12.

2 SURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

In surface geophysical methods of exploration, certain physical properties
measured
and parameters of subsurface formations and contained fluids are
depends
by instruments located on the surface. The success of these methods
of
on how best the physical parameters deduced are interpreted in terms
hyarogeological language. As the geophysical characteristic or its range is
not unique to hydrogeologic parameters, save in rare cases, one or more of
alternatives arise from which a choice has to be made on the
basis
knowledge of the hydrogeology of the area. At times, a combination of two
or more methods may have to be chosen.
The surface geophysical methods that find a place in ground-water explora
tion are: (1) electrical (2) eleotromagnetic (3) induced polarisation (4) seismic
5) magnetic and (6) gravimetric. In some cases, radiometric methods are
aiso found useful. Among these methods, the clectrical methods are most
commonly employed, The other methods are not only less effective but are
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 449

also less versatile for application. The main objectives of the geophysical
surveys are to provide the following information:
() Depth, thickness and lateral extent of aquifers in sedimentary for
mations
(i) Thickness of weathered and fractured zones and depth to
massive
basement rocks, delineation of solution cavities in hard rocks
(iii) Depth to water table
(iv) Structural and stratigraphic condition controlling ground-water occur
rence
(v) Distribution and configuration of salt-water/fresh-water interface, salt
water encroachment, pollution and contamination
(vi) Potentials of aquifers on the basis of correlation studies
Aquifers can be located by geophysical methods by taking advantage of
the contrast in geophysical properties between water-bearing and non-water
bearing formations. In many surface methods, observations are made to
obtain information on the variation of the physical field along a horizontal
profile (profiling) or in the vertical section at a given location (sounding).,
The variation in the physical field from the normal field (anomaly) is inter
preted in terms of subsurface inhomogeneities which may include variation
in lithology, quantity and quality of water. In selecting the geophysical method,
picking up the eritical and distinctive physical parameter for evaluation is of
prime importance. Geophysical surveys may be carried out from the air, the
surface, or by lowering instruments in boreholes. Many surface methods can
be used in the air or in boreholes.

12.2.1Electrical Methods
Electrical prospecting makes use of a variety of techniques, each based on
some different electrical property or characteristic of subsurface materials.
The techniques include electrical resistivity, electromagnetic, induced polari
sation, telluric current and magneto-telluric methods. Of these, the first
mentioned is most widely employed in ground-water investigations.
Electrical Resistivity Method The electrical resistivity (or speciic resistance)
ofa medium is the resistance offered by a unit cube of it when a unit current
passes normal to the surface of cross-sectional area 4. It is given by Ohm's
law:
A m²
P=R ohm m
ohm-m (12.1)

whereP= resistivity
R= resistance ofered by the medium of length L and cross-sectional
area A

Inelectrical-resistivity survey, a known current I (direct current or low

trequency alternating current) is sent into the ground through a pair of
Current electrodes A and B, and the potential difference (4) created in the
 MANAGEMENT
DEVELOPMENT AND
ASSESSMENT,
450 GROUND WATER

potential electrodes M and

N (Fig. 129)
pair of
medium between another the formation is then given
by
resistivity of
is measured. The
(12.2)
P

Battery
Ammeter

Voltmeter

Current FO Iine
EQuipontial
line
circuit for
Fig. 12.9 Schematic electrical
earth-resistivity measurement

where K is termed the geometric factor

of the electrode arrangement:
(12.3)
K 11,1
1
AM BM BN
between the designated electrodes.
and AM, BM, AN and BN are distances
if the formation is homo
P represents the true resistivity of the material
apparent rcsistivity Pa if the
geneous and isotropic in nature, and only the
formation is anisotropic, consisting of two or more layers of
different resisti
variables like
vities. The apparent-resistivity value depends on several
istivities and other
electrode spacing, geometry of electrode array, true res
features of underlying formations such as layer thickness, dip, and arisotropic
properties. The apparent-resistivity, depending on the electrode confgurntion
and geology, may be a crude weighted average of the true resistivities er
even negative (Zohdy et al, 1974), The effective depth of current penetration,
and hence of the investigation, increases with increase in electrode spacing.
The common rock-forming minerals have very high resistivities. For
example, the resistivity of quartz is 10!! ohm -m, while the resistivity is only
50 ohm-m for fresh water and about 1ohm-m for sea water. Impervious
rocks and porous but dry rocks have high resistivities, Resistivity decreases
with increasing water saturation and saltcontent in the water saturating the
medium. The common range of resistivities of some rocks is shown in
Fig. 12.10. It will be observed that the resistivity of a rock is not unique to
it and that there is considera ble overlapping of resistivity ranges of several
rock types, depending on clay content, water saturation, quality of water
ard porosities.
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 451

ROCK
RESISTIVITY RANGE (OH M-M)

Clay, Soft shote

fPreh efor
Shale hard -Brsehioh water
Shale weot her ed Dry s$oline mfer
Sand
FDry
Sandstone

Limestone, porous
Lime stone, den se
Basalt, weathered
Basalt, ve siculir
Bosalt, massive
Granite,weathered
Dry
Gronite,froctured
Granlte, massive
Water

Fig. 12.10 General range of electrical resistivities of

common rocks and water

Various types of electrode configurations are employed, of which the

Wenner and Schlumberger arrangements (Fig. 12.11) are the most common.
While both these aim at the determination of the apparent resistivity of
formations at chosen points and depths, the Schlumberger system has certain
practical, operational and interpretational advantages (Bhimasankaram
etal., 1969 and Zohdy et al, 1974). Other types include Lee-partitioning
and dipole-dipole arrays, which are useful for specific situations.

B A MN
A
N
-AB/2 fAB/2

Fig. 12.11 (A) Wenner and (B) Schlumnberger electrode arrays

Wenner Configuration Two potential electrodes Mand Nare placed in a

line with the current electrodes Aand B, all four being situated equidistant
from one another and disposed symmetrically with respect to a central point
D
(Fig, 12.1 1A), ie. AM = MN NB = 4. The apparent resistivity of the
formation is given by
Pa = 2ma (12.4)
452 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
The depth of investigation in an isotropic and homogeneous formation can
be approximated to the distance between any two electrodes.
Schhemberger configuration In this type also allfour electrodes are placed
in a line, but the distance between the current electrodes (AB) is maintained
equal to or more than five times the distance between the potential electrodes
(Fig. 12.11B). The apparent resistivity is given by
(L/2) - (b/2)2 AV
(12.5)
where L= AB and b = MN
The depth of investigation in an isotropic and homogeneous formation
isapproximately equal to half the distance between the current electrodes.
Dipole-dipole array In this method developed in Russia, current electrodes
and potential electrodes are arranged in pairs or dipoles. The electrode pairs
can be arranged in several ways, maintaining a much smaller distance bet
ween current lectrodes and potential electrodes than between the centres of
the dipoles. The dipole-dipole arrays are normally required for deep ex
ploration, as in oil fields, but in recent years they have also been used in
ground-water investigations.
Resistivity Profiling and Sounding There are two types of resistivity surveys,
namely profiling or lateral traversing and vertical electrical sounding (VES)
or depth probing. With profiling, anisotropism in the horizontal direction is
distinguished, while with sounding anisotropism in the vertical direction is
distinguished. However, the results of VES and profiling are often affected
by both lateral and vertical variations in the clectrical properties of the
formations.

Resistivity profling The Wenner array is most convenient for profiling.

Keeping the electrode spacing constant (Fig. 12.12A and B), apparent-resis
tivity values are measured at selected stations by shifting the whole electrode
array along a profile. By measuring the apparent resistivity along the same
profile with different electrode spacings, lateral as well as vertical changes in
apparent resistivity can be known.
We nner Schlumberger
(A) (8)
A, MN B
Normal profiling

(C) (D)
B
Ag MON

Sounding
Fig. 12.12 Electrode arrangement in the Wenner and Schlumberger
systems for
profiling and sounding
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 453

The resistivity data collected during profiling are plotted against the
corresponding stations along the traverses to depict an apparent-resistivity
profile. If several electrode spacings have been used, the plotted values may
be contoured to produce an isoresistivity contour diagram of the vertical
section. If profiling is done along several adjacent sections with one electrode
spacing, the data may be utilised to prepare a contour map of apparent
resistivity for the particular electrode spacing. A panel diagram can be drawn
if the measurements are taken along several sections with different electrode
spacings.
Vertical contacts of formations and steeply dipping layers, fauits, dykes,
buried stream channels and fresh water-salt water zones are readily distin
guished in resistivity profiles. It is also possible to differentiate low-resistivity
water-bearing zones from high-resistivity dry zones and impervious rocks. For
best results, electrical resistivity profiles should be studied alongside the
hydrogeological, water quality and topographic profiles.
Exampie 12.1 (Mathur and Bhimasankaram , 1976)
As a part of geophysical and hydrogeological investigations for ground water in the
upland areas of the West Godavari district, Andhra Prådesh, India, resistivity profiling
was carried out along a 15-km stretch, with 70 observations spaced 200 m apart. After
carrying out a preliminary study, it was found tha the shallow aquifer occurred at
depths of 15 to 20 m andthe next deeper aquifer at depths of 50 to 60 m. Hence, two
electrode separations AB|2 =- 30 m and AB|2 = 100 m were chosen for profiling. The
data plot of apparent-resistivity values for separations AB| = 30 m and AB[2 = 100 is
shown in Fig. 12.13 In the profile, different levels of anomalies are distinct to alluvium,
103

ohm
A8/2 30mT
ivity
,

AB/2=I00m-4
resi t
Aporent
Dstance , km

Alluvium vTropsvv Rajahmnundry

Golepoli Allyvium y Tirupoti VVVvl sQ nd stone
sand st one sond stone
infra- trappcon ciay

Fig, 12.13 Apparent resistivity profile in relation to geological contacts, West Godavari
district, Andhra Pradesh (Mathur and Bhimasankara m, 1976)
 454 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
sandstone and trap (basalt), so that the formation boundaries are indicated by changes
in apparent resistivities along the traverse line.

Vertical electrical sounding (VES) In this method, keeping the place of

observation constant, a set of apparent-resistivity values are obtained succes
sively for different electrode spacings (Fig. 12.12C and D). The value of
apparent resistivity is piotted as a function of electrode spacing on log-log
paper. The curve Pa =f(a, AB/2) is referred to as an electrical-sounding
curve. The vertical distribution of resistivities within a given volume of rock
iscalled a geoelectric section.
In horizontally stratified formations, the shape and type of the curve
depends on the electrode configuration, resistivity and thickness of formations
beneath the sounding point. In a simple case of a single homogeneous isotro
pic layer of infinite thicknes, the curve for apparent resistivity versus electrode
spacing will be a straight line for all electrode spacings. If there are two
layers an upper homogeneous and isotropic layer of thickness hy and resis
tivity P1 underlain by an infinitely thick (h2 = o) lower layer of resistivity
Pa the initial trend of the curve resembles the one for asingle layer, but the
later trend departs from it depending on the relative resistivities and electrode
configuration used (Fig. 12.14). When P > Pa, the total current will be
greater than when the earth layer is homogeneous due to a less-resistant path

OHM-ETRS 50
ELFCTRODE SPACING AB /2, IN FEET
10 20 50 109 200 500 i000

P,/P, - 1o

20

RESITVY,
IN
P.

AP RENT
02
0.1
01 02 a.5 1 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 100C
ELECIRODE SPACING. AB/2, IN METRES
Fig. 12.14 Comparison between two-layer Schlumberger curves for Pa/P = 10 and
0.1; h, = 1I metre (3.28 feet) for both curves (2Zohdy et al., 1974)
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 455

for the passage of current in the lower layer. The apparent resistivity will
then tend to be equal to P as the electrode spacing is decreased in compari
son to h1, as very little current will penetrate the lower layer. For spacings
larger than h1, the value of apparent resistivity willtend to equal Pa as the
spacing is increased. When Py < P2 larger current will flow through the
shallow layer so that comparatively larger spacing will be required before
true resistivity is approached. If the subsurface consists of three layers of
thickness hi, ha and hs) there are four possible combinations of their resisti
vities P1, P2, and Ps and corresponding sounding curves (Fig. 12.15).
Pi > P2 < P3 = H-type section
Pi < P2 < P3 = A-type section
Pi <P2> Ps = K-type section
Pi > P2> Ps = Q-type section

10 70 50 200 500 I000 S000 10,000

A-type

METRS
RESITe,.
ONM.
IN K-type

P, 4

A25

2.0

AP RN H-tye

B94

500 1009 2000 5000 10, 009

20 105 209
ELECIEOOt SPACIKG. AS/Z. IN ME TRES
sounding curves
Fig. 12.15 Example of the four types of threc-layer Schlumberger
for three-layer carth models (Zohdy et al., 1974)
resisti
Jn a four-layer sequence there are eight possible relations between the
vities of individual layers, and the possible relationships increase to l6 fo
are
a five-layer section. For a multilayer medium, the letters H, A, K and O
used in combination to indicate the iype of geoelectric section. As the
number of layers increases and the thickness of the layers decreases, the
456 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

interpretation becomes more difficult unless supplementary subsurface in

formation is available. The detectability of a layer of given resistivity depends
on its relative thickness, defined as the ratio of the bed thickness to its
depth of burial.
Radial profiling and sounding Joints and fractures present in hard rocks,
when saturated, transmit greater amounts of current than the adjoining mas
sive rock. Methods of resistivity profiling and sounding are used to establish
the trend of the conductive zones. Radial profiling consists of measurements
of apparent resistivity in different directions (about 10°), keeping the centre
of the electrode set up at the same location. A polar diagram is prepared
by plotting, to a convenient scale, the apparent-resistivity values against the
corresponding directions. The minor axis of the ellipse, obtained by joining
all the points, indicates the direction of maximum conductivity.
The influence of direction and depth on the resistivity anomalies can be
inferred by means of radial profiling for different electrode separations. The
method finds application in delineation of joint direction and, by repetitive
surveys, in tracing salt/fresh water boundaries and their movements.
Interpretation Sounding data may be interpreted in a qualitative or quan
titative manner. In the qualitative analysis of VES data, the most important
factor is the shape of the curve, from which it is possibie to decipher the
number of layers and their resistivity relationships. When the data of several
stations are available, they can by interpreted by depicting in maps the areal
distribution of the types of sounding curves and apparent resistivities. Quan
titative interpretation of sounding curves can be done by analytical and
empirical methods.
In the analytical method the curve-matching technique is adopted. The
observed sounding curve is prepared to the same modulus as a set of theore
tical master-type curves of appareit resistivities calculated for horizontal,
isotropic and homogeneous earth layers,for various combinations of thick
nesses and resistivities (see Mooney and Wetzel, 1956; Orellana and Mooney.
1966; Zohdy et al., 1974, and Ghosh, 1971). At the best-fit position, the
thickness and resistivity of the first layer are read from the master-curve
chart. The thickness and resistivity of the second, third and fourth layers, as
the case may be, are determined from the Pa/fi, Ps/Pi, Pa/Pi and halh1, halh
and ha/h; ratios given on the type curves. Once the resistivities and thick
nesses of the different layers are known, the data may be used to prepare a
geoelectric section of the VES spot.
Interpretations are liable to go awry if field conditions do not conform to
the assumptions that form the basis for the preparation of the master curves.
Further, because of a phenomenon called equivalence of layers, diflerent
layers having diferent resistivities and thicknesses may produce the same
eleçtrical-field distribution on the surface. Thus, in a K-type section for
example, a thin and highly resistive second Jayer may produce the same efect
as a larger thickness and lower resistivity, or sometimes the effect of 2 or 3
layers together may be equivalent (interms of potential ield distribution on
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 457

the surface) to the effect of a single layer but with certain other parameters
(Sabnavis, 1977). For this reason, a perfect match of data plots with the type
curve does not necessarily mean that the parameters determined are unique.
However, albeit these complexities, interpretations can be improved by cor
relation of various sounding curves, sounding with different arrays, applica
tion of knowledge of the geological set-up, and recognition of electrical
properties of rocks. When drilling data are available, it is worthwhile to
make test soundings near the well in order to determine the resistivity para
meters of the layers, using accurately determined layer thicknesses. Using
these known resistivity parameters, the layer thickness can be determined for
areas where drilling information is lacking.
Example 12.2 The data pertaining to the vertical electrical sounding carricd out in a
gneissic terrain, using the Schlumberger configuration, are given in Table 12. 1. Draw the
sounding graph and determine the geoelectric parameters using theoreticalcurves.
TABLE 12.1 VES data from Schlumberger configuration

AB|2 P AB|2
95.7 60 25.2
86.5 70 29.0
3 78.4 80 33.8
5 44.3 90 36.5
29.0 100 43.2
10 15.9 120 49.1
12 13.2 140 56.0.
15 11.5 160 64.0
20 11.7 180 73.8
25 12.6 200 82.0
30 13.2 220 89.7
35 15.0 250 101.6
40
17.1dbsibher 275 bor 112.8
50 20.5baa 300 123.2
350os 145.0

The data are plotted as shown in Fig. 12.16. The best-fitting match with theoretical
curve is obtained for
PalP 0.1 Pa/P = 0 and hlh, 1o
The match point is obtained by marking (1.1)) the coordinate point of the theoretical
curve. The corresponding AB/2 and . values give the thickness and resistivity of the
first layer.
So P 97 ohm-m and hË 2.3 m
PalPs Pale, halh, and h/h, as noted from the theoretical curve (Orellana-Mooney,
1966), are
P2=0.1;
P1
hence P 9.7 ohm-m;

-10: so h,= 23.0 m

 458 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

D0; hence P% 00
P1

and

Soil Meothered enie Messive gners0

R9-7 oh
h230m

Meteh pont

Dete plot

Type cur ve

Frold da ta
Theoreficat curve

I00

Fig. 12.16 Plot of ABI2 versus apparent resistivity (Pa)

Among the empirical methods, mention may be made of Moore's cumula

tive-resistivity method (Moore, I945) and the inverse-slope method developed
in NGRI (Sankaranarayana and Ramanujachary, 1967). In Moore 's method.
the cumulative resistivity curve is constructed by plotting cumulative values
of apparent resistivity against the corresponding Wenner electrode spacing.
The curve consists of straight-line segments intersecting at points correspon
ding to depths of horizontal boundaries. The method fails to yield even the
rough order of magnitude of actual resistivities, and is applicable for two
layer models.
4V
Inthe inverse-slope method, the values 2uR where R are plotled
against the Wenner electrode spacing a (Fig. 12.17). On drawing the best
fitting straight-line segments through the points, their intersections give resis
tivity boundaries. The inverse slopes of the segments give, directly, the
absolute resistivities of the corresponding layers.
Example 12.3 Using the Wenner configuration, the following data pertaining to a grani
tic terrain was obtained. Compute the geoclectric parameters by the inverse-slope
method.
 GROUND WNATER EXPLORATION 459
TABLE 12.2 VESs data fronm Wenner configurat ion

Average Configuration
constant 1
2ra

5.41 6.28 0.029

1.91 12.57 0.083
1.75 18.849 0.090
1,40 31.42 0.114
1. 18 43.98 0.135
1.078 56.55 0.148
1.01 75.40 0.158
0.976bite 94.25
0.163
0.902seod 113.107 0.176
0.879sat 131.95 0.181
24 0.875 o 150.80 0.182
27 0.861 169.65 0.185
30 0.838 188.50 0.190
33 0.820 207.34 0.194

1
The plot of a versus 2rR is as shown in Fig. 12. 17. The results obtained
are shown overleaf:
Wr. Sermi wr.
granite gran it e Massive granite

ohmn -m
750

3 6 4o h m-m

M(2HOTSR) O 14 h mm-

oh
0-12
O8

O101

O08

o-06

0-04
2 TToR=36 ohm-m
2TTR
002

5 15 20 25 30 35
a(metres)
Fig. 12.17 Data plot of 1/2xR versus a
 460 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Layer Depth (m) Thickness Slope Resistivity Geological

bgl (m) ohm-M unit

Ilayer 0-2 2.0 0.027 36 Soil cover

II layer 2-8.25 6.25 0.009 108 Weathered
granite
IIIlayer 8.25-19.75 11.50 0.0027 364 Semi-weathered
granite
IVlayer below 19.75 0.0013 750 Massive granite

The depthwise variation in apparent resistivity can be related to para

meters like the depth to water table (thickness of dry zone), depth of water
bearing horizon, stratification boundaries, surface of hard-rock basement,
boundaries of geothermal zones and fresh- and salt-water interfaces. The
electrical method has the advantage of being unique in furnishing informa
tion concerning the depth of the salt-water/fresh-water interface, which
neither gravity, magnetic nor seismic methods can supply. Besides, tiick clay
beds separating aquifers can usually be detected. Several authors have esta
blished empirical relationships between resistivities, aquifer transmissivities
and yields of wells (Way, 1942; Enslin, 1966; Patangay et al., 1977 and
Viswanathan, 1982).
The electrical methods are particularly useful in prospecting for ground
water in hard rocks in which the distribution of aquifer is irregular. VES
data obtained from fractured rocks are sometimes uninterpretable. Also,
while dilineating valley ills, it is often dificult to demarcate precisely the
contact between weathered basement rocks and the superincumbent sedimen
tary cover. The tendency, very often, is to interpret an exaggerated thickness
of the sedimentary cover and over-estimate the productivity of the aquifer.
There are some limitations to the use of the electrical method. The maxi
mum depth range of electrical soundings with the existing type of instru
ments is about 500 m. The heterogeneity of the earth layers within the
maximum depth of penetration reduces the resolution of any but the thick
layers. Presence of highly conductive layer, like a saline-water layer, within
shallow depth makes the application of theresistivity method inefective. The
method is also of limited use in areas where near-surface layers are very
resistant. The application of this method in urban areas is handicapped due
tothe presence of artificial conductors like steel pipes and cables, electric
power lines and various steel structures.

Example 12.4 (from Patangay et al., 1977)

Lovestigations in an area established, as depicted in Fig. 12.18, a relationship between
the true resistivity P of the weathered granite and the yields of 32 wells for diferent
penetration ratios bÊH (6 = saturated zone penetrated by a well,equivalent to standing
water column,and H= thedepth to the granitic basement obtained from interpretation
of parameieric VES conducted at the well). Interpretation of VES at a point proposed
for a well gave the following results:
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 461

120} 7500

pdu6Dsnou1 400 yWiein

ld
0=
4300
60

40

20
200
thousnd
0-2 O4 0-6
b/H rot io
Fig. 12.18 Correlation between penetration
ratio and well yields for diferent
resistivities of weathered granitic
layer (Patangay et al. , 1977)
P, = 26 ohm-m, h, = 1.5 m
Pa = 54 ohm-m, h, = 22.5 m
Ps O, h, = o
where P1. Py and P, are the resistivities of the first (soil), second (weathered) and third
(hard-granite) layers and h,, h, and h, are their respective thicknesses. If the second layer
forms the aquifer and the static water level rests at 5.7 m from the surface estimate
the yield of the well if the full thickness of the saturated zone is tapped at the site
proposed.
Depth to the granite basement (h, + h) = 24 m
Saturatedcolumn = 24 5.7 m
18.3 m
Penetration ratio (b/H) =0.76

Pz for b/H 0.76 -= 54 ohm-m

Yield for 54 ohm-in, from graph 297,000 1/day

12.2.2 Seismic Methods

In the seismic methods of exploration, a shock (or vibration) is generated in
the ground by an explosive device or a hammer stroke, and the differences
in velocities of propagation of seismic (elastic) waves through sub-surface
layers of the carth are measured at other points, with the aid of detectors
called geophones. The geophones are extremely sensitive electromagnetic
devices capable of responding to very minute vibrations (a few microns) of
the ground and transforming the response into electrical signals, the frequency
and amplitude of which aregoverned by the vibrations. The signals are very
small and are amplified several thousand times before they are recorded on
time-calibrated magnetic tape or photographic film.
 462 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
The seismic-wave velocities in different rock formations vary over wide
limits, depending on the bulk density and water content. The velocity varia
tions can,therefore, be interpreted in terms of variations in compactness,
porosity and saturation of rocks, and used tolocate interfaces of subsurface
layers with velocity contrasts. In Table 12.3, the possible range of velocities
for some typical rocks, water and air is given.
TABLE 12.3 Possible range of seismic-wave velocities in typical rocks, water
and air

Medium/rock Velocity
(m/s)

Air 310-360
Water 1430-1590
Loose surface soil, dry 100-300
Dry sand 300-500
Dry gravel 500-1300
Wet clay, silt, sand and gravel 1500-1800
Wet compacted clay 1500-2500
Semiconsolidated sandstones (Palana, Cuddalore and
Rajahmundry sandstones) 2200-2400
Shaly sandstone (Lower Gondwana) 3350-4200
Compact sandstone (Vindhyan, Sullavai) 3000-4250
Shale 2100-4000
Limestone, dolomite 3000-6000
Phyllite, slate 3250-3500
Granite (massive) 4000-6000
Granite (fractured) 1000-2000
Granite (weathered) 500-3000
Basalt (massive) 4000-6500
Granite (weathered and fractured) 1000-2000

(Based on Vijaya Raghava (1977), Bose (1977) and other sources.)

In a homogeneous and isotropic medium, the velocity of wave propaga

tion isconstant in all directions. The wave front in any given time is spheri
cal and the waves travel along straight-line paths called rays. The rays which
travel from the source along a horizontal path are termed direct rays
(Fig. 12.19), If the carth is layered, the seismic ray proceeding downward is
refiected or refracted depending on the angle of incidence of the ray at the
boundary between the layers. Refraction of the rays follows Snell's law
sin i
Sin r (12.6)
where i angle of incidence
rangle of refraction
Vi= velocity in the first medium
V½=velocity in the second medium
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 463
ime
T

Refiected
4Travel time curve

Sl ope

Direct

Slope
!ostangs
Shot point Geophones
Ground
Surfdce
path

Reflected ave
roywav
frocted
he e

R, R

Fig. 12. 9 Simplified representation of seismic ray path diagram (below) and
time-distance or travel-time curve (abovc)

As i increases, r also increases till it (r) reaches a maximum of 90 (when

sin r = 1) at the critical angle of incidence. The critical angle ic can be
expressed in terms of the two velocities:
sin i, = (12.7)
V2
When a ray strikes the boundary at the critical angle of incidence ie, a
part of the energy is reflected through the upper medium with velocity V
and a part is refracted and transmitted parallel to the boundary in the lower
medium with the higher velocity V2. The energy transmitted along the
boundary reaches the surface, through what are called refracted head waves,
in accordance with Huygen's principle which states that every wave on an
advancing wave front in an ideal elastic body is a source ofsecondary spheri
cal waves. Energy from a ray striking the boundary at more than the eritical
angle of incidence is totally reflected back towards the surface. At angles of
incidence Jess than i. the energy is partly reflected upward and partly re
fracted downward in the lower medium. The various ray paths described are
shown in Fig, 12.19, The travel time for the various rays are:
1. Direct ray between shot point S and geophone location G
X
(12.8)
464 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
2. Reflected ray along path SR:G
SR + R3G 2.SR3 2V(X/2) + Z2
(12.9)
3. Ray with angle of incidence i- (ray path SR;R&G)
SR2 R2Ra RaG
VI (12.10)
2SR2 R2R4
V2
(12.11)
2Z X- 2Z tan ic
Vcos ie V2 (12.12)
Substituting the expression in Eq. 12.7 in the above.
X 2Z cos ie (12.13)

where t = travel time

X = distance from snot point to geophone
Z= depth to the interface
SG, SRs, etc. = distances between the points shown in Fig. 12. 14.
The signals corresponding to. direct, reflected and refracted waves received
at successive geophones are ascertained by correlation, i.e. by comparing the
wave forms and their times of registration in the recorder chart. The seismic
waves of interest are picked up and their travel times read. A graph of the
arrival times of a wave versus the distance to geophones, plotted in the
hodo
coordinate system, is called a travel-time or tìme-distance curve, or a
graph in Russian literature. Figure 12.19 shows travel-time curves for direct,
reflected and refracted rays in respect of a layer model with horizontal
boundary and velocities VË< V.
There are two methods of seismic investigation-refraction and reflection
methods. In the refraction method the elapsed time between detonation and
the first arrival of the resultant shock wave, in respect of each geophone, is
determined and plotted against thedistance between the geophone and the
shot point. Figure 12.19 shows seismic-wave fronts and travel-time plots in
respect of an idealised, horizontal, two-layered model with Vi < V. The
plots for geophohes close to the shot point, falling in a straight line passing
through the origin, pertain to the direct waves, while those for geophones
farther away, falling in a second straight line making a certain intercept on
the tíme axis, pertain to the refracted waves from the first boundary. Each
additional segment will indicate an extra boundary, Because the critical
angle of incidence is involved, the refracted waves can appear only beyond
some eritical distance X. from the shot point. For geophones located beyond
K the head waves, in spite of their longer paths, arrive earlier than the
direct waves because of the compensation for greater distance by higher
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 465

velocity in the second layer. The velocities in the two layers are computed
as the reciprocal of the slopes of the travel-time segments. The depth to top
layer is obtained by substitution of the values of velocities in the following
cquations:

ZË = Xe V- V
(12.14)
Z2
2 Vi- vi (12.15)
V2Vi
Z1= (12.16)
where Zi = thickness of the first layer
12 time intercept of second segment at zero distance
2r = time of arrival on the second segment at any distance Xfrom
shot point
The reflected rays are registered only after the direct waves, and their
travel-time curves are hyperbolic in form (Fig. 12.19). The curves for hori
zontal boundaries are symmetrical with respect to shot points. The symmetry
axis shifts towards the up-dip direction of the inclined boundaries. At the
points of registration at distance greater than X, the reflected wave is masked
by other unwanted disturbances the suppression of which is a major
problem requiring additional features in the instrumentation for reflection
surveys.
In the reflection method, the depth Z to the first interface is given by
(12.17)
For small dístances between the shot point and the geophone compared to
the depth of the reflecting horizon (small angles of incidence), the actual
path length can be replaced by 2Z

2
(12. 18)

While in the refraction method the velocity values are obtained by inter
preting the travel-time curve, in the reflection method the velocity values
must usually be determined by independent measurements.
Lack of velocity contrast, presence of high-velocitý layers in the near
surface, small thickness of layers, undulating subsurface layers, variation in
the velocity of wave propagation due to increasing compaction with depth,
structural features, and cultural noises in inhabited and developed areas
are some of the factors that impose limitations on the application of seismic
methods of exploration. In hydrogeológy, the refraction method is used as
it is most suited to shallow exploration. The method is particularly suitable
in areas where the salinity variation is controlled by bed rock topographyor
 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT
AND MANAGEMENT
A66
other layer configurations, and where applicability of clectrical-resistivity
methods has limited scope due to salinity. The method has been applied for
mapping buried channels, depth of water table, and lateral facies variations
in aquifers; for determining the gross stratigraphy and porosity of aquifere
and for delineating bed rock.
The most common application of the refraction method is in the deter.
mination of thicknesses of valley fills overlying impervious bed rocks. and
configurations of the bed-rock surfaces. Structure contours on the bed-rock
surface will reveal the axis of buried bed-rock channels and, by inference
the position of coarse deposits. The delineation becomes less definitive ifthe
upper portion of the bed rock is weathered.
The refraction method has also been successfully employed to delineate
uppermost surfaces of massive basalt layers below the superficial weathered
zones which form shallow aquifers (IBBGP, 1982). Both reflection and
refraction seismic methods have been of little use in the delineation of
underlying Mesozoic sediments, some of which are productive aquifers, as
very little energy traverses through the massive layers of basalt and refracted
rays are deflected downwards. However, basalt-granite contact could be
traced (Choudhury, 1977).
Seismic-refraction measurements of porous clastic rocks show that com
pressional wave velocities increase abruptly at the water table, the zone of
saturation functioning as a refractor. The differences in velocity is least in
fine-grained sediments and as large as 1000 m/s in gravel (Table 12.3).

12.2.3 Magnetic Methods

In magnetic methods of survey, variations in the magnetic field of the earth
in relation to subsurfaces geology is detected and measured. Magnetometers
of various designs, working on different principles, are used to measure
variations of the horizontal and vertical components of the earth's magnetic
field. The unit of measurement of the intensity of the magnetic field is
gamma () = 10-5 oestred. Magnetic anomalies of high orders are generally
associated with basic rocks containing magnetite, ilmenite, etc. Granitic,
gneissic and shistose rocks are somewhat less magnetic, while sedimentury
rocks like sandstone, shale and limestone are mostly non-magnetic or very
feebly magnetic. Ferruginous layers, hard pans and placer magnetite and
ilmenite may give rise to high magnetic intensities even in sedimentary rocks.
This method has been extensively applied in exploration for oil to study
the structure and tectonics of large basins. The major application of the
method to ground-water studies has been to delineate aquifers like basalts
and to determine the configurations of basement rocks underlying water
bearing sedimentaries (see Zohdy et al., 1974), folds and faults. Dykes which
control the movement of ground water have often been successfully idenli
fied and mapped. Weathered zones in crystalline rocks are usually less
magnetic than the parent rocks due to the alternation of magnetite to less
magnetic or non-magnetic minerals. Where electrical resistivities of formations
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 467

are alike, the magnetic method can be applied to trace formation boundaries
provided there is sufficient contrast in magnetic intensities.
The method has the advantage that it can be applied more rapidly and
less expensively than most other surface geophysical methods. Its use, how
ever, is restricted in urban areas where distortions in the natural magnetic
field may be caused as a result of the extensive use of iron and steel for
constructional purposes, water-supply, etc. Aeromagnetic surveys have been
proved to be effective for rapid reconnaissance survey of sendimentary basins.
Example 12.5 (from Mathur and Bhimasankaram, 1976)
Figure 12.20 shows the magnetic profile and geological plan along the dip direction
of a multilayered sequence of rocks in a part of the West Godavari district, Andhra
Pradesh. The magnetic susceptibilities of the underlying rocks are determíned to be:
Golapalli sandstone : 17x 10- Oe
Tirupati sandstone :32x 10-® Oe
Deccan trap : 850 10-® Oe
The profile was interpreted as follows:
A negative trend of magnetic anomaly with little fluctuations is observed over the
Golapalli sandstones and Raghavapuram shales, but the anomaly becomes positive,
with an average value of 150-200 gammas, over the Tirupati sandstones. i his relatively

Radiometrte profTle

Ron/h 5
4

in
onomol
Magnetyic,
+ 200
Magnetic profile
+ 100

-100 m Normal gradiant

-200
-00

Golap i. Sand'stone
PLAN
Tirupati sandstona

Raad
V

Trap

km Aluvium.

Fig. 12.20 Magnetic and radiometric profiles along Kannapuram-Tadimalla,

West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh (Mathur and Bhimasan
karam, 1976)
468 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
high positive anomaly is ascribed to the upliftment of basement crystalline rocks due to
faulting. The anomaly becomes negative over the infra-trappeans, followed by a positive
peak at the contact with the traps. Similarly,the contact between the traps and the
Rajahmundry sandstones, consisting of ferruginous and felspathic sandstones, is marked
by a negative peak followed by a positive peak. On the whole, it is seen that the
different geological contacts have been brought out clearly in the profile.

12.2.4 Gravity Methods

A major part of the gravitational attraction on the earth'ssurface is caused
by the earth's core and mantle, which consist of nearly spherical layers of
basic and ultra-basic materials of high density. The surface described by
equal gravitational force is spherical in the deep interior of the earth, but
coincides with the geoidthe imaginary surface formed by the mean sea
level over the oceans and its extension through the continents. In the upper
crust of the earth, however, inhomogeneity in the mass distribution results
in variation in the gravity field. The recording of variations in the accelera
tion of gravity forms the basis of gravity prospecting, which has as its base
Newton's law of universal gravitation and his second law of motion. If, for
a given geologic setting at a place, the normal gravity value is g, the value
would change to g t Ag if some part of the original rock is replaced by
denser or lighter material. 4g is related to the shape, size, depth and density
contrast of the anomalous máss from the environ. The gravitational
acceleration g at a place may be expressed by

(12. 19)
where G= gravitational constant
P. and V. = density and volume, respectively, of the local underlying
rock mass e
R= depth of burial
The conventional unit of gravitational acceleration is a gal (1 gal =
cm/s/s), but in gravity-prospecting the unit adopted is a milligal (1 m gal =
10 gals).
Two types of instruments are used for gravity measurements-the gravity
pendulum and the gravimeter (also called gravity meter). The former operetes
on the principle that the period of a freely oscillating pendulum is inversely
proportional to gravitational acceleration. The latter comprises a highly sen
sitive spring balance that indicates the relative gravitational force as a func
tion of the elastic spring-force exerted by a weight. Another less-versatile but
extremely sensitive instrument used for measuring lateral changes of gravity
is the tortion balance, which is best suited toflat [Link] on the
type of instrument used, the purpose of study and location, field gravity
observations have to be corrected for effects of elevation, topography,
latitude and tides.
The range of bulk densities of common rock types is very small, from
about 1.7 gloc for well-sorted unconsolidated clastic sediments of high
 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION 469
porosity to 3.0 g/cc for massive basalt (Manger, 1963). The contrast in bulk
density in most geologic settings, however, is around 1.00 g/oc. The density
of the rock depends on the lithological composition, porosity, depth of
burial, compaction and metamorphic history. For example, the density of
sand and its products of compaction and metamorphism sandstone and
quartzite-are respectively 2.2, 2.4 and 2.6.
The method has been widely applied for oil-field exploration and pro
blems related to isostasy and geodesy involving large masses of the earth,
but has been found to be of limited utility in ground-water investigations
where the anomalies associated with local changes in geology involving the
limited mass of near-surface earth layers are often too small in magnitude
for accurate interpretation. In view of this, the most common application of
the method in groundwater studies is for delineation of the gross configura
tion of sedimentary basins and the included aquifers from the underlying bed
rocks. Zohdy et al. (1974) furrish some examples of the successful applica
tion of gravity investigation for delineation of the axis of buried-channel
deposits in a bed-rock valley, locating bed-rock high and estimation of the
average total porosity of alluvial fill. Under some conditions, repetitive
gravity measurements in an area of falling water table may be translated
in terms of specific yield of the desaturated rocks (whose bulk density is
lowered on the removal of water). Quantitative estimations of this nature
require very precise and accurate data and precision levelling of topography.
12.2.5 Radiometric Methods

The nuclei of certain elements are unstable and tend to transform spontane
ously, through various decay reactions, into nuclei of other elements, giving
rise to isotopes. Isotopes are atoms or nuclides of an element having the
same number of protons, and thus the same atomic number, but differing in
the number of neutrons, and hence in nuclear mass, from other atoms of
the same element. The process of decay of unstable isotopes of elements to
more stable ones is accompanied by radioactivity-emission of radiations
consis ting of alpha («) particles, positive and negative beta (8) particles,
and gamma () photons or rays. Amongst these radiations, gamma rays
have the highest penetrating power, upto about a metre in solids and 600 to
800 m in air, In contrast, the range of alpha particles in solids is onlya few
mícrons, and that of beta particles, about a few millimetres. Because of
their high penetrating power, gamma rays are used in radiometric surveys
and well-logging for detecting radioactive elements by measuring radiation
intensity. Since different rocks contain varying but often characteristic
amounts of radioactive minerals of thorium, uranium and potassium, the
method finds application in geological mapping like delineation of contacts
between different rock formations, faults and shear zones, specially when
these features are concealed under thin soil cover. Anbydrite, coal and salt
are the least radioactive, while potash beds and massive organic shales are
highly radioactive. In sedimentary formations, the radioactivity increases
470 GROUND WATER ASSESSMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

with shale content (Fig. 12.21). Among igneous rocks, radioactivity

with decrease in acidity, ultra-basic rocks being the least radioactivedecreases
JAPI GA MMA RAY UNITs
RO C K
200 300 400
content
Sond , gravel
Silt, siltetone
-Sand content
Clay, shele
Morin e organie shole
1Shale content
Send atone

Limestone
C661

Anhydrite +Weathe red

Gra nite
+Vesiculor
Bosolt(Dece on trop)

Fig. 12.21 General range of gamma ray activities of com

mon rocks

Two types of detectors, namely the Geiger-Mueller counter and Scintilla

tion counter, are widely used, but the latter has certain advantages like
higher eficiency and resolution. The Geiger-Mueller counter consists of an
argon-illed metal (cathode) coated glass cylinder with a thin tungsten wire
(anode) along its axis. A high potential diference is applied across the two
clectrodes. When charged particles or photons enter the tube, the gas is
ionised and the electrons so produced are accelerated towards the electrodes,
colliding on their paths with atoms of the gas and ionising then. This
secondary ionisation releases more electrons so that a great many arrive at
the anode, and the electric pulses so produced are amplified and measured.
The scintillation counter consists of a scintillation crystal used in conjunc
tion withla photo-multiplier tube. When nuclear radiation impinges on the
crystal, it emitsflashes of light (scintillations). The intensity of the light lash
depénds 'on the energy given up by the charged particle. The photòmultiplier
tube conyerts the light flashes into electric pulses which are amplified and
recorded. The radiation, íntensity is related to the number of pulses detected
per, unit time.
Like the magnetic method, the radiometric method also is employed
selectively, and generally in conjunction with resistivity surveys to deal with
specific problems. In this way, Mathur and Bhimasankaram (1976) were able
to differentiate, on the basis of radioactive levels (Fig. 12.20), non-productive
shales from productive shaly sandstones although they could not be ditere
tiated by cleçtrical-resistivity surveys. The close correspondence betweeu
the magnetic and radiometric anomalies may be observed in the pronle.