NATURAL DISASTERS AND MITIGATION – MODULE II (Simplified & Detailed Notes)
EARTHQUAKES
Definition: Sudden shaking of the Earth’s crust due to release of energy from tectonic plates.
Causes:
• Plate tectonics – Earth’s crust is divided into major plates that move on molten mantle.
• Types of boundary movements:
– Convergent: Plates collide → mountains & earthquakes.
– Divergent: Plates move apart → rifts.
– Transform: Plates slide past each other.
• Faults form when stress at plate boundaries causes rocks to break.
• Seismic waves travel from the focus (origin) to the epicenter (surface point above focus).
Types of Seismic Waves:
• P-waves: Fastest, push–pull motion.
• S-waves: Slower, shake perpendicular; do not travel through liquids.
• L-waves: Surface waves; cause maximum damage.
Measurement:
• Seismograph records waves; produces a seismogram.
• Magnitude (Richter scale): Size of earthquake.
• Intensity (MMI/MSK scale): Damage level at a location.
Hazards:
• Ground shaking, structural collapse, landslides, liquefaction, fires, lifeline failure, tsunamis.
Mitigation:
• Earthquake-resistant buildings (strong foundation, light roofs, reinforcement).
• Retrofitting old buildings.
• Public education (Drop, Cover, Hold).
• Land-use planning in high-risk zones.
• Monitoring using seismological centers & GPS.
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VOLCANOES
Definition: Opening on Earth’s crust allowing magma, gases, and ash to escape.
Formation:
• Magma forms when mantle rocks melt due to heat & pressure.
• Magma rises (less dense), collects in chambers, and erupts through vents.
• Lava type determines shape of volcano.
Types Based on Activity:
• Active
• Dormant
• Extinct
Types of Volcanoes:
• Cinder cones – small, steep, made of volcanic fragments.
• Composite/Stratovolcano – tall, steep, layered lava & ash.
• Shield volcano – gentle slopes, fluid lava.
• Lava domes – very thick lava forming steep mounds.
Types of Eruptions:
• Hydrothermal, Phreatic, Phreatomagmatic
• Strombolian, Hawaiian
• Vulcanian, Plinian
Hazards:
• Pyroclastic flows, ash fall, volcanic bombs, lava flows
• Lahars (mudflows), toxic gases, acid rain
• Earthquakes from volcanic activity
• Air travel hazards due to ash clouds
Mitigation:
• Evacuation planning
• Emergency kits (masks, goggles, food, medicines)
• Sheltering indoors during ashfall
• Strong monitoring using sensors & satellites
• Public warning systems
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FLOODS
Definition: Overflow of water submerging land that is normally dry.
Types:
• Slow-onset – lasts weeks–months.
• Rapid-onset – lasts 1–2 days.
• Flash floods – sudden & destructive; caused by intense rain or dam failure.
• River floods – due to rainfall over large basins.
• Coastal floods – storm surges during cyclones.
Causes:
• Heavy rainfall, siltation, blocked drains
• Landslides, dam failure, cyclones & storm surge
• Impermeable surfaces reducing infiltration
Effects:
• Loss of life & property
• Water contamination, epidemics
• Crop loss & soil infertility
• Damage to roads, bridges, communication
Mitigation:
• Flood hazard mapping
• Land-use control in floodplains
• Construction of embankments, levees, dams
• Flood diversion channels
• Flood forecasting using satellites & radars
• Flood-proofing houses (stilts, sealing doors)
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STORM SURGES
Definition: Abnormal rise of seawater due to a storm, above normal tide level.
Causes:
• Strong winds pushing ocean water toward land
• Low pressure in storm center (minor effect)
• Coastal shape & sea-bed slope
Factors Affecting Surge:
• Storm intensity, size, angle of approach
• Tides, waves (runup & setup)
• Freshwater inflow from rainfall
• Coastal features (bays, inlets)
Hazards:
• Coastal flooding, beach erosion
• Building collapse, saltwater intrusion
• Damage to roads, power lines, freshwater systems
Mitigation:
• Hazard mapping
• Evacuation planning
• Strong building design near coasts
• Constant monitoring of tides & weather
• Public awareness & timely warnings
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TSUNAMI
Definition: Long-wavelength sea waves caused by sudden displacement of large water volumes.
Causes:
• Undersea earthquakes (most common)
• Volcanic eruptions
• Landslides
• Meteorite impacts
• Underwater explosions
Characteristics:
• Very long wavelength (up to 500 km)
• Very fast speed (800–950 km/hr)
• Small height in deep sea, rises near coast
• Occur as a series (wave train)
Warning Systems:
• International Tsunami Warning System (Pacific)
• Regional warning systems using seismic data & tide gauges
• India: Tide gauge network + radars
Mitigation:
• Evacuation routes & drills
• Coastal vegetation (mangroves)
• Avoid construction near shorelines
• Early-warning dissemination
• Public education on natural signs (sea withdrawal, ground shaking)
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CASE STUDY: 2004 INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI
• Trigger: 9.1 magnitude earthquake near Sumatra.
• Affected countries: India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand & 10+ more.
• Deaths: ~2.3 lakh.
• Indian impact: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Andaman-Nicobar severely hit.
• Lessons:
– Need for tsunami early-warning systems.
– Coastal zone regulations.
– Rapid evacuation & awareness saves lives.
– Reinforcement of coastal structures.
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EFFECT OF HAZARD (General)
• Social effects – loss of life, displacement, trauma.
• Economic effects – loss of property, transport failure, crop damage.
• Environmental effects – soil erosion, water contamination, habitat loss.
• Infrastructure effects – power, communication, roads damaged.
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SIMPLE DEFINITION OF DISASTER
A disaster is a sudden event that causes widespread damage, loss, and disruption to people,
property, and the environment beyond the ability of the community to cope using its own resources.
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END OF NOTES