ed.). Pearson Education.
• Polya, G. (1945/2004). How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method. Princeton
University Press.
• Reyes, R., Reyes, L., & Lapus, J. R. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Mindshapers
Co., Inc.
• Sirug, W. S. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Mindshapers Publishing, Inc.

Online Resources
• Khan Academy — Sequences and Series: [Link]
• National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM): [Link]
• Math is Fun — Number Sequences: [Link]
• George Polya's Problem Solving Strategies (Stanford):
[Link]
• Commission on Higher Education (CHED) — MMW Curriculum Guide: [Link]

— End of Unit 3 Lecture Notes —

Mathematics in the Modern World | Problem Solving and Reasoning
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