CONTENT

[Link]. Name of the Exercise Pag Date of Faculty

e Completio Sign.
No. n
1. Creating Database Table 05
2. Working with Data Manipulation 08
commands
3. Integrity Constraints 13
4. Basic Select Statements 17
5. SQL Functions 21
6. Joining Tables 28
7. Sub Queries 31
8. Views 35
9. Advanced Select Statements 38
10. Additional Queries 41
11. Basic of PL/SQL 60

Appendix – A : Codd’s Rules

Appendix – B : Answer for Additional Queries
Bibliography
Index
 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO S Q L

SQL
❖ Structured Query Language (SQL) is a language that all commercial RDBMS
implementations understand.
❖ SQL is a non-procedural language.

❖ SQL is a Unified Language. It provides statements for a variety of tasks.

❖ Developed in a prototype relational database management System R by IBM in

mid 1970s and Oracle Corporation introduced the first commercial SQL in
1979.

SQL Vs SQL *PLUS

SQL SQL *PLUS
▪ A language ▪ An environment

▪ ANSI standard ▪ Oracle proprietary

▪ Keyword cannot be abbreviated ▪ Keywords can be abbreviated

▪ Statements manipulate data and ▪ Commands do not allow manipulation

table definitions in the database of values in the database
▪ SQL statements are stored in buffer ▪ SQL*PLUS statements are not stored
in Buffer

Oracle RDBMS Limits

Item Limit
Tables in a database No limit
Rows in a table No limit
Columns in a table 254
Characters in a row 1,26,495
Characters in character field 240
Digits in a number field 105
Significant digits in a number filed 40
Ranges of values in a date field 1-JAN-4712 BC to 31-DEC-4712 AD
Indexes on a table No limit
Tables or views joined in a query No limit
 Levels of nested sub queries 255
Characters in name 30

Naming Rules
❖ Begin with a letter and followed by zero or more of characters A-Z, 0-9, _, $, #

❖ Not case sensitive

 Data types
❖ Integers Decimal numbers--- NUMBER, INTEGER .
Number is an oracle data type. Integer is an ANSI data type. The syntax for
NUMBER is NUMBER(P,S) p is the precision and s is the scale. P can range
from 1 to 38 and s from -84 to +127
❖ Floating point numbers FLOAT

❖ Fixed length character strings CHAR (len)

Fixed length character data of length len bytes.
❖ Variable length character strings Varchar2(len)
Variable length character string having maximum length len bytes.
❖ Dates DATE

❖ Character data of variable size uo to 32760 characters LONG

❖ Raw binary data, size bytes long. Maximum size is 32767 bytes RAW(size)

Constants/Literals
❖ ANSI standard defines format for literals

❖ Numeric: 21, -32, $0.75,1.2E4

❖ String: enclosed within single quote

❖ Date Format : 12-mar-03

Operators
❖ Arithmetic operators like +,-,*,/

❖ Logical operators: AND, OR

❖ Relational operators: =,<=,>=, < >

- The Arithmetic operators are used to calculate something like given in the
example below:
Select * from employee where sal * 1.1 > 1000 ;
- The logical operators are used to combine conditions like:
Select * from employee where (sal > 1000 AND age > 25);
 - The above two examples also illustrate use of relational operators

NULL
❖ Missing/unknown/inapplicable data represented as a null value

❖ NULL is not a data value. It is just an indicator that the value is unknown

Statements
- SQL has three flavours of statements.
DDL is Data Definition Language statements. Some examples:
▪ CREATE - to create objects in the database

▪ ALTER - alters the structure of the database

▪ DROP - delete objects from the database

▪ TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table

▪ COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary

DML is Data Manipulation Language statements. Some examples:

▪ SELECT - retrieve data from the a database

▪ INSERT - insert data into a table

▪ UPDATE - updates existing data within a table

▪ DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain

▪ CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram

▪ EXPLAIN PLAN - explain access path to data

▪ LOCK TABLE - control concurrency

TCL(Transaction Control Language) is a DML

▪ COMMIT - save work done

▪ SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back

▪ ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last COMMIT

▪ SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like what rollback segment to

use

DCL is Data Control Language statements. Some examples:

▪ GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database

▪ REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT command

 Database Objects
❖ Table -- Basic unit of storage; composed of rows and columns

❖ View -- Logically represents subsets of data from one or more tables

❖ Sequence -- Generates primary key values

❖ Index -- Improves the performance of some queries

❖ Synonym -- Gives alternative names to objects

SQL *PLUS EDITING COMMANDS

EDIT filename🡪 Invokes text editor

L 🡪 List lines of the current buffer from first to last

C/old/new 🡪 Change old to new in the current line of the current buffer. (If old is
prefixed with ‘…’ then it matches everything up to including the first
 occurrence of old. If old is suffixed with ‘…’ then it matches everything
including and after the first occurrence of old.)
A text 🡪 Add text to the end of current line in current buffer.

DEL 🡪 Delete the current line in current buffer.

SAVE name CREATE/ REPLACE/ APPEND 🡪 Save the content of current buffer
in to the file name. If filetype is missing, then CREATE is the default.
@filename 🡪 Run the file filename which contains SQL statements. The file may
contain any commands that may be interactively.

RUN 🡪 Displays and run the command in the buffer

/ 🡪 Run the command in the buffer without displaying.

START file 🡪 Run the file. The file may contain any commands that may not be
interactively.

***
 [Link]. 1 CREATING DATABASE TABLE Date :

CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE tablename (column_name data_ type constraints, …)

▪ Used to create a table by defining its structure, the data type and name of the various
columns, the relationships with columns of other tables etc.

Q1) Create the tables DEPT and EMP as described below

DEPT
Column Data Description
name type
DEPTNO Number Department number
DNAME Varchar Department name
LOC Varchar Department Location

EMP
Column Data Description
name type
EMPNO Number Employee number
ENAME Varchar Employee name
JOB Char Designation
MGR Number Manager’s [Link].
HIREDATE Date Date of joining
SAL Number Basic Salary
COMM Number Commission
DEPTNO Number Department Number

SQL>

SQL>

Q2) Confirm table creation

desc table-name;

S
QL>
SQL>
Q3) List name of the tables created by the user
SQL>select * from tab;

Q4) Describe tables owned by the user

SQL> SELECT * FROM user_tables;

Q5) View distinct object types owned by the user

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT object_type FROM user_objects;

Q6) View tables, views, synonyms, and sequences owned by the user
SQL> SELECT * FROM user_catalog;

ALTER TABLE
▪ Add Column
ALTER TABLE table ADD(column data type [DEFAULT expr]
[, column data type]...);
▪ Drop Column

ALTER TABLE table DROP column column_name;

▪ Modify Column
ALTER TABLE table MODIFY(column data type [DEFAULT expr]
[, column data type]...);

Q7) Add new columns COMNT and MISCEL in DEPT table of character type.
SQL >

Q8) Modify the size of column LOC by 15 in the DEPT table

SQL >

Q9) Set MISCEL column in the DEPT table as unused

SQL >

Q10) Drop the column COMNT from the table DEPT

SQL >
Q11) Drop unused columns in DEPT table
SQL >

Q12) Rename the table DEPT to DEPT12

SQL >

Q13) Remove all the rows in the table DEPT12 (Presently no records in DEPT12)
SQL >

ADDING COMMENTS TO THE TABLES

▪ You can add comments to a table or column by using the COMMENT statement.

▪ Comments can be viewed through the data dictionary views.

• ALL_COL_COMMENTS
• USER_COL_COMMENTS
• ALL_TAB_COMMENTS
• USER_TAB_COMMENTS
Syntax :
COMMENT ON TABLE table IS 'xxxxxxxxxx';

Q14) Add some comment to the table DEPT12 and also confirm the inclusion of
comment
S

QL >

SQL >

Q15) Delete the table DEPT12 from the database.

SQL >

Q16) Confirm the removal of table DEPT12 from the database.

SQL >
Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
 [Link]. 2 Working with Data Manipulation Date :
commands

DML
⮚ A DML statement is executed when you:
• Add new rows to a table
• Modify existing rows in a table
• Remove existing rows from a table
⮚ A transaction consists of a collection of DML statements that form a logical unit of
work.

Data for EMP table

Data for DEPT table

DEPTN DNAME LOC
O
10 ACCOUNTIN NEW
G YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATION BOSTON
S

INSERT STATEMENT
⮚ Add new rows to a table by using the INSERT statement.
(i) INSERT INTO table VALUES(value1, value2,..);
▪ Only one row is inserted at a time with this syntax.

▪ List values in the default order of the columns in the table

▪ Enclose character and date values within single quotation marks.

▪ Insert a new row containing values for each column

 (ii) INSERT INTO table(column1, column2,..).
VALUES(value1, value2,..);
▪ Rows can be inserted with NULL values either
- by omitting column from the column list or
- by specifying NULL in the value field.

(iii) INSERT INTO table(column1, column2,...)

VALUES(&value1,& value2,..);
▪ Substitution variable(&) helps us to write an interactive script for inserting
rows

Q1) Insert the rows of DEPT table using syntax (i)

SQL>

Q2) Insert first & second rows of EMP table using syntax (ii)
SQL>

Q3) Insert the remaining rows of EMP table using syntax (iii).
SQL>

Q4) Create a table MANAGER with the columns mgr-id, name, salary and hiredate
SQL> CREATE TABLE manager(mgr-id number(5) primary key,
name varchar(20), sal number(5), hiredate date);

Q5) Insert values into the table MANAGER by copying the values from EMP table
where the designation of the employee is ‘MANAGER’
SQL> INSERT INTO manager SELECT empno,ename,sal,hiredate
FROM emp WHERE job=’MANAGER’;

UPDATE STATEMENT
▪ Modify existing rows with the UPDATE statement.

▪ Update more than one row at a time, if required.

▪ All rows in the table are modified if you omit the WHERE clause

UPDATE table SET column = value, column = value, …. WHERE condition;

Q6) Change the LOC of all rows of DEPT table by ‘NEW YORK’
SQL>

Q7) Change the LOC=’DALLAS’ for deptno=20 in DEPT table.

SQL>

DELETE STATEMENT
▪ You can remove existing rows from a table by using the DELETE statement.

▪ All rows in the table are deleted if you omit the WHERE clause.

DELETE FROM table WHERE condition;

Q8) Delete the rows from EMP table whose employee name = ‘PAUL’
SQL>

SELECT STATEMENT
▪ To perform a query we use select statement
SELECT [DISTINCT] {*, column [alias],...}
FROM table;

o Select Clause determines what columns

o From Clause determines which table.
o Where Clause specifies the conditions

Q9) List all the columns and rows of the table DEPT
SQL>

Q10) List the name of the employee and salary of EMP table
SQL>

Q11) Without duplication, list all names of the department of DEPT table.
SQL>

Q12) Find out the name of an employee whose EMPNO is 7788.

SQL>
Q13) As a copy of DEPT table, create DEPT1 table using select command.
SQL> CREATE TABLE dept1 AS SELECT * FROM dept;

Q14) List ename and sal of EMP table with the column headings NAME and SALARY
SQL> SELECT ename as name, sal salary
FROM emp;

DATABASE TRANSACTIONS
▪ Begin when the first executable SQL statement is executed

▪ End with one of the following events:

• COMMIT or ROLLBACK
• DDL or DCL statement executes (automatic commit)
• User exits
• System crashes

TCL (Transaction Control Language)

▪ TCL Statements are COMMIT, ROLLBACK & SAVE POINT.

▪ State of Data Before COMMIT or ROLLBACK

o The previous state of the data can be recovered.
o The current user can review the results of the DML operations by using the
SELECT statement.
o Other users cannot view the results of the DML statements by the current
user.
o The affected rows are locked; other users cannot change the data within the
affected rows.
▪ State of Data After COMMIT
o Data changes are made permanent in the database.
o The previous state of the data is permanently lost.
o All users can view the results.
o Locks on the affected rows are released; those rows are available for other
users to manipulate.
o All savepoints are erased.

Q15) Change LOC=’CHICAGO’ for deptno=30 in DEPT table and COMMIT the
transaction.
 S

QL>

SQL>
▪ State of Data After ROLLBACK
o Discard all pending changes by using the ROLLBACK statement.
o Data changes are undone.
o Previous state of the data is restored.
o Locks on the affected rows are released.

Q16) Delete all the rows from EMP table and ROLLBACK the transaction.
S

QL>

SQL>

▪ Rolling Back to a Marker

o Create a marker within a current transaction by using

<SAVEPOINT savepoint-name>
o Roll back to that marker by using <ROLLBACK TO savepoint-name>

Q17) Do the following operations one after another

a) Change LOC=’BOSTON’ for deptno=40 in DEPT table
SQL>

b) Create SAVEPOINT in the name ‘update_over’

SQL>

c) Insert another row in DEPT table with your won values

SQL>

d) Rollback the transaction upto the point ‘update_over’

SQL>

Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
 [Link]. 3 INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT Date :
S

CONSTRAINTS
▪ Constraints enforce rules at the table [Link] prevent the deletion of a table
if there are dependencies.
▪ The following constraint types are valid in Oracle:
o NOT NULL
o UNIQUE Key
o PRIMARY KEY
o FOREIGN KEY
o CHECK
▪ Name a constraint or the Oracle Server will generate a name by using the
SYS_Cn format.
▪ Create a constraint:
o At the same time as the table is created
o After the table has been created
▪ Define a constraint at the column or table level.

▪ View a constraint in the data dictionary.

DEFINING CONSTRAINTS
▪ Column constraint level
column [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type
▪ Table constraint level
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint_type(column)

CREATE TABLE table (column data type, column_constraint,

… ,
… … …,
table_constraint);
Q1) Create table EMP1 with columns similar to EMP table and create NOT NULL
(column) constraint for DEPTNO column and PRIMARY KEY (table) constraint
for EMPNO column.
SQL> CREATE TABLE emp1( empno number(4),
ename varchar2(10), job char(20), mgr number(10),
hiredate date, sal number(5), comm number(5),
deptno number(7,2) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT emp1_pk PRIMARY KEY (empno));
NOT NULL Constraint
⮚ Ensures that null values are not permitted for the column

CHECK Constraint
⮚ Defines a condition that each row must satisfy

UNIQUE Constraint
⮚ Prevent the duplication of values within the rows of a specified column

PRIMARY KEY Constraint

⮚ Avoids duplication of rows and does not allow NULL values

FOREIGN KEY Constraint

⮚ To establish a ‘parent-child’ or a ‘master-detail’ relationship between two tables
having a common column, we make use of Foreign key (referential integrity)
constraints.
⮚ To do this we should define the column in the parent table as primary key and the
same column in the child table as a foreign key referring to the corresponding parent
entry.

FOREIGN KEY
o Defines the column in the child table at the table constraint level
REFERENCES
o Identifies the table and column in the parent table
ON DELETE CASCADE
o Allows deletion in the parent table and deletion of the dependent rows in the
child table

ADDING A CONSTRAINT
⮚ Add or drop, but not modify, a constraint

⮚ Add a NOT NULL constraint by using the MODIFY clause

ALTER TABLE table ADD CONSTRAINT const-name cons-type (column);
Q2) Add NOT NULL constraint to the columns ENAME and JOB of EMP table.
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY(ename varchar2(20) NOT NULL,
job char(20) NOT NULL);
Q3) Add Primary key constraint to the column EMPNO of EMP table
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT emp_pk
PRIMARY KEY(empno);

Q4) Add Primary key constraint to the column DEPTNO of DEPT table
SQL>

Q5) Add Unique key constraint to the column DNAME of DEPT table
SQL>

Q6) Add Check constraint to the table EMP to restrict the values of EMPNO lies
between 7000 and 8000.
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT emp_ck
CHECK(empno BETWEEN 7000 AND 8000)

Q7) Add Foreign key constraint to the column DEPTNO of EMP table references
DEPTNO of DEPT table.
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp ADD CONSTRAINT emp_fk
FOREIGN KEY(deptno) REFERENCES DEPT(deptno);

Q8) Add a Foreign key constraint to the EMP1 table indicating that a manager must
already exist as a valid employee in the EMP1 table.
SQL>

DROPING CONSTRAINTS
▪ Removing constraints from the table

ALTER TABLE table DROP CONSTRAINT const-name;

Q9) Remove the Manager constraint (added in Q8) from EMP table
SQL>

Q10) Remove the primary key constraint on the DEPT table and drop the
associated foreign key constraint on the [Link] column.
SQL> ALTER TABLE dept DROP PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;
DISABLE and ENABLE Constraint
▪ Execute the DISABLE clause of the ALTER TABLE statement to deactivate an
integrity constraint.
▪ Apply the CASCADE option to disable dependent integrity constraints.

▪ Activate an integrity constraint currently disabled in the table definition by using the
ENABLE clause.
A UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY index is automatically created if you enable a
UNIQUE key or PRIMARY KEY constraint.

Q11) Disable the primary key constraint of EMP table.

SQL> ALTER TABLE emp DISABLE CONSTRAINT emp_pk CASCADE;

Q12) Enable the primary key constraint of EMP table.

SQL>

Q13) Query the USER_CONSTRAINTS table to view all constraint definitions and
names
SQL> SELECT constraint_name, constraint_type, search_condition
FROM user_constraints
WHERE table_name = 'EMP';

Q14) View the columns associated with the constraint names in the
USER_CONS_COLUMNS view
SQL> SELECT constraint_name, column_name
FROM user_cons_columns
WHERE table_name = 'EMP';

Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
 [Link]. 4 BASIC SELECT STATEMENTS Date :

Arithmetic Operators
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division

Comparison Operators
= Equal to
<> Not Equal to
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
IN (List) Match any of list of values
LIKE Match a character pattern (% 🡪 any no. of characters, - 🡪 One Character)
IS NULL Is a null value
BETWEEN…AND… Between two values

Logical Operators
AND Returns TRUE if both component conditions are TRUE
OR Returns TRUE if either component condition is TRUE
NOT Returns TRUE if the following condition is FALSE

Concatenation Operator ( || )
▪ Concatenates the Columns of any data type.

▪ A Resultant column will be a Single column.

Operator Precedence
Order Operators
Evaluated
1 Parenthesis
2 All Arithmetic Operators (Multiplication and Division
followed by Addition and subtraction)
3 All Comparison Operators
4 NOT
5 AND
6 OR
Where Clause
▪ Specify the Selection of rows retrieved by the WHERE Clause
SELECT column1, column2, …
FROM table
WHERE condition;
▪ The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause

Order by Clause
▪ Sort rows specified by the order ASC / DESC
SELECT column1, column2, … …
FROM table
ORDER BY sort-column DESC;

▪ Sorts table by sort-column in descending order

▪ Omitting the keyword DESC will sort the table in ascending order

Note :
▪ AS Keyword between the column name and the actual alias name

▪ Date and character literal values must be enclosed within single quotation marks

▪ Default date format is 'DD-MON-YY'

▪ Eliminate duplicate rows by using the DISTINCT keyword

Q1) Update all the records of manager table by increasing 10% of their salary as
bonus.
SQL>

Q2) Delete the records from manager table where the salary less than 2750.
SQL>

Q3) Display each name of the employee as “Name” and annual salary as “Annual
Salary” (Note: Salary in emp table is the monthly salary)
SQL>
Q4) List concatenated value of name and designation of each employee.
SQL>
Q5) List the names of Clerks from emp table.
SQL>

Q6) List the Details of Employees who have joined before 30 Sept 81.
SQL>

Q7) List names of employees who’s employee numbers are 7369,7839,7934,7788.

SQL>

Q8) List the names of employee who are not Managers.

SQL>

Q9) List the names of employees not belonging to dept no 30,40 & 10
SQL>

Q10) List names of those employees joined between 30 June 81 and 31 Dec 81.
SQL>

Q11) List different designations in the company.

SQL>

Q12) List the names of employees not eligible for commission.

SQL>

Q13) List names and designations of employee who does not report to anybody
SQL>

Q14) List all employees not assigned to any department.

SQL>
Q15) List names of employee who are eligible for commission.
SQL>

Q16) List employees whose name either start or end with ‘s’.
SQL>

Q17) List names of employees whose names have ‘i’ as the second character.
SQL>

Q18) Sort emp table in ascending order by hire-date and list ename, job, deptno and
hire-date.
SQL>

Q19) Sort emp table in descending order by annual salary and list empno, ename, job
and annual-salary. (Note : Salary in emp table is the monthly salary)
SQL>

Q20) List ename, deptno and sal after sorting emp table in ascending order by deptno
and then descending order by sal. (Note : Sorting by multiple coluns)
SQL>

Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
 Ex. No. 5 SQL FUNCTIONS Date :

SQL functions are of two types

(i) Single row functions or scalar functions
▪ Returns only one value for every row queried in the table

▪ Can be used in Select clause and where clause

▪ It can be broadly classified into 5 categories

o Date Functions
o Character Functions
o Conversion functions
o Numeric functions
o Miscellaneous functions
(ii) Group functions or multiple-row functions
Discussed in the next exercise (ie.; Ex. No.6)

Note : The exercises that follow mostly uses system table ‘dual’. It is a table which is
automatically created by Oracle along with the data dictionary. Dual table has one
column defined to be of varchar2 type and contains only one row with value ‘x’.

SCALAR FUNCTIONS
Q1) List the hiredate of employees who work in deptno 20 in a format like
‘WEDNESDAY JANUARY 12, 1983’
(Hint: DAY : Day of the week, MONTH : Name of the month, DD: Day of the
month, and YYYY : Year)
SQL>

Q2) Display the hiredate with time of employess who work in deptno 20.
SQL>

Q3) Each employee receives a salary review after every 150 days of service. Now list
employee name, hiredate and first salary review date of each employee who work
in dept no 20.
SQL>
Q4. Date Functions

Functions Value Returned Input Output

add_months(d,n) ‘n’ months added Select add_months(sysdate,2) from
to date ‘d’. dual;
last_day(d) Date Select last_day(sysdate) from dual;
corresponding to
the last day of the
month
to_date(str,’format’) Converts the Select to_date(’10-02-09’,’dd-mm-
string ina given yy’) from dual;
format into
Oracle date.
to_char(date,’format’) Reformats Select d mo
d n
date according to to_char(sysdate,’dy
format yyyy’) from dual;
months_between(d1,d No. of Select
2) months
between two months_between(sysdate, to_date(’10-
dates 10-07’,’dd-mm-yy’) )
from dual;
next_day(d,day) Date of the ‘day’ Select
that immediately
follows the date next_day(sysdate,’wednesday’) from
‘d’ dual;
round(d,’format’) Date will b Select round(sysdate,’year’) from dual;
rounded to e Select round(sysdate,’month’) from
nearest dual;
day. t
Select round(sysdate,’day’) from dual;
h
e Select round(sysdate) from dual;
trunc(d,’format’); Date b Select trunc(sysdate,’year’) from dual;
e Select trunc(sysdate,’month’) from
will dual;
truncated t
Select trunc(sysdate,’day’) from dual;
to nearest h
day. e Select trunc(sysdate) from dual;
greatest(d1,d2,…) Picks latest of list Select greatest(sysdate, to_date(‘02-
of dates 10- 06’,’dd-mm-yy’), to-date(’12-
07- 12’,’dd-mm-yy’)) from dual;
Date Arithmetic Add /Subtract no. Select sysdate+25 from dual;
of days to a date Select sysdate-25 from dual;
Subtract one date Select sysdate - to_date(‘02-10-
from 06’,’dd- mm-yy’) from dual;

another,
producing a no.
of days
Q5. Character Functions

Functions Value Returned Input Output

initcap(char) First letter of each Select initcap(‘database management’)
word capitalized from dual;
lower(char) Lower case Select lower(‘WELCOME’) from dual;
upper(char) Upper case Select upper(‘srmist’) from dual;
ltrim(char, set) Initial characters Select
removed up to ltrim(‘lordourgod’,’lord’)
the character not from dual;
in set.
rtrim(char, set) Final characters Select
removed after the rtrim(‘godlovesyou’,’you’)
last character not from dual;
in set.
translate(char, from, Translate ‘from’ Select translate(‘jack’,’j’,’b’) from dual;
to) by ‘to’ in char.
replace(char, Replace ‘search’ Select replace(‘jack and
search, repl) string by ‘repl’ jue’,’j’,’bl’) from dual;
string in ‘char’.
substr(char, m, n) Substring of Select
‘char’ at ‘m’ of substr(‘wages of sin is death’,10,3)
size ‘n’ char from dual;
long.

Q6. Conversion Functions

Functions Value Returned Input Output

to_date(str,’format’) Converts the Select to_date(’10-02-09’,’dd-mm-
string ina given yy’) from dual;
format into
Oracle date.
to_char(date,’format’) Reformats Select to_char(sysdate,’dy dd mon
yyyy) from dual;
date
according

to format
to_char(number,’format Display Select
’)
number value as to_char(12345.5,’L099,999.99’) from
a char. dual;
to_number(char) Char string Select to_number(‘123’) from dual;
to
number form
Q7. Numeric Functions

Functions Value Returned Input Output

Abs(n) Absolute value of Select abs(-15) from dual;
n
Ceil(n) Smallest int >= n Select ceil(33.645) from dual;
Cos(n) Cosine of n Select cos(180) from dual;
Cosh(n) Hyperbolic Select cosh(0) from dual;

cosine of n
Exp(n) en Select exp(2) from dual;
Floor(n) Largest int <= n Select floor(100.2) from dual;
Ln(n) Natural log of n Select ln(5) from dual;
(base e)
Log(b,n) Log n base b Select log(2,64) from dual;
Mod(m,n) Remainder of Select mod(17,3) from dual;
m
divided by n
Power(m,n) m power n Select power(5,3) from dual;
Round(m,n) m rounded to Select round(125.67854,2) from dual;
n decimal
places
Sign(n) If n<0, -1 if n=0, 0 Select sin(-19) from dual;
otherwise 1.
Sin(n) Sin of n Select sin(90) from dual;
Sinh(n) Hyperbolic sin of Select sinh(45) from dual;
n
Sqrt(n) Square root of n Select sqrt(7) from dual;
Tan(n) Tangent of n Select tan(45) from dual;
Tanh(n) Hyperbolic Select tanh(60) from dual;
tangent of n
Trunc(m,n) m truncated to n Select trunc(125.5764,2) from dual;
decimal places

Q8. Miscellaneous Functions

Functions Value Returned Input Output

Uid User id Select uid from dual;
User User name Select user from dual;
Vsize(n) Storage size of v Select vsize(‘hello’) from dual;
NVL(exp1,exp2) Returns exp1 if Select nvl(comm,50) from emp
not null, where empno=7369;
otherwise returns
exp2.
GROUP FUNCTIONS
Common Group Functions
• AVG : Average value of a set
• COUNT : Numbers of non null values
• MAX : Maximum of a set
• MIN : Minimum of a set
• STDDEV : Standard Deviation of a set
• SUM : Sum of a set
• VARIANCE : Variance of a set

Syntax :
SELECT column, group_function(column)
FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_column_or_expression]
[HAVING group_condition]
[ORDER BY column];

⮚ Group functions ignore null values

⮚ Group by Clause is used to modularize rows in a table into smaller groups

⮚ Columns that are not a part of the Group Functions should be included in the Group
by clause
⮚ Any column or expression in the SELECT list that is not an aggregate function must
be in the GROUP BY clause
⮚ Group Functions cannot be placed in the where clause

⮚ HAVING clause is to restrict groups Groups satisfying the HAVING condition are
displayed

⮚ Order of evaluation of the clauses :

o WHERE clause
o GROUP BY clause
o HAVING clause
Q9) Find number of rows in the table EMP
SQL >
Q10) Find number of designations available in EMP table.
SQL>

Q11) Find number of employees who earn commission in EMP table.

SQL>

Q12) What is the difference between the following queries

SQL > select count(comm) from emp;
SQL > select count(nvl(comm,0)) from emp;

Q13) Find the total salary paid to the employees.

SQL>

Q14) Find maximum, minimum and average salary in EMP table.

SQL>

Q15) Find number of employees who work in department number 30

SQL> select count(*) from emp
where deptno=30;

Q16) Find the maximum salary paid to a ‘CLERK’

SQL>

Q17) List the department numbers and number of employees in each department
SQL>

Q18) List the jobs and number of employees in each job. The result should be in the
descending order of the number of employees.
SQL> select job, count(*) from emp
group by job
order by count(*) desc;
Q19) List the total salary, maximum and minimum salary and average salary of the
employees jobwise.
SQL>

Q20) List the total salary, maximum and minimum salary and average salary of the
employees jobwise, for department 20 and display only those rows having an
average salary > 1000.
SQL> select job,sum(sal), max(sal), min(sal), avg(sal)
from emp
group by job, deptno
having deptno=20 and avg(sal) > 1000;

Q21) List the job and total salary of employees jobwise, for jobs other than
‘PRESIDENT’ and display only those rows having total salary > 5000.
SQL>

Q22) List the job, number of employees and average salary of employees jobwise.
Display only the rows where the number of employees in each job is more than
two.
SQL>

Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
 Ex. No. 6 JOINING TABLES Date :

Set operators
▪ Set operators combine the results of two queries into a single.

Operator Function
Union Returns all distinct rows selected by either query
Union all Returns all rows selected by either query including duplicates
Intersect Returns only rows that are common to both the queries
Minus Returns all distinct rows selected only by the first query and
not by the second.

Q1) Create the following tables :

depositor(cus_name,acno) & borrower(cus_name,loanno)

SQL>

SQL>

Q2) List the names of distinct customers who have either loan or account
SQL>

Q3) List the names of customers (with duplicates) who have either loan or account
SQL> (select cus_name from borrower)
union all (select cus_name from depositor)

Q4) List the names of customers who have both loan and account
SQL>

Q5) List the names of customers who have loan but not account
SQL>
 Joins
▪ Used to combine the data spread across tables
Syntax
SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.column1 = table2.column2;

▪ A JOIN Basically involves more than one Table to interact with.

▪ Where clause specifies the JOIN Condition.

▪ Ambiguous Column names are identified by the Table name.

▪ If join condition is omitted, then a Cartesian product is formed. That is all rows in
the first table are joined to all rows in the second table

Types of Joins
▪ Inner Join (Simple Join) : It retrieves rows from 2 tables having a common column.
o Equi Join : A join condition with relationship = .
o Non Equi Join : A join condition with relationship other than = .
▪ Self Join : Joining of a table to itself

▪ Outer Join : Returns all the rows returned by simple join as well as
those rows from one table that do not match any row from
the other table. The symbol (+) represents outer joins.

Q6) List empno, ename, deptno from emp and dept tables.
SQL>

Q7) Create a table Salgrade with the following data .

Grade Losal Hisal
1 700 140
0
2 1401 200
0
3 2001 500
 0
4 5001 999
9
Now, list ename, sal and salgrade of all employees.
SQL>
Q8) List ename, deptno and deptname from emp and dept tables, including the rows of
emp table that does not match with any of the rows in dept table.
SQL>

Q9) List ename, deptno and deptname from emp and dept tables, including the rows of
dept table that does not match with any of the rows in emp table.
SQL>

Q10) List the names of the employee with name of his/her manager from emp table.
SQL>

Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
 Ex. No. 7 SUB QUERIES Date :

▪ Nesting of queries, one within the other is termed as sub query.

Syntax
SELECT select_list
FROM table
WHERE expr operator ( SELECT select_list
FROM table);

▪ The subquery (inner query) executes once before the main query.

▪ The result of the subquery is used by the main query (outer query).

Guidelines for Subqueries

▪ Enclose subqueries in parentheses.

▪ Place subqueries on the right side of the comparison operator.

▪ Do not add an ORDER BY clause to a subquery.

▪ Use single-row operators with single-row subqueries.

▪ Use multiple-row operators with multiple-row subqueries.

Single-Row Subqueries
▪ Return only one row

▪ Use single-row comparison operators (ie; relational operators)

Multiple-Row Subqueries
▪ Return more than one row

▪ Use multiple-row comparison operators

Operator Meaning
IN Equal to any member in the list
ANY Compare value to each value returned by the subquery
ALL Compare value to every value returned by the subquery
Note:
‘
=
a
n
y
’

i
s

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

t
o

‘
i
n
’

‘
!
=
a
l
l
’

i
s

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

t
o

‘
n
o
t

i
n
’
Q1) List the name of the employees whose salary is greater than that of employee
with empno 7566.
SQL> select ename from employee
where sal > (select sal from employee
where empno=7566);

Q2) List the name of the employees whose job is equal to the job of employee with
empno 7369 and salary is greater than that of employee with empno 7876.
SQL>

Q3) List the ename,job,sal of the employee who get minimum salary in the company.
SQL> select ename, job, sal from employee
where sal = (select min(sal) from employee);

Q4) List deptno & min(salary) departmentwise, only if min(sal) is greater than the
min(sal) of deptno 20.
SQL> select deptno, min(sal) from employee
group by deptno
having min(sal) > (select min(sal) from employee
where deptno = 20);

Q5) List empno, ename, job of the employees whose job is not a ‘CLERK’ and
whose salary is less than at least one of the salaries of the employees whose job
is ‘CLERK’.
SQL> select empno, ename, job from employee
where sal < any (select sa from employee
where job = 'CLERK')
and job <> ' CLERK ';
Q6) List empno, ename, job of the employees whose salary is greater than the average
salary of each department.
SQL>

Q7) Display the name, dept. no, salary, and commission of any employee whose
salary and commission matches both the commission and salary of any employee
in department 30.
SQL> select ename, deptno, sal, comm
from employee
where (sal, nvl(comm,-1)) in ( select sal, nvl(comm,-1)
from employee
where deptno = 30);

Q8) List ename sal, deptno, average salary of the dept where he/she works, if salary
of the employee is greater than his/her department average salary.
SQL> select [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link]
from employee a, ( select deptno, avg(sal) salavg
from employee
group by deptno) b
where [Link] = [Link]
and [Link] > [Link];

Q9) Execute and Write the output of the following query in words.
SQL> with summary as
(select dname,sum(sal) as dept_total from employee a , department b
where [Link] = [Link]
group by dname);
select dname,dept_total from summary
where dept_total > (select sum(dept_total)*1/3 from summary)
order by dept_total desc;
Q10) List ename, job, sal of the employees whose salary is equal to any one of the
salary of the employee ‘SCOTT’ and ‘WARD’.
SQL>

Q11) List ename, job, sal of the employees whose salary and job is equal to the
employee ‘FORD’.
SQL>

Q12) List ename, job, deptno, sal of the employees whose job is same as ‘JONES’ and
salary is greater than the employee ‘FORD’.
SQL>

Q13) List ename, job of the employees who work in deptno 10 and his/her job is any
one of the job in the department ‘SALES’.
SQL>

Q14) Execute the following query and write the result in word
SQL> select job,ename,empno,deptno from emp s
where exists (select * from emp
where [Link]=mgr)
order by empno;

Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
Ex. No. 8 VIEWS Date :

VIEWS
▪ An Imaginary table contains no data and the tables upon which a view is based are
called base tables.
▪ Logically represents subsets of data from one or more tables

Advantages of view
▪ To restrict database access

▪ To make complex queries easy

▪ To allow data independence

▪ To present different views of the same data

Syntax
CREATE [OR REPLACE] VIEW view [col1 alias, col2
alias,...]
AS subquery
[ WITH CHECK
OPTION
[ CONSTRAINT
constraint ] ] [ WITH
READ ONLY ]

▪ You embed a subquery within the CREATE VIEW statement.

▪ The subquery can contain complex SELECT syntax.

▪ The subquery cannot contain an ORDER BY clause.

Q1) Create a view empv10 that contains empno, ename, job of the employees who
work in dept 10. Also describe the structure of the view.
SQL> create view empv10 as
select empno, ename, job from emp
where deptno=10;
 SQL> desc empv10;

Q2) Create a view with column aliases empv30 that contains empno, ename, sal of the
employees who work in dept 30. Also display the contents of the view.
SQL >

SQL> select * from empv30;

 Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View
▪ You can perform DML operations on simple views.

▪ You cannot remove a row/ modify data/ add data if the view contains the
following
o Group functions
o A GROUP BY clause
o The DISTINCT keyword
▪ You cannot modify data in a view if it contains columns defined by expressions or
it contains ROWNUM pseudo column
▪ You cannot add data if any NOT NULL columns in the base tables that are not
selected by the view

Q3) Update the view empv10 by increasing 10% salary of the employees who work as
‘CLERK’. Also confirm the modifications in emp table.
SQL > update empv10 set sal = sal+0.10*sal
where job=’CLERK’;

SQL > select empno,ename,job,sal from emp;

Q4) Modify the view empv10 which contains the data empno, ename, job, sal. Add an
alias for each column name.
SQL > create or replace view empv10
(employee_no, employee_name, job, salary) as
select empno, ename, job,sal from emp where deptno=10;

Q5) Using emp table, create a view pay which contains ename,
monthly_sal, annual_sal, deptno.
SQL>

Q6) Create a view dept_stat which contains department no., department

name, minimum salary, maximum salary, total salary.
SQL>
 With check option
▪ You can ensure that DML on the view stays within the domain of the view by using
the WITH CHECK OPTION.

Q7) Execute the following query and then try to delete the row with dept no 20.
Now write in words that you understand
SQL> create or replace view empv20
as select * from emp where deptno = 20
with check option constraint empv20_ck;

Denying DML Operations

▪ You can ensure that no DML operations occur by adding the WITH READ ONLY
option to your view definition.

Q8) Create a view empv10 with all the details of employees who work in dept no. 10.
Also ensure that no DML operations can be done with the view.
SQL> create or replace view empv10
as select * from emp where deptno = 20
with read only;

Deleting Views
Syntax
DROP VIEW view_name;

Q9) Delete the view empv20.

SQL>
 Ex. No. 9 ADVANCED SELECT STATEMENTS Date :

Questions Q1 to Q18 pertain to a database with the following tables.

Suppliers - S (Supplyno, Name, Status, City)
Parts - P (Partno, Pname, Colour, Weight, City)
Projects - J (Jobno, Jname, City)
Shipment - SPJ (Supplyno, Partno, Jobno, Qty)
The significance of an SPJ record is that the specified supplier supplies the specified part
to the specified project in the specified quantity (and the combination Supplyno-Partno-
Jobno uniquely identifies such a record).

Q1) Get full details of all projects in London.

SQL>

Q2) Get Supplyno for suppliers who supply project J1.

SQL>

Q3) Get all part-color/part-city combinations.

SQL>

Q4) Get all Supplyno/Partno/Jobno triples such that all are co-located.
SQL>

Q5) Get al Supplyno, Partno, Jobno triples such that they are not all co-located.
SQL>

Q6) Get Partno for parts supplied by a supplier in London.

SQL>

Q7) Get all pairs of cities such that a supplier in the first city supplies to a Project in
the second city.
SQL>
Q8) Get Jobno for projects supplied by at least one supplier not in the same city.
SQL>

Q9) Get all pairs of part numbers such that some supplier supplies both the indicated
parts.
SQL>

Q10) Get the total quantity of part P1 supplied by S1.

SQL>

Q11) For each part supplied to a project, get the Partno, Jobno and corresponding total
quantity.
SQL>

Q12) Get Partno of parts supplied to some project in an average quantity > 320.
SQL>

Q13) Get project names for projects supplied by supplier S1.

SQL>

Q14) Get colors of parts supplied by S1.

SQL>

Q15) Get Jobno for projects using at least one part available from supplier S1.
SQL>

Q16) Get supplier numbers for suppliers supplying at least one part supplied by at least
one supplier who supplies at least one red part.
SQL>
Q17) Get supplier numbers for suppliers with a status lower than that of supplier S1.
SQL>

Q18) Get project numbers for projects not supplied with any red part by any London
supplier.
SQL>

Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
 Ex. No. ADDITIONAL QUERIES Date :
10
Solve the queries Q1 to Q32 by considering the
following tables Table 1 : STUDIES (PNAME, SPLACE,
COURSE, CCOST)
Hint : First 3 columns are of type varchar and the 4th one is number

Table 2 : SOFTWARE(PNAME, TITLE, DEVIN, SCOST, DCOST, SOLD)

Hint : First 3 columns are of type varchar and the last 3 are of numbers

Table 3 : PROGRAMMER(PNAME, DOB, DOJ, SEX, PROF1, PROF2, SAL)

Hint : Pname : varchar, dob & doj : date, sex : char, prof1 & prof2 :
varchar, sal : number.

LEGEND :
PNAME – Programmer Name, SPLACE – Study Place, CCOST – Course Cost, DEVIN
– Developed in, SCOST – Software Cost, DCOST – Development Cost, PROF1 –
Proficiency 1

Q1) Find out the selling cost average for packages developed in Oracle.
SQL>

Q2) Display the names, ages and experience of all programmers.

SQL>

Q3) Display the names of those who have done the PGDCA course.
SQL>

Q4) What is the highest number of copies sold by a package?

SQL>

Q5) Display the names and date of birth of all programmers born in April.
SQL>

Q6) Display the lowest course fee.

SQL>
Q7) How many programmers have done the DCA course.
SQL>

Q8) How much revenue has been earned through the sale of packages developed in C.
SQL>

Q9) Display the details of software developed by Rakesh.

SQL>

Q10) How many programmers studied at Pentafour.

SQL>

Q11) Display the details of packages whose sales crossed the 5000 mark.
SQL>

Q12) Find out the number of copies which should be sold in order to recover the
development cost of each package.
SQL>

Q13) Display the details of packages for which the development cost has been
recovered.
SQL>

Q14) What is the price of costliest software developed in VB?

SQL>

Q15) How many packages were developed in Oracle ?

SQL>
Q16) How many programmers studied at PRAGATHI?
SQL>

Q17) How many programmers paid 10000 to 15000 for the course?
SQL>

Q18) What is the average course fee?

SQL>

Q19) Display the details of programmers knowing C.

SQL>

Q20) How many programmers know either C or Pascal?

SQL>

Q21) How many programmers don’t know C and C++?

SQL>

Q22) How old is the oldest male programmer?

SQL>

Q23) What is the average age of female programmers?

SQL>
Q24) Calculate the experience in years for each programmer and display along
with their names in descending order.
SQL>

Q25) Who are the programmers who celebrate their birthdays during the
current month?
SQL>

Q26) How many female programmers are there?

SQL>

Q27) What are the languages known by the male programmers?

SQL>

Q28) What is the average salary?

SQL>

Q29) How many people draw 5000 to 7500?

SQL>

Q30) Display the details of those who don’t know C, C++ or Pascal.
SQL>
Q31) Display the costliest package developed by each programmer.
SQL>

Q32) Produce the following output for all the male programmers
Programmer
Mr. Arvind – has 15 years of experience
SQL>

Solve Queries from Q33 to 47 using the table dept and emp.

Q33) List all the employees who have at least one person reporting to them.
SQL>

Q34) List the employee details if and only if more than 10 employees are present
in department no 10.
SQL>

Q35) List the name of the employees with their immediate higher authority.
SQL>

Q36) List all the employees who do not manage any one.
SQL>
Q37) List the employee details whose salary is greater than the lowest salary of an
employee belonging to deptno 20.
SQL>

Q38) List the details of the employee earning more than the highest paid manager.
SQL>

Q39) List the highest salary paid for each job.

SQL>

Q40) Find the most recently hired employee in each department.

SQL>

Q41) In which year did most people join the company? Display the year and the
number of employees.
SQL>

Q42) Which department has the highest annual remuneration bill?

SQL>

Q43) Write a query to display a ‘*’ against the row of the most recently hired
employee.
SQL>
Q44) Write a correlated sub-query to list out the employees who earn more than the
average salary of their department.
SQL>

Q45) Find the nth maximum salary.

SQL>

Q46) Select the duplicate records (Records, which are inserted, that already exist) in
the EMP table.
SQL>

Q47) Write a query to list the length of service of the employees (of the form n years
and m months).
SQL>

Q48) Create the following tables with constraints specified below.

(i) customer (cust_id, cust_name, annual_revenue, cust_type)

Constraints are :
cust_id must be between 100 and 10,000
annual_revenue defaults to Rs. 20,000
cust_type must be manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer

SQL>

(ii) shipment (shipment_no, cust_id, weight, truck_no, destination, ship_date)

Constraints are :
foreign key: cust_id references customer, on deletion cascade
foreign key: truck_# references truck, on deletion set to null
foreign key: destination references city, on deletion set to null
weight must be under 1000 and defaults to 10
 SQL>

(iii) truck (truck_no, driver_name)

SQL>

(iv) city (city_name, population)

SQL>

Answer Questions Q49 to Q67 using the tables created in Q48.

Q49) What are the names of customers who have sent packages (shipments) to Sioux
City?
SQL>

Q50) To what destinations have companies with revenue less than $1 million
sent packages?
SQL>

Q51) What are the names and populations of cities that have received shipments
weighing over 100 pounds?
SQL>

Q52) Who are the customers having over $5 million in annual revenue who have sent
shipments weighing less than 1 pound?
SQL>
Q53) Who are the customers having over $5 million in annual revenue who have sent
shipments weighing less than 1 pound or have sent a shipment to San Francisco?
SQL>

Q54) Who are the drivers who have delivered shipments for customers with annual
revenue over $20 million to cities with populations over 1 million?
SQL>

Q55) List the cities that have received shipments from customers having over $15
million in annual revenue.
SQL>

Q56) List the names of drivers who have delivered shipments weighing over 100
pounds.
SQL>

Q57) List the name and annual revenue of customers who have sent shipments
weighing over 100 pounds.
SQL>

Q58) List the name and annual revenue of customers whose shipments have been
delivered by truck driver Jensen.
SQL>

Q59) List customers who had shipments delivered by every truck. ( use NOT EXISTS)
SQL>

Q60) List cities that have received shipments from every customer. ( use
NOT EXISTS)
SQL>
Q61) List drivers who have delivered shipments to every city. (use NOT EXISTS)
SQL>

Q62) Customers who are manufacturers or have sent a package to St. Louis.
SQL>

Q63) Cities of population over 1 million which have received a 100-pound package
from customer 311.
SQL>

Q64) Trucks driven by Jake Stinson which have never delivered a shipment to Denver.
SQL>

Q65) Customers with annual revenue over $10 million which have sent packages under
1 pound to cities with population less than 10,000.
SQL>

Q66) Create views for each of the following:

a. Customers with annual revenue under $1 million.
b. Customers with annual revenue between $1 million and $5 million.
c. Customers with annual revenue over $5 million.
S

QL>

SQL>

SQL>
Q67) Use these views to answer the following queries:
a. Which drivers have taken shipments to Los Angeles for customers with
revenue over $5 million?
b. What are the populations of cities which have received shipments from
customers with revenue between $1 million and $5 million?
c. Which drivers have taken shipments to cities for customers with revenue
under $1 million, and what are the populations of those cities?

QL>

SQL>

SQL>

Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
 PL/SQL INTRODUCTION

PL/SQL
▪ PL/SQL bridges the gap between database technology and procedural programming
languages.
▪ PL/SQL uses the facilities of the sophisticated RDBMS and extends the standard SQL
database language
▪ Not only PL/SQL allow you to insert, delete, update and retrieve data, it lets you use
procedural techniques such as looping and branching to process the data.
▪ Thus PL/SQL provides the data manipulating power of SQL with the data processing
power of procedural languages

Advantage of PL/SQL
PL/SQL is a completely portable, high performance transaction processing language. It
provides the following advantages :

▪ Procedural Capabilities
o It supports many of constructs like constants, variable, selection and
iterative statements
▪ Improved Performance
o Block of SQL statements can be executed at a time
▪ Enhanced Productivity
o PL/SQL brings added functionality to non procedural tools such as
SQL Forms.
▪ Portability
o PL/SQL can run anywhere the RDBMS can run
▪ Integration with RDBMS
o Most PL/SQL variables have data types native to the RDBMS data
dictionary. Combined with the direct access to SQL, these native data
type declarations allow easy integration of PL/SQL with RDBMS.

Character Set
It is either ASCII or EBCDIC format
 Identifiers
It begins with a letter and can be followed by letters, numbers, $ or #. Maximum
size is 30 characters in length.
 Variable Declaration
The data types (number, varchar2, real, date, …) discussed in SQL are all
applicable in PL/SQL.
Ex. Salary Number(7,2);
Sex Boolean;
Count smallint :=0;
Tax number default 750;
Name varchar2(20) not null;

Constant declaration
Ex. Phi Constant Number(7,2) := 3.1417;

Comment
Line can be commented with double hyphen at the beginning of the line.
Ex. - - This is a comment line

Assignments
Variable assignment sets the current value of a variable. You can assign values to
a variable as follows
(i) Assignment operator (:=)
Ex. d := b*b – 4*a*c;
(ii) Select … into statement
Ex. Select sal into salary from emp where empno=7655;

Operators
Operators used in SQL are all applicable to PL/SQL also.

Block Structure
PL/SQL code is grouped into structures called blocks. If you create a stored procedure or
package, you give the block of PL/SQL code a name. If the block of PL/SQL code is not
given a name, then it is called an anonymous block.
The PL/SQL block divided into three section: declaration section, the executable
section and the exception section
The structure of a typical PL/SQL block is shown in the listing:

declare
< declaration
section >
begin
< executable
commands>
exception
53
<exception
Declaration Section :
Defines and initializes the variables and cursor used in the block
Executable commands :
Uses flow-control commands (such as IF command and loops) to execute the
commands and assign values to the declared variables
Exception handling :
Provides handling of error conditions

Declaration Using attributes

(i) %type attribute

The %TYPE attribute provides the data type of a variable, constant, or database
column. Variables and constants declared using %TYPE are treated like those
declared using a data type name.
For example in the declaration below, PL/SQL treats debit like a REAL(7,2)
variable.
credit REAL(7,2);
debit credit%TYPE;

The %TYPE attribute is particularly useful when declaring variables that refer to
database columns. You can reference a table and column, or you can reference an
owner, table, and column.
my_dname [Link]%TYPE;

Using %TYPE to declare my_dname has two advantages.

o First, you need not know the exact datatype of dname.
o Second, if the database definition of dname changes, the datatype of
my_dname changes accordingly at run time.

(ii) %rowtype attribute

The %ROWTYPE attribute provides a record type that represents a row in a table
(or view). The record can store an entire row of data selected from the table or
fetched by a cursor.

DECLARE
emp_rec emp%ROWTYPE;
...
BEGIN
SELECT * INTO emp_rec FROM emp WHERE ...
...
END;

Columns in a row and corresponding fields in a record have the same names and
data types.
 The column values returned by the SELECT statement are stored in fields. To
reference a field, you use the dot notation.

IF emp_rec.deptno = 20 THEN ...

In addition, you can assign the value of an expression to a specific field.

emp_rec.ename := 'JOHNSON';

A %ROWTYPE declaration cannot include an initialization clause. However,

there are two ways to assign values to all fields in a record at once.

First, PL/SQL allows aggregate assignment between entire records if their

declarations refer to the same table or cursor.

DECLARE
dept_rec1 dept%ROWTYPE;
dept_rec2 dept%ROWTYPE;
…..
BEGIN
.. …..
dept_rec1 := dept_rec2;
…..
END;

Second, you can assign a list of column values to a record by using the SELECT
and FETCH statement, as the example below shows. The column names must
appear in the order in which they were defined by the CREATE TABLE or
CREATE VIEW statement.

DECLARE
dept_rec dept%ROWTYPE;
….
BEGIN
SELECT deptno, dname, loc INTO dept_rec FROM dept
WHERE deptno = 30;
….
END;

However, you cannot assign a list of column values to a record by using an

assignment statement. Although you can retrieve entire records, you cannot insert
them.

For example, the following statement is illegal:

INSERT INTO dept VALUES (dept_rec); -- illegal

 Creating and Executing PL/SQL Programs
Edit your PL/SQL program in your favourite editor as text file.
Execute the following command once for a session to get displayed the output.
SQL> set serveroutput on;
Now execute the program using the following command.
SQL> start filename; (or) SQL> @filename;

Note : Give absolute path of the filename if you saved the file in some directory.
Ex. SQL> start z:\plsql\ex11; (or) SQL> @ z:\plsql\ex11;

Control Structures

(i) IF Statements
There are three forms of IF statements: IF-THEN, IF-THEN-ELSE, and IF-
THEN-ELSIF. The third form of IF statement uses the keyword ELSIF (NOT
ELSEIF) to introduce additional conditions, as follows:

IF condition1 THEN
sequence_of_statements1;
ELSIF condition2 THEN
sequence_of_statements2;
ELSE
sequence_of_statements3;
END IF;

(ii) LOOP and EXIT Statements

There are three forms of LOOP statements. They are LOOP, WHILE-LOOP, and
FOR-LOOP.

LOOP
The simplest form of LOOP statement is the basic (or infinite) loop, which
encloses a sequence of statements between the keywords LOOP and END LOOP,
as follows:

LOOP
sequence_of_statements3;
...
END LOOP;

With each iteration of the loop, the sequence of statements is executed, then
control resumes at the top of the loop. If further processing is undesirable or
impossible, you can use the EXIT statement to complete the loop. You can place
one or more EXIT statements anywhere inside a loop, but nowhere outside a loop.
There are two forms of EXIT statements: EXIT and EXIT-WHEN.
The EXIT statement forces a loop to complete unconditionally. When an EXIT
statement is encountered, the loop completes immediately and control passes to
the next statement.

LOOP
...
IF ... THEN
...
EXIT; -- exit loop immediately
END IF;
END LOOP;
-- control resumes here

The EXIT-WHEN statement allows a loop to complete conditionally. When the

EXIT statement is encountered, the condition in the WHEN clause is evaluated. If
the condition evaluates to TRUE, the loop completes and control passes to the
next statement after the loop.

LOOP
….
EXIT WHEN i>n; -- exit loop if condition is true
….
END LOOP;
….

Until the condition evaluates to TRUE, the loop cannot complete. So, statements
within the loop must change the value of the condition.

Like PL/SQL blocks, loops can be labeled. The label, an undeclared identifier
enclosed by double angle brackets, must appear at the beginning of the LOOP
statement, as follows:

<<label_name>>
LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
...
END LOOP [label_name];

Optionally, the label name can also appear at the end of the LOOP statement.

With either form of EXIT statement, you can complete not only the current loop,
but any enclosing loop. Simply label the enclosing loop that you want to
complete, then use the label in an EXIT statement.
 <<outer>>
LOOP
... LOOP

...
EXIT outer WHEN ... -- exit both loops
END LOOP;
...
END LOOP outer;

(iii) WHILE-LOOP
The WHILE-LOOP statement associates a condition with a sequence of
statements enclosed by the keywords LOOP and END LOOP, as follows:

WHILE condition LOOP

sequence_of_statements;
...
END LOOP;

Before each iteration of the loop, the condition is evaluated. If the condition
evaluates to TRUE, the sequence of statements is executed, then control resumes
at the top of the loop. If the condition evaluates to FALSE or NULL, the loop is
bypassed and control passes to the next statement. Since the condition is tested at
the top of the loop, the sequence might execute zero times.

(iv) FOR-LOOP
Whereas the number of iteration through a WHILE loop is unknown until the loop
completes, the number of iterations through a FOR loop is known before the loop
is entered. FOR loops iterate over a specified range of integers. The range is part
of an iteration scheme, which is enclosed by the keywords FOR and LOOP.

FOR counter IN [REVERSE] lower_bound..upper_bound LOOP

sequence_of_statements;
...
END LOOP;

The lower bound need not be 1. However, the loop counter increment (or
decrement) must be 1. PL/SQL lets you determine the loop range dynamically at
run time, as the following example shows:

SELECT COUNT(empno) INTO emp_count FROM emp;

FOR i IN 1..emp_count LOOP
...
END LOOP;
 The loop counter is defined only within the loop. You cannot reference it outside
the loop. You need not explicitly declare the loop counter because it is implicitly
declared as a local variable of type INTEGER.

The EXIT statement allows a FOR loop to complete prematurely. You can
complete not only the current loop, but any enclosing loop.

(v) GOTO and NULL statements

Unlike the IF and LOOP statements, the GOTO and NULL statements are not
crucial to PL/SQL programming. The structure of PL/SQL is such that the GOTO
statement is seldom needed. Occasionally, it can simplify logic enough to warrant
its use. The NULL statement can make the meaning and action of conditional
statements clear and so improve readability.

BEGIN
...
GOTO insert_row;
...
<<insert_row>>
INSERT INTO emp VALUES ...
END;

A GOTO statement cannot branch into an IF statement, LOOP statement, or sub-

block. A GOTO statement cannot branch from one IF statement clause to another.
A GOTO statement cannot branch out of a subprogram. Finally, a GOTO
statement cannot branch from an exception handler into the current block.

The NULL statement explicitly specifies inaction; it does nothing other than pass
control to the next statement. It can, however, improve readability. Also, the
NULL statement is a handy way to create stubs when designing applications
from the top down.

***
Ex. No. BASIC PL/SQL Date :
11

Q1) Write a PL/SQL Block to find the maximum of 3 Numbers

Declare
a number;
b number;
c number;
Begin
dbms_output.put_line('Enter a:');
a:=&a;
dbms_output.put_line('Enter b:');
b:=&b;
dbms_output.put_line('Enter c:');
c:=&c;
if (a>b) and (a>c) then
dbms_output.putline('A is Maximum');
elsif (b>a) and (b>c) then
dbms_output.putline('B is Maximum');
End;
/ dbms_output.putline('C is Maximum');
else end if;

Q2) Write a PL/SQL Block to find the sum of odd numbers upto 100 using loop
statement

Declare

Begin

End;
/
Q3) Write a PL/SQL block to get the salary of the employee who has empno=7369
and update his salary as specified below
- if his/her salary < 2500, then increase salary by 25%
- otherwise if salary lies between 2500 and 5000, then increase
salary by 20%
- otherwise increase salary by adding commission amount to the
salary.
Declare
Salary number(5);
Begin
Select sal into salary from emp where empno=7369;
-- complete remaining statements

End;
/

Q4) Write a PL/SQL Block to modify the department name of the department 71 if
it is not ‘HRD’.

Declare
deptname [Link]%type;
Begin -- complete the block

End;
/

CURSOR

A cursor is a temporary work area created in the system memory when a SQL
statement is executed. A cursor contains information on a select statement and the
rows of data accessed by it. This temporary work area is used to store the data
retrieved from the database, and manipulate this data. A cursor can hold more
than one row, but can process only one row at a time.
 There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL. They are Implicit cursors and Explicit
cursors.

Implicit cursors
These are created by default when DML statements like, INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE statements are executed.

Oracle provides few attributes called as implicit cursor attributes to check the
status of DML operations. The cursor attributes available are %FOUND,
%NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT, and %ISOPEN.

For example, When you execute INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements the
cursor attributes tell us whether any rows are affected and how many have been
affected.

When a SELECT... INTO statement is executed in a PL/SQL Block, implicit

cursor attributes can be used to find out whether any row has been returned by the
SELECT statement. PL/SQL returns an error when no data is selected.

Implicit Cursor Attributes

%FOUND
The return value is TRUE, if the DML statements like INSERT, DELETE
and UPDATE affect at least one row or if SELECT ….INTO statement
return at least one row. Ex. SQL%FOUND

%NOTFOUND
The return value is FALSE, if DML statements affect at least one row or if
SELECT. …INTO statement return at least one row.
Ex. SQL%NOTFOUND

%ROWCOUNT
Return the number of rows affected by the DML operations
Ex. SQL%ROWCOUNT

Q5) Write a PL/SQL Block, to update salaries of all the employees who work in deptno
20 by 15%. If none of the employee’s salary are updated display a message 'None
of the salaries were updated'. Otherwise display the total number of employee
who got salary updated.

Declare
num number(5);
Begin
update emp set sal = sal + sal*0.15 where deptno=20;
if SQL%NOTFOUND then
dbms_output.put_line('none of the salaries were updated');
 elsif SQL%FOUND then
num := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
dbms_output.put_line('salaries for ' || num || 'employees are updated');
end if;
End;

Explicit cursors
They must be created when you are executing a SELECT statement that returns
more than one row. Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one
record can be processed at a time, which is called as current row. When you fetch
a row the current row position moves to next row.

There are four steps in using an Explicit Cursor.

▪ DECLARE the cursor in the declaration section.

▪ OPEN the cursor in the Execution Section.

▪ FETCH the data from cursor into PL/SQL variables or records in the
Execution Section.
▪ CLOSE the cursor in the Execution Section before you end the PL/SQL
Block.

Declaring Cursor : CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

Opening Cursor : OPEN

cursor_name;

Fetching Cursor : FETCH cursor_name INTO variable-list/record-

type;

Closing Cursor : CLOSE

cursor_name;

Explicit Cursor Attributes

%FOUND
TRUE, if fetch statement returns at least one row.
Ex. Cursor_name%FOUND

%NOTFOUND
TRUE, , if fetch statement doesn’t return a row.
Ex. Cursor_name%NOTFOUND
%ROWCOUNT
 The number of rows fetched by the fetch statement.
Ex. Cursor_name%ROWCOUNT

%ISOPEN
TRUE, if the cursor is already open in the program.
Ex. Cursor_name%ISOPEN

Q6) Create a table emp_grade with columns empno & grade. Write PL/SQL block to
insert values into the table emp_grade by processing emp table with the following
constraints.
If sal <= 1400 then grade is ’C’
Else if sal between 1401 and 2000 then the grade is ‘B’ Else the grade is ‘A’.
SQL> create table emp_grade(empno number, grade
char(1)); Declare Emp_rec emp%rowtype;
Cursor c is select * into emp_rec from emp;
Begin
Open c;
If c%ISOPEN then
Loop
Fetch c into emp_rec;
If c%notfound then Exit; Endif; If
emp_rec.sal <= 1400 then
Insert into emp_grade values(emp_rec.empno,’C’);
Elsif emp_rec.sal between 1401 and 2000 then
Insert into emp_garde values(em_rec.empno,’B’);
Else
Insert into emp_garde values(em_rec.empno,’A’);
Endif
End loop;
Else
Open c;
Endif;
End;

Q7) Write a PL/SQL block to do the following :

a. Total wages of the company (Sum of the salaries and commission values
of all the employees in emp table)
b. Total number of highly paid employees. (Employees with salary > 2000)
c. Total number of employees who get commission that is higher than their
salary.
Q8) Write a PL/SQL block to find the name and salary of first five highly
paid employees.
 Cursor for loop
Cursor for loop automatically opens a cursor, fetches each row and closes the cursor
when all rows have been processed.
Ex.
Declare
Cursor s1 is select .. .. ..
Begin
For var in s1
Loop
-- statements ---
End loop;
.. .. .. .. ..

Q9) Solve the program in question number Q4 using cursor for…loop

Q10) Write a PL/SQL block to find the names of employees & job and total number of
employees who have more than 28 years of service in the company.(Use for loop)
II. TRIGGER

A trigger is a PL/SQL block structure which is fired when DML statements like Insert,
Delete and Update is executed on a database table. A trigger is triggered automatically
when an associated DML statement is executed.

Syntax of Trigger

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER

trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS
n] [FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN
(condition)
BEGIN
-- SQL Statements
END;

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name

This clause creates a trigger with the given name or overwrites an existing trigger
with the same name.
BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF
This clause indicates at what time the trigger should get fired. i.e for example:
before or after updating a table. INSTEAD OF is used to create a trigger on a
view. Before and after cannot be used to create a trigger on a view.
INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE
This clause determines the triggering event. More than one triggering events can
be used together separated by OR keyword. The trigger gets fired at all the
specified triggering event.
OF col_name
This clause is used with update triggers. This clause is used when you want to
trigger an event only when a specific column is updated.
ON table_name
This clause identifies the name of the table/view to which the trigger is associated.
REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n
This clause is used to reference the old and new values of the data being changed.
By default, you reference the values as :old.column_name or
:new.column_name. The reference names can also be changed from old (or new)
to any other user-defined name. You cannot reference old values when inserting a
record, or new values when deleting a record, because they do not exist.
FOR EACH ROW
This clause is used to determine whether a trigger must fire when each row gets
affected ( i.e. a Row Level Trigger) or just once when the entire SQL statement is
executed ([Link] level Trigger).
WHEN (condition)
This clause is valid only for row level triggers. The trigger is fired only for rows
that satisfy the condition specified.

Types of Triggers
There are two types of triggers based on which level it is triggered.
▪ Row level trigger : An event is triggered for each row updated, inserted or deleted.

▪ Statement level trigger : An event is triggered for each SQL statement executed.

Before and After Triggers : Since triggers occur because of events, they may be set
to occur immediately before or after those events. Within the trigger, we are able to
refer old and new values involved in transactions. Old refers to the data as it existed
prior to the transaction. New refer to the data that the transaction creates.

Q11) Before Update : Row level Trigger

Employees may get promoted and continue servicing with new designation. To
maintain the job history of the employees, create a table job_history with columns
empno, ename, job, pro_date, and create a trigger to update the table job_history
whenever there is an updation in job column of any row in emp table.

Create or replace trigger job_history_trigger

Before update of job
on emp
For each row
Begin
Insert into job_history values(:[Link],:[Link],:[Link],sysdate);
End;

Q12) Before Insert : Row level Trigger

Create a trigger to convert employee name into upper case, before we insert any
row into the table emp with employee name in either case.
(Hint. :[Link] refers the value that is to be inserted)
 Q13) After delete : Row level Trigger
Consider tables dept and deptold with same structure. Create a trigger to move the
row into second table whenever a row is removed from first table.

Q14) Create a trigger which will not allow you to enter duplicate or null values in
column empno of emp table.

create or replace trigger dubb

before insert on
emp for each row
declare
c
u
begin r
s
o
r

c
1

i
s

s
e
l
e
c
t
 w
* t
y
f p
r e
o ;
m
o
e p
m e
p n
;
c
x 1
;
e
m l
p o
% o
r p
o
fetch c1 into x;
if :[Link] = [Link] then
dbms_output.put_line('you entered duplicated no');
elseif :[Link] is null then
dbms_output.put_line('you empno is null');
d
;
e
n
end; d
end if; l
e o
x o
it p
w ;
h close c1;
e
n
c
1
%
n
o
tf
o
u
n
 Q15) Before Insert/Update/Delete : Statement level Trigger
Create a database trigger that allows changes to employee table only during the
business hours(i.e. from 8 a.m to 5 p.m.) from Monday to Friday. There is no
restriction on viewing data from the table

Create or replace trigger time_check

Before insert or update or delete on emp
Begin
if to_number(to_char(sysdate,'hh24')) < 8 or
to_number(to_char(sysdate,'hh24')) >= 17 or
to_char(sysdate,'DY') = ‘SAT'' or to_char(sysdate,'day') = 'SUN' then
raise_application_error(-20004,'you can access only between 8am
to 5pm on Monday to Friday');
end if;
end;

Information about Triggers

We can use the data dictionary 'USER_TRIGGERS' to obtain information about any
trigger. The below statement shows the structure of 'USER_TRIGGERS'.
SQL> desc user_triggers;

Q16) Find the trigger type, trigger event and table name of the trigger ‘time_check’.
SQL> select trigger_type, trigger_event, table_name
from user_triggers where trigger_name = ‘TIME_CHECK’;

Enabling and Disabling Triggers

Syntax : ALTER TRIGGER trigger_name ENABLE | DISABLE (or)

ALTER TABLE table_name ENABLE | DISABLE ALL TRIGGERS;

Q17) Disable the trigger ‘job_history_trigger’

SQL>

Q18) Disable all the triggers of emp table.

SQL>

Q19) Drop the trigger ‘dubb’

SQL> drop trigger dub;

Verified by
Staff In-charge Sign : Date :
 APPENDIX-A

CODD’S RULES

Codd’s rule provides a method for therotical evalution of a product, that claims to be a
Relational Data Base Management System.

Rule 1 : The Information Rule

All information should be represented as data values in the rows and columns of a table.

Rule 2 : The Guaranteed Access Rule

Every item of data must be logically addressable by specifying a combination of the table
name, the primary key value and the column name.

Rule 3 : The systematic Treatment of Null values

It is fundamental to the DBMS that NULL values are supported in the representation of
missing and inapplicable information. This support for null values must be consistent
throughout the DBMS and independent of data types.

Rule 4 : The database Description Rule

A description of the database is held and maintained using the same logical structures
used to define the data. Thus allowing users with appropriate authority to query such
information in the same way and using the same language as they would for other data in
the database.

Rule 5 : The Comprehensive Sub-Language Rule

There must be at least one unified language whose statements can be expressed as
character strings confirming to some well defined syntax. It should essentially
encapsulate the following :-
▪ Data Definition Language

▪ Data Manipulation Language

▪ View Definition Language

▪ Integrity Constraints

▪ Authorization or Data Control Language

▪ Transaction boundaries

Rule 6 : View Update Rule

All views that are theoretically updateable must be updateable by the system.
 Rule 7 : The Insert, Update and Delete Rule
The capability of handling a base relation or in fact a derived relation as a single operand
must hold good for all retrieve, insert, update and delete activity.

Rule 8 : The Physical Data Independence Rule

User access to the database via terminal monitors or application programs must remain
logically consistent whenever changes to the storage representation or access methods to
the data are changed.

Rule 9 : The logical Data Independence Rule

Application programs and terminal activities must remain logically unimpaired whenever
information preserving changes of any kind that are theoretically permitted are made to
the base tables.

Rule 10 : Integrity Independence Rule

All integrity constraints should be stored in the system catalog or in the database as table.

Rule 11 : Distribution Rule

According to this rule a DBMS which claims to be relational must have distribution
independence.

Rule 12 : No subversion Rule

Different levels of the language cannot bypass the integrity rules and constraints. That is,
if a DBMS supports a lower level language that permits, then it should not bypass any
integrity rules any constraints defined in the higher level.
 APPENDIX-B

ANSWER FOR ADDITIONAL QUERIES

Q1) SELECT AVG(SCOST) FROM SOFTWARE WHERE DEVIN = 'ORACLE';

Q2) SELECT PNAME,TRUNC(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,DOB)/12)

"AGE", TRUNC(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,DOJ)/12) "EXPERIENCE"
FROM PROGRAMMER;

Q3) SELECT PNAME FROM STUDIES WHERE COURSE = 'PGDCA';

Q4) SELECT MAX(SOLD) FROM SOFTWARE;

Q5) SELECT PNAME, DOB FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE DOB LIKE '
%APR%';

Q6) SELECT MIN(CCOST) FROM STUDIES;

Q7) SELECT COUNT(*) FROM STUDIES WHERE COURSE = 'DCA';

Q8) SELECT SUM(SCOST*SOLD-DCOST) FROM SOFTWARE GROUP BY

DEVIN HAVING DEVIN = 'C';

Q9) SELECT * FROM SOFTWARE WHERE PNAME = 'RAKESH';

Q10) SELECT * FROM STUDIES WHERE SPLACE = 'PENTAFOUR';

Q11) SELECT * FROM SOFTWARE WHERE SCOST*SOLD-DCOST > 5000;

Q12) SELECT CEIL(DCOST/SCOST) FROM SOFTWARE;

Q13) SELECT * FROM SOFTWARE WHERE SCOST*SOLD >= DCOST;

Q14) SELECT MAX(SCOST) FROM SOFTWARE GROUP BY DEVIN HAVING

DEVIN = 'VB';
Q15) SELECT COUNT(*) FROM SOFTWARE WHERE DEVIN = 'ORACLE';
Q16) SELECT COUNT(*) FROM STUDIES WHERE SPLACE = 'PRAGATHI';
Q17) SELECT COUNT(*) FROM STUDIES WHERE CCOST BETWEEN 10000
AND 15000;
Q18) SELECT AVG(CCOST) FROM STUDIES;

Q19) SELECT * FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE PROF1 = 'C' OR PROF2 = 'C';

Q20) SELECT * FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE PROF1 IN ('C','PASCAL') OR

PROF2 IN ('C','PASCAL');

Q21) SELECT * FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE PROF1 NOT IN ('C','C++') AND

PROF2 NOT IN ('C','C++');

Q22) SELECT TRUNC(MAX(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,DOB)/12)) FROM

PROGRAMMER WHERE SEX = 'M';

Q23) SELECT TRUNC(AVG(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,DOB)/12)) FROM

PROGRAMMER WHERE SEX = 'F';

Q24) SELECT PNAME, TRUNC(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,DOJ)/12)

FROM PROGRAMMER ORDER BY PNAME DESC;

Q25) SELECT PNAME FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE TO_CHAR(DOB,'MON')

= TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'MON');

Q26) SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE SEX = 'F';

Q27) SELECT DISTINCT(PROF1) FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE SEX = 'M';

Q28) SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM PROGRAMMER;

Q29) SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE SAL BETWEEN 5000

AND 7500;

Q30) SELECT * FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE PROF1 NOT IN

('C','C++','PASCAL') AND PROF2 NOT IN ('C','C++','PASCAL');

Q31) SELECT PNAME,TITLE,SCOST FROM SOFTWARE WHERE SCOST IN

(SELECT MAX(SCOST) FROM SOFTWARE GROUP BY PNAME);

Q32) SELECT 'Mr.' || PNAME || ' - has ' ||

TRUNC(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,DOJ)/12) || ' years of experience'
“Programmer” FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE SEX = 'M' UNION SELECT
'Ms.' || PNAME || ' - has ' || TRUNC (MONTHS_BETWEEN
(SYSDATE,DOJ)/12) || ' years of experience' “Programmer” FROM
PROGRAMMER WHERE SEX = 'F';
Q33) SELECT DISTINCT([Link]) FROM EMP A, EMP B WHERE [Link] =
[Link]; or SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO IN (SELECT
MGR FROM EMP);

Q34) SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO IN (SELECT DEPTNO FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO HAVING COUNT(EMPNO)>10 AND DEPTNO=10);

Q35) SELECT [Link] "EMPLOYEE", [Link] "REPORTS TO" FROM EMP

A, EMP B WHERE [Link]=[Link];

Q36) SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO IN ( SELECT EMPNO FROM EMP
MINUS SELECT MGR FROM EMP);

Q37) SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL > ( SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO HAVING DEPTNO=20);

Q38) SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL > ( SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP
GROUP BY JOB HAVING JOB = 'MANAGER' );

Q39) SELECT JOB, MAX(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;

Q40) SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE (DEPTNO, HIREDATE) IN (SELECT

DEPTNO, MAX(HIREDATE) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO);

Q41) SELECT TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,'YYYY') "YEAR", COUNT(EMPNO) "NO.

OF EMPLOYEES" FROM EMP GROUP BY TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,'YYYY')
HAVING COUNT(EMPNO) = (SELECT MAX(COUNT(EMPNO)) FROM
EMP GROUP BY TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,'YYYY'));

Q42) SELECT DEPTNO, LPAD(SUM(12*(SAL+NVL(COMM,0))),15)

"COMPENSATION" FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO HAVING
SUM( 12*(SAL+NVL(COMM,0))) = (SELECT
MAX(SUM(12*(SAL+NVL(COMM,0)))) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO);

Q43) SELECT ENAME, HIREDATE, LPAD('*',8) "RECENTLY HIRED" FROM

EMP WHERE HIREDATE = (SELECT MAX(HIREDATE) FROM EMP)
UNION SELECT ENAME NAME, HIREDATE, LPAD(' ',15) "RECENTLY
HIRED" FROM EMP WHERE HIREDATE != (SELECT MAX(HIREDATE)
FROM EMP);

Q44) SELECT ENAME,SAL FROM EMP E WHERE SAL > (SELECT AVG(SAL)
FROM EMP F WHERE [Link] = [Link]);

Q45) SELECT ENAME, SAL FROM EMP A WHERE &N = (SELECT

COUNT (DISTINCT(SAL)) FROM EMP B WHERE [Link]<=[Link]);
Q46) SELECT * FROM EMP A WHERE [Link] IN (SELECT EMPNO FROM
EMP GROUP BY EMPNO HAVING COUNT(EMPNO)>1) AND
[Link]!=MIN (ROWID));

Q47) SELECT ENAME

"EMPLOYEE",TO_CHAR(TRUNC(MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIRE
D ATE)/12))||' YEARS '|| TO_CHAR(TRUNC(MOD(MONTHS_BETWEEN
(SYSDATE, HIREDATE),12)))||' MONTHS ' "LENGTH OF SERVICE" FROM
EMP;

Q48) REFER EXERCISES 1 AND 3 FOR TABLE CREATION.

Q49) SELECT CUST_NAME FROM CUSTOMER WHERE CUST_ID IN

(SELECT CUST_ID FROM SHIPMENT
WHERE DESTINATION='SIOUX CITY');

Q50) SELECT DESTINATION FROM SHIPMENT WHERE 1000000>

(SELECT SUM(ANNUAL_REVENUE) FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUSTOMER.CUST_ID = SHIPMENT.CUST_ID
GROUP BY DESTINATION);

Q51) SELECT DESTINATION FROM

(SELECT SUM(WEIGHT)AS SUM_WEIGHT,DESTINATION FROM
SHIPMENT GROUP BY DESTINATION) WHERE SUM_WEIGHT>100;

Q52) SELECT CUST_NAME FROM CUSTOMER,SHIPMENT

WHERE CUSTOMER.CUST_ID=SHIPMENT.CUST_ID AND
ANNUAL_REVENUE>5000000 AND WEIGHT<1;

Q53) SELECT CUST_NAME FROM CUSTOMER,SHIPMENT

WHERE CUSTOMER.CUST_ID=SHIPMENT.CUST_ID AND
ANNUAL_REVENUE>5000000 AND
( DESTINATION='SAN FRANCISCO'OR WEIGHT<1 );

Q54) SELECT DRIVER_NAME FROM TRUCK WHERE TRUCK_# IN

(SELECT TRUCK_# FROM SHIPMENT,CUSTOMER,CITY
WHERE SHIPMENT.CUST_ID=SHIPMENT.CUST_ID AND
ANNUAL_REVENUE>20000000 AND CITY.CITY_NAME =
[Link] AND POPULATION>1000000 );

Q55) SELECT DESTINATION FROM SHIPMENT,CUSTOMER

WHERE CUSTOMER.CUST_ID=SHIPMENT.CUST_ID
AND ANNUAL_REVENUE>15000000;

Q56) SELECT DRIVER_NAME FROM TRUCK WHERE TRUCK_# IN

(SELECT TRUCK_# FROM SHIPMENT WHERE WEIGHT>100);
Q57) SELECT DISTINCT CUST_NAME,ANNUAL_REVENUE
FROM CUSTOMER,SHIPMENT
WHERE CUSTOMER.CUST_ID=SHIPMENT.CUST_ID AND WEIGHT>100;

Q58) SELECT DISTINCT CUST_NAME,ANNUAL_REVENUE

FROM CUSTOMER,SHIPMENT,TRUCK
WHERE CUSTOMER.CUST_ID=SHIPMENT.CUST_ID AND
SHIPMENT.TRUCK_#=TRUCK.TRUCK_# AND DRIVER_NAME='JENSEN';

Q59) SELECT CUST_NAME FROM CUSTOMER

WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM SHIPMENT,TRUCK
WHERE SHIPMENT.CUST_ID=CUSTOMER.CUST_ID
GROUP BY SHIPMENT.CUST_ID
HAVING COUNT(DISTINCT SHIPMENT.TRUCK_#)<COUNT(DISTINCT
TRUCK.TRUCK_#));

Q60) SELECT CITY_NAME FROM CITY

WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM SHIPMENT,CUSTOMER
WHERE [Link]=CITY.CITY_NAME
GROUP BY [Link]
HAVING COUNT(DISTINCT SHIPMENT.CUST_ID)<COUNT(DISTINCT
CUSTOMER.CUST_ID));

Q61) SELECT DRIVER_NAME FROM TRUCK

WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM
SHIPMENT,CITY WHERE
SHIPMENT.TRUCK_#=TRUCK.TRUCK_# GROUP BY
SHIPMENT.TRUCK_#
HAVING COUNT(DISTINCT
[Link])<COUNT(DISTINCT CITY.CITY_NAME));

Q62) SELECT DISTINCT CUST_NAME FROM CUSTOMER,SHIPMENT

WHERE CUST_TYPE='MANUFACTURER'OR DESTINATION='[Link]';
(or)
SELECT DISTINCT CUST_NAME FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUST_TYPE='MANUFACTURER' OR CUST_ID
IN (SELECT CUST_ID FROM SHIPMENT
WHERE DESTINATION='[Link]');

Q63) SELECT CITY_NAME FROM CITY

WHERE POPULATION>1000000 AND CITY_NAME IN
(SELECT DESTINATION FROM SHIPMENT
WHERE WEIGHT=100 AND CUST_ID=311);
Q64) SELECT TRUCK_# FROM TRUCK
WHERE DRIVER_NAME='JAKE STINSON' AND TRUCK_# NOT IN
(SELECT TRUCK_# FROM SHIPMENT WHERE
DESTINATION='DENVER');

Q65) SELECT CUST_NAME FROM CUSTOMER

WHERE ANNUAL_REVENUE>10000000 AND CUST_ID IN
(SELECT CUST_ID FROM SHIPMENT,CITY WHERE WEIGHT<1 AND
POPULATION<10000 AND CITY_NAME=DESTINATION);

Q66) a) CREATE VIEW CUST_VIEW1 AS

(SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE ANNUAL_REVENUE<1000000);

b) CREATE VIEW CUST_VIEW2 AS

(SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE ANNUAL_REVENUE BETWEEN 1000000 AND 5000000);

b) CREATE VIEW CUST_VIEW3 AS

(SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE ANNUAL_REVENUE >5000000);

Q67) a) SELECT DRIVER_NAME FROM TRUCK,CUST_VIEW3,SHIPMENT

WHERE SHIPMENT.CUST_ID=CUST_VIEW3.CUST_ID
AND TRUCK.TRUCK_#=SHIPMENT.TRUCK_#
AND DESTINATION='LOS ANGELES ';

c) SELECT CITY_NAME,POPULATION FROM CITY

WHERE CITY_NAME IN
(SELECT DESTINATION FROM SHIPMENT,CUST_VIEW2
WHERE SHIPMENT.CUST_ID=CUST_VIEW2.CUST_ID);

d) SELECT DISTINCT DRIVER_NAME,POPULATION,CITY_NAME

FROM TRUCK,CITY,SHIPMENT
WHERE SHIPMENT.TRUCK_#=TRUCK.TRUCK_#
AND SHIPMENT.CUST_ID IN (SELECT CUST_ID FROM
CUST_VIEW1);
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following books and manuals were referred during the preparation of this work book
and suggested for further reading

▪ SQL * Plus User’s Guide and Reference – Oracle Corporation – 2015.

▪ Introduction to Oracle 9i – Instructors Guide – Oracle corporation – Nancy

Greenberg, Priya Nathan – 2015.

▪ PL/SQL User Guide and Reference – Oracle Corporation – 2007.

▪ Oracle/SQL Tutorial – Michael Gertz – University of California, Davis – 2010.

▪ ORACLE SQL*Plus - Prof. Richard Holowczak - City University of New York,

USA.

▪ Database system concepts – Silberschatz, korth and Sundarshan – McGraw Hill

Publishers – 6th Edition 2010.

▪ Peter rob, Carlos Coronel, “Database Systems – Design, Implementation, and

Management”, 9th Edition, 2009, Thomson Learning, ISBN: 978-0538469685

▪ Date C.J, “An Introduction to Database”, 8th Edition , 2003, Addison-Wesley Pub
Co, ISBN: 978-0321197849

▪ Raghu Ramakrishnan, Johannes Gehrke, “Database Management System”, 3rd

Edition, 2007, McGraw Hill, ISBN: 978-0072465631