COMPUTER NETWORKS

(III-CSE (AIML & DS), SEMESTER-1, R-18)

PREPARED BY-MAGANTI APPARAO
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
ST. MARY’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE

UNIT – V
APPLICATION LAYER
 Domain Name System
 SNMP
 Electronic Mail
 The World WEB
 HTTP
 Streaming audio and video
INTRODUCTION
The application layer sits at Layer 7, the top of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) communications model.
It ensures an application can effectively communicate with
other applications on different computer systems and networks.
This layer provides several ways for manipulating the data
(information) which actually enables any type of user to access
network with ease.
This layer also makes a request to its bottom layer, which is
presentation layer for receiving various types of information
from it.
The Application Layer interface directly interacts with
application and provides common web application services.
This layer is basically highest level of open system, which
provides services directly for application process.
Functions of Application Layer :
Data from User <=> Application layer <=> Data from
Presentation Layer
Application Layer provides a facility by which users can
forward several emails and it also provides a storage facility.
This layer allows users to access, retrieve and manage files in
a remote computer.
In this layer, data is in visual form, which makes users truly
understand data rather than remembering or visualize the data
in the binary format (0’s or 1’s).
This application layer basically interacts with Operating
System (OS) and thus further preserves the data in a suitable
manner.
This layer also receives and preserves data from its previous
layer, which is Presentation Layer (which carries in itself the
syntax and semantics of the information transmitted).
The protocols which are used in this application layer depend
upon what information users wish to send or receive.
This application layer, in general, performs host initialization
followed by remote login to hosts.
APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS:
The application layer provides several protocols which allow
any software to easily send and receive information and present
meaningful data to its users.
The following are some of the protocols which are provided by
the application layer.
TELNET: Telnet stands for Telecommunications Network.
This protocol is used for managing files over the Internet. It
allows the Telnet clients to access the resources of Telnet
server. Telnet uses port number 23.
DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. The DNS service
translates the domain name (selected by user) into the
corresponding IP address. For example- If you choose the
domain name as [Link], then DNS must translate it as
[Link] (random IP address written just for understanding
purposes). DNS protocol uses the port number 53.
DHCP: DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol. It provides IP addresses to hosts. Whenever a host
tries to register for an IP address with the DHCP server, DHCP
server provides lots of information to the corresponding host.
DHCP uses port numbers 67 and 68.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This protocol
helps to transfer different files from one device to another. FTP
promotes sharing of files via remote computer devices with
reliable, efficient data transfer. FTP uses port number 20 for
data access and port number 21 for data control.
SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is
used to transfer electronic mail from one user to another user.
SMTP is used by end users to send emails with ease. SMTP
uses port numbers 25 and 587.
HTTP: HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is the
foundation of the World Wide Web (WWW). HTTP works on
the client server model. This protocol is used for transmitting
hypermedia documents like HTML. This protocol was
designed particularly for the communications between the web
browsers and web servers, but this protocol can also be used for
several other purposes. HTTP is a stateless protocol (network
protocol in which a client sends requests to server and server
responses back as per the given state), which means the server
is not responsible for maintaining the previous client’s
requests. HTTP uses port number 80.
NFS: NFS stands for Network File System. This protocol
allows remote hosts to mount files over a network and interact
with those file systems as though they are mounted locally.
NFS uses the port number 2049.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management
Protocol. This protocol gathers data by polling the devices from
the network to the management station at fixed or random
intervals, requiring them to disclose certain information.
SNMP uses port numbers 161 (TCP) and 162 (UDP).
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM(DNS)
To identify an entity, TCP/IP protocols use the IP address,
which uniquely identifies the connection of a host to the
Internet. However, people prefer to use names instead of
numeric addresses. Therefore, we need a system that can map
a name to an address or an address to a name.

NAME SPACE
A name space that maps each address to a unique name can be
organizedin two ways: fiat or hierarchical.
Flat Name Space
In a flat name space, a name is assigned to an address. A
name in thisspace is a sequence of characters without structure.
Hierarchical Name Space
In a hierarchical name space, each name is made of several
parts. The first part can define the nature of the organization,
the second part can define the name of an organization, the third
part can define departments in the organization, and so on.
Example: [Link], [Link],
and [Link]
DOMAIN NAME SPACE
To have a hierarchical name space, a domain name space was
designed. Inthis design the names are defined in an inverted-
tree structure with the root at the top. The tree can have only
128 levels: level 0 (root) to level 127.
LABEL
Each node in the tree has a label, which is a string with a
maximum of 63 characters. The root label is a null string
(empty string). DNS requires that children of a node (nodes that
branch from the same node) have different labels, which
guarantees the uniqueness of the domain names.
DOMAIN NAME
Each node in the tree has a domain name. A full domain name
is asequence of labels separated by dots (.). The domain
names are always read from the node up to the root. The last
label is the label of the root (null).
This means that a full domain name always ends in a null
label, whichmeans the last character is a dot because the null
string is nothing. BelowFigure shows some domain names

Domain names and labels

DOMAIN
A domain is a subtree of the domain name space. The name
of the domainis the domain name of the node at the top of the
subtree.
DNS IN THE INTERNET
DNS is a protocol that can be used in different platforms. In the
Internet, the domain name space (tree) is divided into three
different sections: generic domains, country domains, and the
inverse domain
 1) Generic Domains
The generic domains define registered hosts according to their
genericbehavior. Each node in the tree defines a domain, which
is an index to the domain name space database
 2) Country Domains
The country domains section uses two-character country
abbreviations (e.g., us for United States). Second labels can be
organizational, or they can be more specific, national
designations. The United States, for example, uses state
abbreviations as a subdivision of us (e.g., [Link].).

3) Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used to map an address to a name.
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an
application-layer protocol that transmits management data
between network devices. SNMP belongs to the Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) family.
If an organization has 1000 devices then to check all devices,
one by one every day, are working properly or not is a hectic
task. To ease these up, a Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP) is used.
SNMP is an application layer protocol that uses UDP port
number 161/[Link] is used to monitor the network, detect
network faults, and sometimes even to configure remote
devices.
COMPONENTS OF SNMP
There are mainly three components of SNMP:
SNMP Manager
It is a centralized system used to monitor the network. It is
also known as a Network Management Station (NMS). A
router that runs the SNMP server program is called an agent,
while a host that runs the SNMP client program is called a
manager.
SNMP agent
 It is a software management software module installed on a
managed device. The manager accesses the values stored in
the database, whereas the agent maintains the information in
the database. To ascertain if the router is congested or not, for
instance, a manager can examine the relevant variables that a
router stores, such as the quantity of packets received and
transmitted.
Management Information Base
MIB consists of information on resources that are to be
managed. This information is organized hierarchically. It
consists of objects instances which are essentially variables.

E-MAIL or ELECTRONIC MAIL

Electronic mail, commonly known as email, is a method of
exchanging messages over the internet. Here are the basics of
email:
1. An email address: This is a unique identifier for each user,
typically in the format of name@[Link].
2. An email client: This is a software program used to send,
receive and manage emails, such as Gmail, Outlook, or Apple
Mail.
3. An email server: This is a computer system responsible for
storing and forwarding emails to their intended recipients.
 To send an email:
1. Compose a new message in your email client.
2. Enter the recipient’s email address in the “To” field.
3. Add a subject line to summarize the content of the message.
4. Write the body of the message.
5. Attach any relevant files if needed.
6. Click “Send” to deliver the message to the recipient’s email
server.
7. Emails can also include features such as cc (carbon copy) and
bcc (blind carbon copy) to send copies of the message to
multiple recipients, and reply, reply all, and forward options
to manage the conversation.
Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services
of Internet. This service allows an Internet user to send
a message in formatted manner (mail) to the other Internet
user in any part of world.
Message in mail not only contain text, but it also contains
images, audio and videos data.
The person who is sending mail is called sender and person
who receives mail is called recipient. It is just like postal mail
service.
 Components of E-Mail System: The basic components of an
email system are: User Agent (UA), Message Transfer Agent
(MTA), Mail Box, and Spool file. These are explained as
following below.
1. User Agent (UA): The UA is normally a program which is
used to send and receive mail. Sometimes, it is called as mail
reader. It accepts variety of commands for composing,
receiving and replying to messages as well as for manipulation
of the mailboxes.
2. Message Transfer Agent (MTA): MTA is actually
responsible for transfer of mail from one system to another. To
send a mail, a system must have client MTA and system MTA.
It transfers mail to mailboxes of recipients if they are
connected in the same machine.
It delivers mail to peer MTA if destination mailbox is in
another machine. The delivery from one MTA to another MTA
is done by Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
[Link]: It is a file on local hard drive to collect mails.
Delivered mails are present in this file. The user can read it
delete it according to his/her requirement.
To use e-mail system each user must have a mailbox. Access
to mailbox is only to owner of mailbox.
[Link] file: This file contains mails that are to be sent. User
agent appends outgoing mails in this file using SMTP. MTA
extracts pending mail from spool file for their delivery. E-mail
allows one name, an alias, to represent several different e-mail
addresses.
It is known as mailing list, whenever user have to send a
message, system checks recipient’s name against alias
database.
If mailing list is present for defined alias, separate messages,
one for each entry in the list, must be prepared and handed to
MTA.
If for defined alias, there is no such mailing list is present,
name itself becomes naming address and a single message is
delivered to mail transfer entity.
 Services provided by E-mail syste:
 Composition – The composition refers to process that creates
messages and answers. For composition any kind of text editor
can be used.
 Transfer – Transfer means sending procedure of mail i.e.
from the sender to recipient.
 Reporting – Reporting refers to confirmation for delivery of
mail. It helps user to check whether their mail is delivered, lost
or rejected.
 Displaying – It refers to present mail in form that is
understand by the user.
 Disposition – This step concern with recipient that what will
recipient do after receiving mail i.e save mail, delete before
reading or delete after reading.
Advantages of email:
1. Convenient and fast communication with individuals or
groups globally.
2. Easy to store and search for past messages.
3. Ability to send and receive attachments such as documents,
images, and videos.
4. Cost-effective compared to traditional mail and fax.
5. Available 24/7.
 Disadvantages of email:
1. Risk of spam and phishing attacks.
2. Overwhelming amount of emails can lead to information
overload.
3. Can lead to decreased face-to-face communication and loss of
personal touch.
4. Potential for miscommunication due to lack of tone and body
language in written messages.
5. Technical issues, such as server outages, can disrupt email
service.
6. It is important to use email responsibly and effectively, for
example, by keeping the subject line clear and concise, using
proper etiquette, and protecting against security threats.

WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

The World Wide Web (WWW), often called the Web, is a system
of interconnected webpages and information that you can access
using the Internet.
It was created to help people share and find information easily,
using links that connect different pages together.
The Web allows us to browse websites, watch videos, shop
online, and connect with others around the world through our
computers and phones.
All public websites or web pages that people may access on
their local computers and other devices through the internet
are collectively known as the World Wide Web or W3.
What is WWW?
WWW stands for World Wide Web and is commonly known
as the Web. The WWW was started by CERN in 1989. It was
invented by Tim Berners-Lee.
WWW is defined as the collection of different websites
around the world, containing different information shared via
local servers (or computers).
Components of WWW
 Architecture of WWW
The WWW is mainly a distributed client/server service where
a client using the browser can access the service using a server.
The Service that is provided is distributed over many different
locations commonly known as sites/websites.
 Each website holds one or more documents that are generally
referred to as web pages.
 Where each web page contains a link to other pages on the same
site or at other sites.
 These pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers.
Working of WWW
A Web browser is used to access web pages. Web browsers
can be defined as programs which display text, data, pictures,
animation and video on the Internet.
Hyperlinked resources on the World Wide Web can be
accessed using software interfaces provided by Web browsers.
Initially, Web browsers were used only for surfing the Web
but now they have become more universal.
When users request web pages or other information, then the
web browser of your system request to the server for the
information and then the web server provide requested
services to web browser back and finally the requested service
is utilized by the user who made the request.
Features of WWW
 WWW is open source.
 It is a distributed system spread across various websites.
 It is a Hypertext Information System.
 It is Cross-Platform.
 Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many
services.
 Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.
 HTTP
HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is the
main way web browsers and servers communicate to share
information on the internet. Tim Berner invents it.
Hyper Text is the type of text that is specially coded with the
help of some standard coding language called Hyper Text
Mark-up Language (HTML).
HTTP/2 is the new version of HTTP. HTTP/3 is the latest
version of HTTP, which is published in 2022.
When you visit a website, HTTP helps your browser request
and receive the data needed to display the web pages you see.
It is a fundamental part of how the internet works, making it
possible for us to browse and interact with websites.

History of HTTP
 Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are indeed credited
with inventing the original HTTP protocol.
 HTTP version 0.9 was the initial version introduced in 1991.
 HTTP version 1.0 followed in 1996 with the introduction of
RFC 1945.
 HTTP version 1.1 was introduced in January 1997 with RFC
2068, later refined in RFC 2616 in June 1999.
 HTTP version 2.0 was specified in RFC 7540 and published
on May 14, 2015.
 HTTP version 3.0, also known as HTTP/3, is based on the
QUIC protocol and is designed to improve web
performance. It was renamed as Hyper-Text Transfer
Protocol QUIC (HTTP/3) and developed by Google.
Working of HTTP [Hyper Text Transfer Protocol]
First of all, whenever we want to open any website we first
open a web browser after that we will type the URL of that
website (e.g., [Link]).
This URL is now sent to the Domain Name Server (DNS).
Then DNS first checks records for this URL in their database,
and then DNS will return the IP address to the web browser
corresponding to this URL. Now the browser is able to send
requests to the actual server.
After the server sends data to the client, the connection will be
closed. If we want something else from the server, we should
have to re-establish the connection between the client and the
server.

Methods of HTTP
Method Description
GET Read a Web page
HEAD Read a Web page’s header
POST Append to a Web page
PUT Store a Web page
DELETE Remove the Web page
TRACE Echo the incoming request
CONNECT Connect through a proxy
OPTIONS Query options for a page

HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both

the message types follow the same message format.
 Request Message: The request message is sent by the client
that consists of a request line, headers, and sometimes a body.

Response Message: The response message is sent by the

server to the client that consists of a status line, headers, and
sometimes a body.

Characteristics of HTTP
HTTP is IP based communication protocol that is used to
deliver data from server to client or vice-versa.
 The server processes a request, which is raised by the client,
and also server and client know each other only during the
current bid and response period.
STREAMING AUDIO AND VIDEO
Web applications and the mobile Web are not the only exciting
developments in the use of networks. For many people, audio
and video are the holy grail of net- working.
The former technical challenges in providing voice over IP and
video-on-demand to every computer.
We can divide audio and video services into three broad
categories: streaming stored audio/video, streaming live
audio/video, and interactive audio/video. Streaming means a
user can listen (or watch) the file after the downloading has
started

In the first category, streaming stored audio/video, the files are

compressed and stored on a server. A client downloads the files
through the Internet. This is sometimes referred to as on-
demand audio/video.
In the second category, streaming live audio/video refers to the
broadcasting of radio and TV programs through the Internet.
In the third category, interactive audio/video refers to the use
of the Internet for interactive audio/video applications. A good
example of this application is Internet telephony and Internet
teleconferencing.

STREAMING STORED AUDIO/VIDEO

Downloading these types of files from a server can be different
from downloading other types of files
First Approach: Using a Web Server

Second Approach: Using a Web Server with Metafile

Third Approach: Using a Media Server

Fourth Approach: Using a Media Server and RTSP

STREAMING LIVE AUDIO/VIDEO

Streaming live audio/video is similar to the broadcasting of
audio and video by radio and TV stations. Instead of
broadcasting to the air, the stations broadcast through the
Internet.
There are several similarities between streaming stored
audio/video and streaming live audio/video. They are both
sensitive to delay; neither can accept retransmission.
However, there is a difference.
In the first application, the communication is unicast and on-
demand. In the second, the communication is multicast and
live.
Live streaming is better suited to the multicast services of IP
and the use of protocols such as UDP and RTP.
Examples: Internet Radio, Internet Television (ITV), Internet
protocol television (IPTV)
REAL-TIME INTERACTIVE AUDIO/VIDEO
In real-time interactive audio/video, people communicate with
one another in real time. The Internet phone or voice over IP
is an example of this type of application. Video conferencing
is another example that allows people to communicate visually
and orally.
.