What are cities?
"Today, 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a proportion that is
expected to increase to 68% by 2050". (United Nations, 2018).
Characteristics of a city
They have a large population size, a high population density, a dense built-up
area and a wide range of functions.
1. Large population size
Cities have many people living and working in them. They have a large
population size compared to other locations in the country. Different countries
have different minimum population size to identify a city.
2. High population density
Population density = Number of people divided by the area they occupy (in
sq km)
Though A has a smaller population size, the land area is very small and thus
population density, which is the number of people divided by the land area, is
higher than B.
3. Built-up area
Cities have large land surface covered by buildings known as built-up areas.
There is also extensive infrastructure, which is a system of buildings and
equipment to provide basic services such as water, electricity, sanitation,
telecommunications and transport for its residents.
4. Range of functions
Cities serve a range of functions
administrative
commercial
economic
For example city of Jakarta
administrative - President office and highest court of law
economic - manufacturing industries that produce and sell variety of products
including iron, paper and cars.
Relationship between rural and urban areas
o Rural-urban migration
Rural-urban migrants move for various reasons and they can be
classified into push and pull factors. Push factors refer to reasons
that make migrants want to leave their place of origin. Pull factors
refer to reasons that attract migrants towards a destination such as
the city.
o Provision of goods and services (e.g., food, hospitals)
Cities rely on rural areas for some of their food supply since they
have limited space for agricultural activities.
Push factors: The undesirable qualities of the place they wish to leave e.g.
o Lack of job opportunities
o Poor educational facilities
o Lack of medical attention
o Famine
o War
Pull factors: The attractive qualities of the place they would like to move to
e.g.
o Promise of work
o Better schooling and further education
o More hospitals and doctors
o Perception of exciting city life
o Political stability
• The decision to migrate is often due to a combination of both factors
• People in rural areas often migrate to cities for job opportunities in search of a
better life
• Migrants do not always get jobs in cities
– There are a limited number of jobs for migrants
– Migrants may lack the skills required for jobs available in the cities
• Migrants who cannot obtain a source of income cannot afford housing
• Cities cannot build enough houses for huge numbers of migrants quickly
enough, causing them to settle in slums
Impact of cities on the environment
and their inhabitants
Opportunities
- Education and employment
- Technological innovations (e.g., reduce carbon emissions, improve mobility)
Education and Employment
Cities are centre of learning with various educational institutions such as
vocational schools and universities. Education enables people to gain useful
knowledge and skills which help them gain employment. Businesses benefit from
the concentration of educational institutions as they can hire directly from a
large pool of skilled people.
Technological innovations
There are many skilled people living in cities such as researchers, designers and
entrepreneurs. There is also funding from government and investors for these
people to experiment with new ideas. Thus cities are known for technological
innovation where scientific knowledge is used to create new products and
services. Watch the video on a smart city below.
What do you think of an eco "smart"
city?[Link]
Solar panels on top of HDB block in Sengkang.
Solar panels are also installed on the rooftop of school building. The following
was captured in Edgefield Secondary School. Total electricity generated from the
solar panel in eight months could power 1197 4 room flats! A reduction of 174
tons (157,850kg) of carbon emission!
The plants on the exterior of the buildings in this nursing home in Hougang would definitely
reduce the heat absorbed. One way to reduce urban heat in the area as well as cooling the
interior.
Green Buildings in Ecotown Tampines.
Several buildings in Tampines central may soon be retrofitted with a cooling system that is more
energy efficient. This can lead to 17 to 18 % reduction in electricity consumption.
[Link]
2122426
A new type of heat-reflective paint will be used on some 130 Housing Board blocks in Tampines,
under a pilot project that aims to reduce ambient temperatures by up to 2 degree Celsius.
[Link]
cool-paint-in-pilot-project-for-cooler
Challenges
- Increased environmental pollution (e.g., water pollution, air pollution)
- Competition for natural resources (e.g., land, water)
Researchers from Indonesia’s National Research and Innovation Agency
(BRIN) and the United Kingdom’s University of Brighton took seawater
samples between 2017 and 2018 in four locations at Jakarta Bay. Their
study found that there were 610 nanograms per litre (ng/l) of paracetamol
in Angke and 420 ng/l in Ancol. Angke is a highly populated area in Jakarta
with inadequate sanitation, while Ancol is north of the city where the
mouth of the main Ciliwung river is situated. Long-term exposure with low
or high concentrations of paracetamol causes impaired reproductive
function in shellfish.
Greenpeace Indonesia ocean campaigner Arifsyah Nasution suggested
that the source of the paracetamol could be from industrial waste
disposal, especially by the pharmaceutical companies. Hospital waste as
well as domestic consumption are other possible sources of the pollution,
he said. He noted that the study indicates that waste management in the
megacity is still poor because law enforcement and monitoring are weak,
due to a lack of political will. The concentration of paracetamol detected
can also indicate that the water circulation in several locations in the
Jakarta Bay is impeded due to various reclamation projects that have been
running for years in the coastal areas of Jakarta. there is a need to
improve the city’s waste management facilities and the government to
conduct further studies to identify the source of the problem and
determine the necessary steps needed.
Source: [Link]
paracetamol-levels-environment-health-2238656
Look at how rapidly the cities in China is growing. There was an energy crisis in
China Oct 2021. One of major challenge of cities is the provision of energy.
How can people
sustainably build cities?
Sustainable management of cities
Environmental management
- Physical environment (e.g., reduce water
pollution, minimise air pollution)
- Hazards (e.g., use of better-quality building
materials, land-use planning)
Improve quality of life
- Providing safe housing
- Providing a variety of transportation modes
- Considering the needs of different groups
(i.e., the elderly, persons with disabilities)
Environmental management
Cities have large environmental footprints with high level of pollution. Pollution
reduces the quality of the physical environment and sustainability so there is a
need for management strategies to regulate use of natural resources and
minimise the negative environmental impact from human activities.
Management strategies
Reducing water pollution through water treatment ponds in Kranji.
Drains are set up around the farm plots in Kranji farms to channel the water
which may be mixed with nutrients from the farm when it rains into the water
treatment ponds. The water is then purified by cattails and fragrant pandan in
the water treatment ponds. This help to reduce water pollution which might
otherwise take place in Kranji reservoir as shown by the greenish water in the
photo below. The nutrients washed into the reservoir encouraged the growth of
algae and results in eutrophication.
[Link]
Reducing air pollution through laws
Since 2013, China has adopted the Air pollution Prevention and Control Action
plan for Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei. Each city has also set limits on air pollutions
for industries and vehicles, which are two of the causes of heavy smog.
License plate lottery policy limits
the number of new vehicles that can
be registered.
Vehicle restriction rule limits the
use of private cars to selected days in
a week according to the last number
of their license plates. This help to
relief traffic congestion too.
What are needed to build a sustainable city?
Watch the video below. Do you agree that Singapore is one of the most
sustainable city built?
Is Copenhagen the world's most sustainable city?