WATERSHED MANAGEMENT :=

A watershed is a geohydrological unit that collects water and channels it to a

central location through a network of drains. All territory on Earth is
encompassed under a specific watershed. A watershed refers to the combined
land and water region that contributes runoff to a central place.
WATERSHED MAANGEMENT CONCEPT :=
It is a comprehensive method for sustainably managing the land and water
resources in a specific geographic area called a watershed or catchment.
It encompasses the comprehensive management of all elements of the
watershed, such as land, water, vegetation, and socio-economic factors.
Advantages:
 Mitigates pollution.
 Facilitates groundwater replenishment.
 The locals exert control over these natural resources, resulting in a
reduction of mismanagement and over-exploitation.
 It enhances agricultural productivity.
Disadvantages
 Constructing a watershed requires significant financial investment.
 The construction of a watershed necessitates a region with sufficient
precipitation.
 The potential locations for constructing a watershed are extremely limited.
 Watersheds necessitate consistent upkeep.
Types of Watershed Management
Classification is based on factors such as size, drainage, shape, and land use
pattern.
 Macro watershed (> 50,000 Ha)
 Sub watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Ha)
 Milli watershed (1000 to 10,000 Ha)
 Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Ha)
 Mini watershed (1-100 Ha)

 Components of Watershed Management

 It is a holistic approach that incorporates multiple elements to
generate long-lasting and environmentally friendly results –
 Soil and water conservation
 Plantation
 Agronomical practices
 Livestock management
 Renewable energy
 Institutional developments

Principles of Watershed Management

 Participatory Approach
 Integrated Planning
 Watershed as a Unit
 Adaptive Management
 Sustainable Use of Resources
Watershed Management Schemes in India
List of Water Conservation Mngement Yojana are –
 Ground Water Management And Regulation
 Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
 Irrigation Census
 Namami Gange
 Flood Management Program
 River Basin Management
 Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project
 Sutlej-Yamuna Link Canal
 River Management Activities And Works Related To Border Area
 Flood Forecasting
 National Water Mission
 Farakka Barrage Project
 National Hydrology Project
 Research & Development Programme In Water Sector
 Atal Bhujal Yojana
 Development Of Water Resources Information System
 Dam Rehabilitation And Improvement Programme

 Watershed Management Examples

 Contour bunding / graded bunding.
 Check dams and gully control structures.
 Land levelling / land smoothening.
 Bench terracing.
 Farm ponds.
 Percolation ponds.
 Waterways.
 Diversion drains.

Watershed Management and Rainwater Harvesting

(i) Watershed Management: It is a crucial tool for preserving water
resources, enhancing agricultural output, and preventing ecological
deterioration. This approach enhances the quality of life for individuals.
(ii) Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is a method used to
enhance the replenishment of groundwater by collecting and storing
rainwater in underground reservoirs, with the purpose of fulfilling water
needs.
Integrated Watershed Development Programme (IWMP)

From 2009-10, the Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural

Development is undertaking the Integrated Watershed Development
Programme (IWMP) to cover 55 million hectares of rain-fed land by
[Link] has the largest watershed program, followed by the IWMP.
It uses watershed management to restore ecological balance by
harnessing, preserving, and developing degraded natural resources like
soil, vegetative cover, and water. The program is funded 90:10 by the
central and state governments and executed in all states.
This allows multi-cropping and different agro-based activities, which assist
watershed residents sustain their livelihoods. IWMP, OFWM, and AIBP were
merged into Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana in 2015.
IWMP prevents soil runoff, regenerates plants, harvests rainwater, and
recharges the groundwater table.

Watershed management requires a careful balance between economic

and environmental goals, as well as a thorough analysis of all interactions
within the watershed system. This equilibrium is crucial for nations at
different phases of advancement.
There is a growing number of conflicts arising from competition for water
resources among agricultural, industry, urban home use, as well as
between different State administrations. Effective water management is
essential for both economic growth and well-being of individuals.
Objectives of watershed management
The different objectives of watershed management programmes are:
1. To control damaging runoff and degradation and thereby conservation
of soil and water.
2. To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful purpose.
3. To protect, conserve and improve the land of watershed for more
efficient and
sustained production.
4. To protect and enhance the water resource originating in the
watershed.
5. To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield on the
watershed.
6. To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
7. To moderate the floods peaks at down stream areas.
8. To increase infiltration of rainwater.
9. To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and wild life
resource.
10. To enhance the ground water recharge, wherever applicable.

Factors affecting watershed management

a) Watershed characters
i) Size and shape
ii) Topography
iii) Soils
iv) Relief
b) Climatic characteristic
i. Precipitation
ii. Amount and intensity of rainfall
c) Watershed operation
d) Land use pattern
i. Vegetative cover
ii. Density
e) Social status of inhability
f) Water resource and their capabilities.
Watershed management practices
1. Interms of purpose
1. To increase infiltration
2. To increase water holding capacity
3. To prevent soil erosion
2. Method and accomplishment

Watershed management practices

1. Interms of purpose
1. To increase infiltration
2. To increase water holding capacity
3. To prevent soil erosion
2. Method and accomplishment
In brief various control measures are:
1. Vegetative measures ( Agronomical measures)
1. Strip cropping
2. Pasture cropping
3. Grass land farming
4. Wood lands
2. Engineering measures ( Structural practices 0
1. Contour bunding
2. Terracing
3. Construction of earthern embankment
4. Construction of check dams
5. Construction of farm ponds
6. Construction of diversion
7. Gully controlling structure
1. Rock dam
2. Establishment of permanent grass and vegetation
8. Providing vegetative and stone barriers
9. Construction of silt tanks dentension
Influence of soil conservation measures and vegetation cover on erosion,
Runoff and Nutrient loss.
 Watershed management involves diverse practices like soil & water
conservation (terracing, contour farming, bunds), water
harvesting (check dams, percolation tanks, rainwater
harvesting), sustainable agriculture (crop rotation, conservation tillage,
buffer strips), afforestation, and pollution control (managing urban
runoff, agricultural discharge) to protect resources, prevent erosion,
enhance water quality, and recharge groundwater for sustainable
development. Key areas include land treatment, water management
structures, and community participation for effective, integrated resource
use.
Soil & Water Conservation
 In-situ Management: Practices within fields like contour bunds, graded
bunds, terracing, and broad beds to retain moisture and prevent soil loss.
 Contour Farming/Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines to slow
water flow and reduce erosion.
 Gully Plugging: Building small barriers in gullies to trap sediment and
water.
 Water Harvesting & Recharge
 Check Dams & Percolation Tanks: Structures to slow runoff, store
water, and recharge groundwater.
 Rainwater Harvesting: Capturing and storing rainwater for later use.
 Dug Wells & Recharge Shafts: Structures to direct water into aquifers.
Agricultural Practices
 Conservation Tillage: Minimizing soil disturbance.
 Crop Rotation & Intercropping: Enhancing soil health and biodiversity.
 Buffer Strips & Wetlands: Vegetated areas near water bodies to filter
pollutants.
 Water-Efficient Irrigation: Drip irrigation and smart water
management.
Forestry & Vegetation
 Afforestation/Reforestation: Planting trees to stabilize soil and increase
infiltration.
 Watershed Forest Management: Managing forests to minimize impact
on water quality.
Pollution Control & Management
 Stormwater Management: Retention ponds, filtering systems in urban
areas.
 Agricultural Runoff Control: Managing fertilizer/pesticide use.
 Urban Waste Management: Treating and managing sewage and
industrial discharge.
Institutional & Community Aspects
 Community Participation: Involving locals for project success.
 Integrated Planning: Developing comprehensive strategies for land,
water, and resources.
 Policy & Governance: Creating supportive legal frameworks and
coordination
 Non institutional agencies in rural credit
Non-institutional agencies in rural credit refer to informal,
unregulated sources of finance that operate outside the formal
banking system. While institutional sources like commercial banks
and cooperatives have grown, non-institutional lenders still provide
a significant portion of rural credit, particularly for immediate needs
and in remote areas.
The major non-institutional agencies include:
 Moneylenders: Often the most prominent source, moneylenders
(both professional and agricultural) are easily accessible and
provide loans with minimal paperwork, but typically charge very
high interest rates (sometimes 24% to 50% per annum). They have
historically been known for exploitative practices, such as
manipulating accounts to keep borrowers in perpetual debt.
 Landlords: Rich landlords often extend credit to their tenant farmers
and landless laborers. This can lead to a dependency where the
borrower is forced to work under unfavorable conditions or sell their
produce at low prices.
 Traders and Commission Agents: These agents provide loans for
agricultural inputs before harvest, with the condition that the
farmers sell their crops to them at predetermined, often below-
market, prices. They may also charge hidden costs and high
commissions, reducing the farmer's bargaining power.
 Friends and Relatives: This is a common source of credit in times of
crisis due to social trust. Loans are typically informal, may be
interest-free or have low interest, and require no documentation.
However, delays in repayment can lead to personal conflicts.
Historically, non-institutional sources accounted for the vast
majority of rural credit requirements, but their share has declined
over the decades as institutional financing has expanded. Despite
this, they remain a crucial, though often problematic, part of the
rural financial landscape due to their accessibility and willingness to
lend for both productive and unproductive purposes
 MUDRA loans specifically target "funding the unfunded" by
providing collateral-free loans to micro-enterprises, many of which
previously relied on informal moneylenders.
 Total Reach: Since its inception, over 53.85 crore
loans totaling ₹35.13 lakh crore have been sanctioned as of August
2025.
 Expansion of Loan Limits: To support growing rural businesses, the
government introduced the "Tarun Plus" category in 2025,
increasing the maximum loan limit from ₹10 lakh to ₹20 lakh for
proven borrowers.
 Average Ticket Size: The average loan size has nearly tripled, rising
from ₹38,000 in 2016 to ₹1.02 lakh in 2025, indicating a deepening
of formal credit within the micro-enterprise sector.
 Institutional Shift: Lending through Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and
Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) saw a growth of over 55% in
disbursements during the 2024-25 period.

JDY – 56cr accounts

 Total Accounts: Over 56.16 crore.
 Deposits: Total deposits reached over ₹2.67 lakh crore.
 Women Account Holders: 56% of accounts are held by
women, [Link] notes.
 Rural Reach: 67% of accounts are in rural/semi-urban areas,
[Link] reports.
 RuPay Cards: Over 38 crore RuPay debit cards issued.

INSTITUTIONAL RURAL CREDIT FRAMEWORK

The institutional rural credit framework in India is a multi-agency
system comprising cooperative banks, commercial banks, and
Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), regulated and guided by
the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the apex development bank,
the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD)
Structure of the Framework
The institutional system provides structured, affordable, and
development-oriented finance to the rural sector, in contrast to non-
 institutional sources (moneylenders, traders, etc.) which often
involve high interest rates and exploitative practices.
The core components of this framework are:
 National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD): Established in 1982, NABARD is the apex institution for
rural credit, providing refinance, institutional development, and
supervision for cooperatives and RRBs.
 Commercial Banks (CBs): These are major providers of rural
credit, contributing significantly to agricultural credit flow and
operating through extensive rural branch networks with mandated
Priority Sector Lending targets.
 Regional Rural Banks (RRBs): Created in 1975 to serve small
farmers and rural artisans, RRBs are jointly owned by the Central
Government, State Government, and a Sponsor Bank. They are
crucial for financial inclusion and have seen improved performance
with government support.
 Cooperative Banks: These are community-based institutions with
different structures:
o Short-Term Structure: Includes State Cooperative Banks
(StCBs), District Central Cooperative Banks (DCCBs), and
Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) providing short-
term crop loans.
o Long-Term Structure: Consists of State Cooperative
Agriculture and Rural Development Banks (SCARDBs) and
Primary Cooperative Agriculture and Rural Development
Banks (PCARDBs), focusing on long-term investment credit for
agriculture.
Key Initiatives and Functions
 Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme: This scheme, introduced in
1998, offers farmers easy access to short-term credit for various
agricultural needs.
 Interest Subvention Scheme (ISS): This government scheme
reduces the interest rate on short-term crop loans up to a certain
limit.
 Joint Liability Groups (JLGs) and Self-Help Groups
(SHGs): Banks utilize these groups to extend institutional credit to
small and marginal farmers and link SHGs to the formal banking
system.
 Recapitalization and Turnaround Plans: NABARD and the
government provide support to strengthen weaker RRBs and Rural
Cooperative Banks through capital infusion and reform measures.
 Computerization of PACS: A scheme is underway to computerize
PACS for digital operations and integration with higher-tier
cooperative banks

RBI Internal Working Group (IWG) on Agricultural Credit, chaired by

M.K. Jain (Deputy Governor), submitted its report in September
2019, focusing on enhancing rural/agricultural credit flow by
addressing regional disparities and constraints, recommending
a credit guarantee fund for agriculture, boosting the sub-
target for small/marginal farmers to 10%, and suggesting a
federal body for policy consensus, aiming for more inclusive and
accessible institutional credit, especially given slow rural bank
growth despite overall sectoral credit expansion.

Key Recommendations & Focus Areas:

 Credit Guarantee Fund: Suggested the Central Govt. set up a
guarantee fund with states to cover bank default risks in agriculture.
 Small & Marginal Farmers: Recommended increasing the sub-
target for these farmers from 8% to 10% of Adjusted Net Bank
Credit (ANBC) over two years.
 Federal Institutional Mechanism: Proposed a GST Council-like
body with Centre/State representation to build consensus on agri-
credit reforms.
 Addressing Disparities: Aimed to find workable solutions for
regional imbalances in accessing credit.
 Streamlining Processes: Tackled issues like misclassification of
loans (e.g., gold loans) and the need for uniform scales of finance.
Context & Motivation:
 The IWG was formed in 2019 due to slow growth in rural
credit/deposits compared to overall banking, despite significant
overall credit increases.
 Small and marginal farmers, though a large part of the sector, were
under-covered by banks (only 41% reached) despite holding most
operational land.
 Broader RBI Role in Rural Credit:
 RBI promotes credit through Priority Sector Lending
(PSL) targets (including agriculture), schemes like Kisan Credit
Cards (KCC), the Self-Help Group-Bank Linkage Programme
(SHG-BLP), and the establishment of NABARD.

What are current issues in rural credit or agricultural credit

 Access Disparities: Despite a general increase in institutional
credit flow, small and marginal farmers, women, and tenant farmers
often remain excluded from formal banking channels due to a lack
of collateral (such as proper land records), insufficient credit
histories, and complex loan procedures.
 Reliance on Informal Sources: A significant portion of vulnerable
farmers still rely on informal moneylenders who charge exorbitant
interest rates, sometimes as high as 36% annually, leading to
potential debt cycles.
 High Loan Defaults and Risk: There has been a recent surge in
bad loans (Non-Performing Assets) in the agricultural sector, driven
by income shocks from climate events (floods, droughts, heat
waves), commodity price fluctuations, and rising input costs (e.g.,
fertilizers). This makes financial institutions warier of lending to
farmers.
 Regional Imbalances: Credit distribution is often skewed, with
some regions receiving a disproportionately high share of credit
compared to others with similar agricultural potential, possibly due
to better infrastructure and bank outreach in those areas.
 Challenges in Digital Adoption: While digital lending platforms
and initiatives like the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme are
expanding, their full potential is hindered by the persistent "digital
divide," including a lack of reliable internet connectivity, access to
smartphones, and low digital literacy among many farmers.
 Product-Cash-Flow Mismatch: Many standard loan products have
rigid repayment schedules (e.g., weekly or fortnightly installments)
that do not align with the seasonal and irregular income streams of
farmers, which often leads to repayment difficulties.
 Weak Rural Financial Institutions: Some rural financial
institutions are in poor health, making them ineligible for crucial
refinance support from higher bodies like the National Bank for
Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), which further limits
local credit availability.
 Impact of Loan Waivers: Periodic populist announcements of
farm loan waivers by state governments can make banks and
financial institutions more risk-averse and hesitant to lend to the
agricultural sector in the future.

Agricultural Credit Mechanisms

The current agricultural credit mechanisms have been increasingly
adapted to address the emerging challenges of climate-resilient
farming practices, providing financial support to farmers to help
them adapt to the impacts of climate change
i. Interest Subvention for Farmers Affected by Natural
Calamities: The Kisan Credit Cards (KCC) - Modified
Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) is a centrally funded
scheme that provides concessional interest rates on short-
term agricultural loans obtained by farmers. Under this
scheme, farmers are offered KCC loans at a subsidized
interest rate of 7%. An upfront interest subvention (IS) of
1.5% is provided to financial institutions, and farmers who
repay their loans promptly receive a 3% Prompt
Repayment Incentive (PRI), reducing the interest rate to
4% per annum
 Supporting agriculture credit through Agriculture Infrastructure Fund
(AIF): The current agricultural credit mechanisms, particularly through the
Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF), are addressing emerging challenges in Climate
Resilient Farming practices. AIF provides medium to long term loans to set up
decentralized Infrastructure, such as farm gate storage and logistics, which reduces
post-harvest loses and minimizes intermediaries. The Scheme offers loans with a
capped 9% interest rate, Interest subvention of 3% per annum for loans up to ₹ 2
crore, and credit guarantee coverage for eligible borrowers. AIF supports climate-
resilient initiatives like decentralized solar power plants under PM-KUSUM,
precision agriculture tools, and organic input production, all of which help mitigate
climate risks, improve productivity and promote sustainable farming practices.
Through these measures, AIF is aligning agricultural credit mechanisms with the need
for climate-smart investments, making farming more resilient and sustainable.
 iii. Supporting Initiatives for Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Other agricultural
credit mechanisms, such as the National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture
(NICRA) models, are integrated into watershed development projects to promote
 climate-resilient crop cultivation and livestock rearing. Additionally, Agri Fintech
platforms like ITC MAARS enable farmers to use Kisan Credit Cards (KCC) and
input loans, facilitating the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices.
 iv. Customized Climate Financial Products: Public policies have been encouraging
the development of climate financial products that support adaptation activities in
regions vulnerable to climate change. These products provide incentives for
investments in infrastructure and technologies that enhance climate resilience in
agriculture. For example, NABARD's involvement in the Green Climate Fund (GCF)
and the National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) has directed
significant resources toward projects aimed at adapting to and mitigating the impact
of climate change in agriculture.
 v. Promotion of Renewable Energy in Agriculture: The government has launched
several initiatives to promote renewable energy in agriculture, which is crucial for
reducing carbon emissions and ensuring energy stability in rural areas. Such as PM-
KUSUM scheme offers financial assistance to farmers for installing solar-powered
irrigation systems, solar pumps and grid-connected solar power plants. This reduces
the dependency on conventional energy sources, lowers carbon emissions and
enhances energy access for farmers. The scheme provides central subsidies of up to
30% to 50% for the installation of standalone solar pumps and for solarizing existing
grid-connected agricultural pumps.
 vi. NABARD's Initiatives for Climate Resilience: NABARD has been
implementing the Watershed Development Programme, focusing on rainfed regions
vulnerable to water scarcity. This program aims to increase water availability,
promote the adoption of diverse and high-value crops, improve production and
productivity and enhance farming conditions. These interventions reduce the risks
associated with rainfed farming, resulting in improved credit flow. NABARD also
supports tribal families by providing financial assistance for livelihood activities, such
as orchard development, animal husbandry and micro-enterprise initiatives. This
contributes to sustainable livelihoods and reduces distress migration.
 vii. Voluntary carbon market in Agriculture: 11 projects have been registered
under the Voluntary Carbon Market (VCM) in agriculture on the Veera VCS
platform, which focuses on promoting sustainable farming practices.
Key initiatives such as the Kisan Rin Portal are playing a significant role in
this shift. The portal connects 1.89 lakh bank branches and provides
farmers with easy access to financial resources, enabling them to the
increasing working capital requirements like high-quality seeds etc. This
encourages the adoption of sustainable, technology-driven farming
practices. Additionally, the portal supports integrated farming systems by
offering loans for diverse agricultural activities, fostering organic inputs
and reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers. NABARD is also promoting
knowledge-intensive agriculture by collaborating with ICAR, KVKs, and
other research bodies, focusing on sustainable farming practices, natural
farming, and farm mechanization. NABARD funds digital agriculture
projects that leverage technologies like IoT, AI, drones, and geospatial
tools for efficient farm management. Furthermore, ICAR and National
Agricultural Research, Education and Extension System (NAREES) also
contributes by developing resilient crops, enhancing productivity through
sustainable practices, and improving food processing and energy-efficient
technologies. The government is also encouraging the use of GIS, remote
sensing, and AI for precision farming, which helps farmers make informed
decisions to increase crop yields and minimize resource waste. Through
these combined efforts, the government aims to build a knowledge-
intensive agricultural system that enhances productivity, reduces
environmental impact, and improves farmers' livelihoods.
integrate technological innovations like nano-urea and nano-
DAP

FOOD SECURITY

Food security means everyone, all the time, has physical and
economic access to enough safe, nutritious food for an active,
healthy life, built on four pillars: Availability (enough food
supply), Access (ability to get it), Utilization (body uses nutrients),
and Stability (consistent access over time). These pillars ensure
not just quantity but also quality, affordability, and reliability of food
for all
The Four Pillars of Food Security:
1. Availability:
 This is the "supply side" – having sufficient quantities of food
from production, stocks, and trade.
 It covers the physical presence of food, whether through local
farming, imports, or aid.
2. Access:
 Ensures people have the means (economic and physical) to
obtain food.
  It involves income, expenditure, market prices, and proximity
to food sources, so people can afford and reach nutritious
options.
3. Utilization:
 Focuses on how the body uses the food consumed, ensuring
proper nutrition.
 Depends on diet diversity, food preparation, care practices,
and household distribution to meet dietary needs.
4. Stability:
 Refers to the temporal aspect, meaning access to food is
consistent over time.
 It means being protected from shocks like sudden food price
increases, job loss, or natural disasters
Issues in food security
India's food security faces challenges from poverty, unequal
distribution, climate change impacting agriculture, infrastructure
gaps (storage, logistics), food wastage, and nutritional deficits
(malnutrition, anaemia), despite sufficient production, highlighting
issues in access, affordability, and systemic inefficiencies within
programs like the PDS, all exacerbated by population growth and
gender inequality
Production & Agricultural Challenges
 Climate Change: Erratic rain, droughts, floods disrupt yields,
affecting small farmers.
 Soil Degradation: Overuse of agrochemicals and poor practices
reduce soil health.
 Water Scarcity: Declining groundwater levels and irrigation issues.
 Pest & Weed Attacks: Invasive species like Fall Armyworm impact
key crops, requiring imports.
 Resource Diversion: MSP focus on rice/wheat pushes out diverse,
nutritious crops.
Distribution & Access Issues
 Poverty & Affordability: High poverty limits access to nutritious
food, worsened by food inflation.
 PDS Flaws: Leakages, corruption, inclusion/exclusion errors, and
weak grievance redressal.
 Infrastructure Gaps: Inadequate cold storage leads to massive
post-harvest losses (15-20%).
 Logistical Hurdles: Poor road networks delay food, increasing
costs.
Nutritional & Social Concerns
 Malnutrition: High rates of child stunting, wasting, and anaemia in
women.
 Gender Inequality: Women and girls are disproportionately
affected by hunger and neglect.
 Food Waste: Significant wastage at household and supply chain
levels.
 Urbanization Impacts: Dietary shifts towards processed, less
nutritious foods.
Policy & Systemic Gaps
 Lack of Integrated Framework: Weak management for
sustainable food systems.
 Data Gaps: Poor monitoring of nutritional programs.
 Agricultural Viability: Farming becoming less profitable, leading
to farmer distress.

Solutions
To address the "paradox of plenty" in 2025, India is adopting a
multidimensional strategy that moves beyond simple food
availability toward a nutrition-sensitive, climate-resilient, and
technologically driven food system.
1. Technological & Distribution Reforms
 SMART-PDS Implementation: The upcoming rollout of SMART-
PDS (by December 2025) aims to digitize the entire supply chain,
utilizing cloud technology and smart ration cards to eliminate
leakages and improve beneficiary targeting.
 Nutrition Hubs: Reimagining Fair Price Shops (FPS) as "nutrition
hubs" that offer a wider variety of nutrient-rich, non-PDS
commodities like pulses, fortified oils, and dairy.
 Real-time Monitoring: Using digital platforms for integrated
nutrition surveillance to track stunting and wasting levels at the
district level, enabling rapid response to localized crises.
 2. Nutritional Security & Biofortification
 Universal Rice Fortification: Strengthening the national initiative
to provide fortified rice (with Iron, Folic Acid, and Vitamin B12)
through all government schemes, including PMGKAY and PM
POSHAN, through 2028.
 Dietary Diversification: Shifting the focus from calorie sufficiency
to balanced diets by integrating millets (Shree Anna), pulses, and
eggs into social safety net programs to combat "hidden hunger".
 Self-Reliance in Pulses: The Mission for Aatmanirbharta in
Pulses (2025–31) aims to increase pulse production by 35 lakh
hectares to ensure affordable protein access.
3. Sustainable & Climate-Resilient Agriculture
 Climate-Smart Practices: Scaling up at least 16 identified
sustainable practices, such as Agroforestry, System of Rice
Intensification (SRI), and Rainwater Harvesting, which
currently cover only a small fraction of sown area.
 Regenerative Agriculture: Promoting minimal tillage and crop
rotation (alternating cereals with pulses) to restore soil health and
reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers.
 Water Management: Expanding micro-irrigation (drip and
sprinkler) and farm ponds to stabilize yields in rainfed areas, which
are most vulnerable to climate shocks.
4. Supply Chain & Post-Harvest Infrastructure
 Cold Chain Expansion: The 2025 Union Budget increased funding
for the Integrated Cold Chain scheme to ₹6,520 crore to build
farm-level infrastructure and temperature-controlled logistics,
targeting a significant reduction in the 40% annual food waste.
 Food Processing Hubs: Incentivizing the creation of Mega Food
Parks and agro-processing clusters under PM Kisan SAMPADA
Yojana to add value to raw produce and extend its shelf life.
 Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs): Organizing
smallholders into FPOs to bridge the gap between farm gate and
retail, reducing their reliance on middlemen and increasing their
bargaining power.
5. Grassroots & Social Interventions
 Empowering Women: Targeted credit and training for women
farmers, who manage a significant portion of household nutrition,
and supporting women-led Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in community
nutrition programs.
 Behavioral Change (SBCC): Launching "Nutrition Month" and
community campaigns to educate households on healthy diets and
sustainable consumption patterns, such as the environmentally
friendly Indian Thali.
 School Nutrition Programs: Revamping mid-day meals into
comprehensive "School Nutrition Programs" that include school
gardens and regular health check-ups for students.

Various government measures taken in this respect

In 2025, the Government of India is operating an extensive food
security architecture focusing on legal entitlements, digital reforms,
and nutritional outcomes.
1. Major Legal and Distribution Frameworks
 National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013: Legally guarantees
food grains for up to 75% of rural and 50% of urban populations.
As of late 2024–2025, it covers approximately 80 crore (800
million) people.
 Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana
(PMGKAY): Extended for five years from January 2024
to December 2028. It provides 5 kg of free food grains per
person per month to Priority Households (PHH) and 35 kg per
family to Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households, with an
estimated outlay of ₹11.8 lakh crore.
 One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC): Fully implemented
across all 36 States and UTs, this scheme allows migrants to claim
their rations from any Fair Price Shop (FPS) nationwide using
biometric/Aadhaar authentication.
2. Digital and Supply Chain Reforms (2025 Updates)
 SMART-PDS Initiative: Being launched in phases
through December 2025, this scheme aims to modernize the
technological backbone of the PDS through cloud-based systems for
procurement, supply chain tracking, and real-time e-KYC modules.
 Mandatory e-KYC: As of December 25, 2025, the government
has mandated e-KYC for all ration cardholders to remove ineligible
beneficiaries and prevent fraud. Approximately 5.8 crore fake
ration cards have already been removed through digitization.
 Mera Ration 2.0: An upgraded mobile app launched to provide
beneficiaries with real-time updates on their entitlements, nearest
FPS locations, and e-KYC status.
 3. Nutritional and Quality Interventions
 Universal Rice Fortification: All rice supplied through
government schemes (PMGKAY, ICDS, PM POSHAN) is now 100%
fortified with Iron, Folic Acid, and Vitamin B12, a program currently
funded through December 2028.
 Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses: Launched in late 2025
with an allocation of ₹11,440 crore, aiming to increase pulse
production to enhance affordable protein access.
 PM POSHAN: Formerly the Mid-Day Meal scheme, it provides one
nutritious hot meal daily to children in government schools, with a
2024-25 budget of over ₹12,400 crore.
4. Market and Price Stability
 Bharat Brand Products: The government sells subsidized staples
directly to consumers under the labels Bharat Atta, Bharat Rice,
and Bharat Dal to control retail inflation.
 Stock Limits: As recently as December 2025, the government
revised stock limits on wheat for traders and processors to prevent
hoarding and stabilize market prices.
 Price Stabilization Fund (PSF): Used for maintaining buffer
stocks of onions and other essential commodities to intervene
during price volatility.

PDS system
The Public Distribution System (PDS) in India is a government-
run food security initiative administered by the Ministry of Consumer
Affairs, Food, and Public Distribution. It evolved from a wartime
rationing measure in the 1940s into a major rights-based network
 that provides essential food grains to approximately 80.6 crore
(806 million) people as of 2025.
1. Key Components and Entitlements (2025 Status)
Under the National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013, the PDS
covers up to 75% of the rural and 50% of the urban
population.
 Priority Households (PHH): Entitled to 5 kg of food grains per
person per month.
 Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY): Targets the poorest of the poor,
providing 35 kg per household per month.
 Free Rations (2024–2028): Starting January 1, 2024, the
government merged regular NFSA distribution with the Pradhan
Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY) to provide these
grains free of cost for five years, until December 2028.
2. Operational Framework
The system is managed jointly by the Central and State
governments.
 Central Government: Responsible for procurement (via Food
Corporation of India), storage, and bulk transportation of grains to
state-level depots.
 State Governments: Handle the identification of beneficiaries,
issuance of ration cards, and distribution through a network of
over 5.4 lakh Fair Price Shops (FPS).
3. Recent Technological Reforms
 One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC): Allows beneficiaries,
particularly migrant workers, to access their rations from any FPS
in India through biometric authentication.
 SMART-PDS: Launched in 2023 and ongoing through 2025, this
initiative focuses on end-to-end digitalization, including real-time
cloud tracking of stocks and e-KYC for beneficiaries.
 Rice Fortification: As of late 2024, 100% of rice supplied through
PDS is fortified with micronutrients like iron, folic acid, and Vitamin
B12
Challenges or issues ?
1. Significant Leakages and Diversion
Despite the widespread use of electronic Point of Sale (e-PoS)
devices, leakages remain a critical issue.
 Economic Loss: Recent studies estimate that
approximately 28% of food grains (about 20 million metric tonnes)
fail to reach intended beneficiaries, resulting in an annual fiscal loss
of roughly ₹69,100 crore.
 Open Market Diversion: These grains are often diverted during
transportation or sold illegally by dealers in the open market.
2. Targeting Errors and Census Dependency
The identification of beneficiaries is currently flawed due to
outdated data and technical barriers.
 Outdated Population Data: Coverage is still primarily based on
the 2011 Census. With the next census not expected until 2026,
experts estimate that nearly 120 million people who should be
eligible are currently excluded from the PDS net.
 Inclusion/Exclusion Errors: Research indicates that
roughly 61% of eligible households face exclusion errors, while
about 25% of non-eligible households wrongfully receive benefits.
3. Nutritional Inadequacy
The PDS is heavily criticized for its "cereal-centric" focus, which
addresses hunger but not "hidden hunger" or malnutrition.
 Lack of Diversity: The system primarily distributes rice and wheat,
neglecting proteins (pulses) and micronutrients (millets,
vegetables).
 Persistent Malnutrition: Over 35% of children under five remain
stunted, and more than 80% of Indian adolescents experience
micronutrient deficiencies, as the current food basket does not meet
diverse dietary needs.
4. Technological and Infrastructure Gaps
While initiatives like SMART-PDS aim to digitize the system,
implementation faces hurdles.
 Authentication Failures: Many beneficiaries, especially in rural or
remote areas, face denial of rations due to biometric authentication
failures caused by poor internet connectivity or worn-out
fingerprints.
 Storage and Spoilage: Inadequate warehouse infrastructure leads
to the loss of approximately 74 million tonnes of food annually,
often due to pests or improper handling.
5. Fiscal Burden
 The cost of maintaining the PDS has risen significantly, straining
government finances.
 Rising Subsidies: The food subsidy bill for FY2024-25 is budgeted
at ₹2,05,250 crore, which is significantly higher than the total
allocation for all agriculture and allied activities combined.
 Inefficient Allocation: Providing free food to over 800 million
people is seen by some economists as unsustainable, especially
when many of these households may no longer require full subsidies

Committee recommendations related to it

1. Shanta Kumar Committee (2015)
This committee's recommendations remain a cornerstone for
current reform debates, especially regarding the restructuring of the
Food Corporation of India (FCI).
 Reduced Coverage: Recommended narrowing the National Food
Security Act (NFSA) coverage from 67% to 40% of the population to
focus resources on the most vulnerable.
 Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Suggested gradually replacing
physical grain distribution with cash transfers, starting in cities
with populations over 1 million, to save an estimated ₹33,000 crore
annually.
 Decentralized Procurement: Proposed that states with strong
infrastructure (e.g., Punjab, Haryana, Chhattisgarh) should procure
grains directly from farmers, while FCI focuses on states with weak
systems like Bihar and West Bengal.
 Private Participation: Encouraged outsourcing storage and
transportation to the private sector to improve efficiency and reduce
spoilage.
2. Justice Wadhwa Committee (2011)
Appointed by the Supreme Court, this committee focused on
technological interventions to eliminate corruption.
 End-to-End Computerization: Advocated for full digitization of
the supply chain, including GPS-tracked trucks and barcoded food
coupons, to prevent black-marketing.
 Biometric Authentication: Recommended using fingerprint or iris
scanners at Fair Price Shops (FPS) to ensure only genuine
beneficiaries receive rations.
 Food Fortification: Suggested supplying fortified atta (wheat
flour) instead of raw grains to combat widespread anemia and
micronutrient deficiencies.
Other recommendations
 Periodic e-KYC: Mandatory biometric verification for all
beneficiaries every five years to eliminate "ghost" cards.
 Regular List Updates: States must conduct annual reviews of
beneficiary lists to add eligible households and remove those who
no longer meet criteria.

MSP
In 2025, the Minimum Support Price (MSP) continues to serve as
a critical market intervention by the Government of India to protect
agricultural producers against sharp falls in farm prices. It acts as a
"guaranteed floor price," ensuring that farmers receive at least a
minimum remunerative return for their crops, even during periods of
bumper production and market gluts.
1. How MSP Works
MSP functions as an insurance policy for farmers before they even
sow their crops.
 Announcement: The government announces MSP twice a year,
before the Kharif (monsoon) and Rabi (winter) sowing seasons,
providing farmers with a clear indication of expected returns.
 Procurement: If market prices fall below the announced MSP,
government agencies such as the Food Corporation of India
(FCI) and NAFED step in to purchase the produce directly from
farmers at that guaranteed price.
 Voluntary Participation: Farmers are free to sell in the open
market if they can get a higher price elsewhere; the government
only acts as a buyer of last resort to prevent "distress sales".
 Crops Covered: As of 2025, MSP is mandated for 22 crops (7
cereals, 5 pulses, 7 oilseeds, and 3 commercial crops) plus a Fair
and Remunerative Price (FRP) for sugarcane.
2. How MSP is Decided
The decision process involves a detailed economic analysis by
specialized bodies.
 Recommendation Agency: The Commission for Agricultural Costs
and Prices (CACP)—an expert body under the Ministry of Agriculture
—recommends the MSP for each crop.
 Final Authority: The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs
(CCEA), chaired by the Prime Minister, makes the final decision
based on CACP's recommendations.
3. Factors Influencing MSP Calculation
The CACP considers several comprehensive factors while
determining the price:
 Cost of Production: This is the most critical factor. The
government currently follows a policy (since 2018-19) to set MSP
at at least 1.5 times the weighted average cost of production.
 Market Trends: Price movements in both domestic and
international markets.
 Demand and Supply: The current availability and requirement of a
specific crop.
 Inter-crop Price Parity: Ensuring balanced prices between
different crops to encourage diversification (e.g., higher hikes for
pulses to reduce import dependence).
 Consumer Impact: Potential effects on food inflation and the cost
of living.
4. Calculation Formulas
Three primary cost measures are projected by the CACP for every
crop:
 A2: Actual paid-out expenses incurred by the farmer (seeds,
fertilizers, hired labor, fuel, etc.).
 A2+FL: This includes A2 plus the imputed value of unpaid family
labor. The current government uses this as the base for its "1.5
times" calculation.
 C2 (Comprehensive Cost): A more inclusive formula that adds the
rental value of owned land and interest on owned fixed capital to
the A2+FL cost. While the Swaminathan Commission famously
recommended setting MSP at C2 + 50%, this has not yet been
formally adopted as the mandatory benchmark.
1. Key Issues with MSP (2025 Status)
 Limited Reach and Awareness: Only a small fraction of farmers—
historically estimated at roughly 6%—directly benefit from MSP.
 Many small and marginal farmers remain unaware of MSP details or
lack access to procurement centers.
 Regional and Crop Imbalance: Procurement is heavily skewed
toward Northern states (Punjab, Haryana, and parts of MP) and
primarily focuses on paddy and wheat. This leaves farmers in
regions with weak infrastructure, such as the Northeast, at a
disadvantage.
 Ecological Strain: The guaranteed returns on water-intensive
crops like paddy and sugarcane encourage monocropping, leading
to severe groundwater depletion (e.g., a loss of 64.6 billion cubic
meters in Punjab/Haryana between 2003–2020) and soil
degradation.
 Fiscal and Inflationary Pressures: A legal guarantee for all 23
crops could cost the exchequer up to ₹11 lakh crore annually.
Additionally, every 1% increase in MSP can lead to a 15 basis
points rise in overall inflation.
 Market Distortion: Setting a floor price above the market
equilibrium often deters private buyers, forcing the government to
act as the sole purchaser, which strains storage capacities already
facing a 47% shortfall.
2. Major Committee Recommendations
Committees have proposed various paths to balance farmer welfare
with fiscal and ecological sustainability.
 Swaminathan Committee (National Commission on Farmers):
o C2 + 50% Formula: Famously recommended setting MSP at
least 50% higher than the comprehensive cost of
production (C2).
o Regional Expansion: Urged improving implementation
across all regions and expanding MSP to crops beyond just
paddy and wheat.
 Shanta Kumar Committee (2015):
o Income-Based Support: Suggested shifting from price-
based support to direct income-based support to minimize
market distortions.
o Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Advocated for cash
transfers to farmers as an alternative to physical procurement
in certain areas.
 Parliamentary Standing Committee on Agriculture (2024–
2025):
 o Legal Guarantee Roadmap: Recommended that the
government declare a clear roadmap for providing a legal
guarantee for MSP to ensure farmers are not exploited by
middlemen.
o PM-KISAN Increase: Suggested doubling the PM-KISAN
incentive to ₹12,000 per annum and extending it to tenant
farmers and laborers.
 NITI Aayog and Economic Survey:
o Price Deficiency Payment (PDP): Have consistently
recommended a "deficiency payment" model (like Madhya
Pradesh’s Bhavantar Bhugtan Yojana) where the government
pays farmers only the difference between the market price
and the MSP, avoiding the need for physical procurement.

FCI role in food security

Food Corporation of India (FCI) serves as the central agency for
India's food security, managing one of the world's largest supply
chains to ensure food is available, accessible, and affordable.
1. Core Functions in Food Security
FCI fulfills three main objectives mandated by the national food
policy:
 Procurement at MSP: It purchases food grains (primarily wheat
and rice) directly from farmers at the Minimum Support Price
(MSP). This protects farmers from price volatility and ensures they
receive remunerative returns.
 Buffer Stock Management: It maintains strategic reserves (buffer
stocks) to ensure national food security during lean seasons, natural
calamities, or supply disruptions.
 Public Distribution System (PDS): FCI is the "bedrock" of the
PDS, transporting grains from surplus states to deficit regions and
making them available to state governments for distribution through
Fair Price Shops.
Recent Technological Reforms
To enhance transparency and reduce leakages, FCI has
implemented several digital initiatives by late 2025:
 Smart Warehouses: The government is converting 150 owned
depots into "smart warehouses" on a pilot basis to modernize
storage.
 AI Integration: Use of AI-powered Automatic Grain
Analyzers has been introduced to ensure quality and transparency
during procurement.
 Real-time Tracking: Systems like the Vehicle Location Tracking
System (VLTS) and GPS-equipped trucks monitor movement to
prevent theft during transit.
 Fortification: To improve nutritional security, FCI facilitated the
distribution of 323.57 LMT of fortified rice through the PDS in
FY2024-25
Supporting Welfare Schemes
FCI provides the logistical backbone for major social safety nets:
 PMGKAY: Since January 2024, FCI has enabled the free
distribution of food grains to over 80 crore beneficiaries under the
Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana, a commitment extended
until 2028.
 Specialized Allocation: It supplies grains for other schemes
including the Mid-Day Meal (PM-POSHAN), ICDS for women and
children, and charitable institutions.

Current storage capacity in india for foodgrains

Current Storage Capacity (2025 Status)
India currently faces a significant gap between its record food
production and its permanent scientific storage infrastructure.
 Total Capacity (FCI & State Agencies): As of late 2025, the
combined covered and CAP (Cover and Plinth) storage capacity
for central pool grains stands at approximately 917.83 Lakh
Metric Tonnes (LMT).
 FCI-Specific Capacity: The Food Corporation of India (FCI) alone
manages a total capacity of over 482 LMT across more than 2,500
godowns as of November 2025.
 Scientific Gap: Total scientific storage capacity is estimated at
roughly 145 million metric tonnes (MMT), leaving a shortfall of
about 166 MMT against a record production of 353.96 MMT in the
2024-25 cy
Storage in India is categorized by the level of technology and the
agency managing the stocks.
A. Centralized Government Storage
 Covered Godowns: The most common scientific method, where
bags are stacked in large, permanent, damp-proof warehouses.
 Steel Silos: The most modern method. These are large, vertical,
airtight metal containers with mechanized bulk handling. As of mid-
2025, roughly 27–29 LMT of silo capacity is operational, with an
aim to reach 90 LMT in the coming years.
 CAP (Cover and Plinth) Storage: A temporary outdoor storage
method where bags are placed on a raised brick platform (plinth)
and covered with 800–1000 gauge polyethylene sheets. While
scientific, it is highly vulnerable to rain and pests and is primarily
used during harvest gluts in states like Punjab and Haryana.
B. Decentralized and Cooperative Storage
 PACS Godowns: Under the "World's Largest Grain Storage
Plan in Cooperative Sector" launched in 2023, India is
establishing 500 MT to 2,000 MT capacity godowns at the level
of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS).
 Rural Godowns: Supported by schemes like the Gramin
Bhandaran Yojana, these are private or cooperative warehouses
located closer to farms to prevent distress sales.
C. Traditional On-Farm Storage (60-70% of total)
Small farmers still store the majority of their harvest using
indigenous methods:
 Traditional Bins: Mud and earthen structures (Kothi), bamboo
structures (Kanaja/Gummi), and underground pits.
 Modern Small-Scale Bins: Improved designs like the Pusa
Bin (which uses a polyethylene film for airtightness) and
metal/baked clay bins are increasingly replacing traditional mud
structures.
 Hermetic Bags: Airtight bags that prevent pest growth by
depriving them of oxygen are gaining popularity for long-term on-
farm seed storage.

What are some modern storage systems

Steel Silos (Bulk Storage)
Silos are currently the gold standard for bulk grain storage in India,
with the government aiming to add 100 LMT (Lakh Metric
Tonnes) of silo capacity by the end of 2025 via Public-Private
Partnerships (PPP).
 How they work: Grains are stored vertically in airtight galvanized
steel cylinders.
 Key Advantages:
o Automation: Loading and unloading are fully mechanized,
reducing manual labor and the need for jute bags.
o Longevity: Grains can be stored for up to 3 years with
minimal quality loss, compared to 6-12 months in traditional
godowns.
o Space Efficiency: Occupies 1/10th the land required for a
traditional warehouse of the same capacity.
2. Hermetic Storage (Airtight Technology)
Increasingly used at the village level and by Primary Agricultural
Credit Societies (PACS), this method uses "modified atmospheres."
 How it works: Grains are placed in specialized multi-layered plastic
bags (like PICS bags) or containers that are completely airtight.
 Key Advantages:
o Natural Pest Control: The respiration of the grain and
insects quickly uses up oxygen and increases carbon dioxide,
which naturally suffocates pests without the use of
chemical fumigants like aluminum phosphide.
o Moisture Control: Prevents the grain from absorbing
humidity from the air, stopping the growth of toxic molds
(aflatoxins).
3. Integrated Cold Chain & CA Storage
Primarily used for "Operation Greens" crops (Tomato, Onion, Potato)
and fruits, Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage is more
advanced than basic refrigeration.
 How it works: In addition to temperature and humidity, these
facilities precisely control the levels of Oxygen, Nitrogen, and
Carbon Dioxide.
 Key Advantages: It "puts the produce to sleep" by slowing down
its metabolic rate, extending the shelf life of apples or onions from
weeks to several months.
4. Smart Warehouses (IoT & AI)
Under the SMART-PDS and WDRA (Warehousing Development and
Regulatory Authority) initiatives in 2025, physical godowns are
being upgraded with digital "nervous systems."
 Sensors: Real-time monitoring of temperature, humidity, and CO2
levels via IoT (Internet of Things) sensors that alert managers to
"hotspots" before spoilage occurs.
 AI Quality Analysis: AI-powered cameras and spectral analyzers
(like those used at FCI procurement centers) can instantly check
moisture content and grain quality without human bias.
 Blockchain Integration: Provides a "digital twin" of the stock,
ensuring that the grain stored is the same grain delivered, virtually
eliminating "ghost stocks" or illegal diversion.
5. Dehydrated/Frozen Storage
For high-value perishables, modern systems are shifting
toward Individual Quick Freezing (IQF) and Vacuum Freeze
Drying. These technologies preserve the nutritional profile and
taste for over a year, allowing the government to release buffer
stocks of vegetables during price spikes (e.g., the 2024-25 onion
price volatility)

Integrated cold chain management

Integrated Cold Chain Management (ICCM) is defined as an
uninterrupted series of refrigerated production, storage, and
distribution activities designed to maintain the quality and shelf-life
of perishable products (like fruits, vegetables, dairy, and
pharmaceuticals) from the "farm gate to the consumer’s plate."
Unlike traditional cold storage, which is a standalone warehouse,
an integrated chain ensures there is no "break" in the
temperature-controlled environment at any point in the logistics
cycle.
1. How It Works: The Five Essential Links
For a cold chain to be truly integrated, it must function as a
seamless 2025-standard "thermal corridor":
 Pre-Cooling & Processing: Immediately after harvest, the "field
heat" is removed from the produce. This is the most critical step; for
every hour of delay in cooling, a product can lose a day of shelf life.
Modern centers use Vacuum Cooling or Hydro-cooling for rapid
temperature drops.
 Cold Storage (Primary & Secondary): Products are stored in
temperature-controlled warehouses. In 2025, these use Multi-
Chamber Systems where different rooms are set to different
 temperatures (e.g., 2°C for leafy greens and 12°C for bananas)
within the same facility.
 Refrigerated Transport (Reefer Trucks): Specialized trucks or
rail wagons equipped with active refrigeration units. By late 2025,
many of these are Electric Reefer Vehicles or use Eutectic
Plates (cold-storing gels) to maintain temperatures without running
the engine constantly.
 Distribution Hubs & Ripening Chambers: Specialized centers
where products like mangoes or bananas are ripened using
controlled ethylene gas before being sent to retailers.
 Retail Cold Storage: The final link, consisting of display cabinets
in supermarkets or specialized "last-mile" delivery bags used by
quick-commerce apps (like Blinkit or Zepto).
The Role of Technology (The "Smart" Cold Chain)
As of 2025, the integration is held together by digital infrastructure:
 IoT Real-Time Monitoring: Sensors in trucks and warehouses
transmit live data to a central dashboard. If a truck door is left open
or a cooling unit fails, an automated alert is sent to prevent
spoilage.
 Blockchain for Traceability: Consumers can scan a QR code on a
milk carton or apple to see its entire temperature history, ensuring
the cold chain was never broken.
 AI-Driven Demand Forecasting: AI helps managers decide which
products to move first based on their "remaining shelf life," a
practice known as FEFO (First-Expired, First-Out) instead of the
traditional FIFO (First-In, First-Out).
Benefits of Integrated Management
 Reduction in Food Waste: India currently loses about 15–20% of
its fruits and vegetables due to poor cooling; an integrated chain
can reduce this to below 5%.
 Price Stabilization: It allows for the creation of buffer stocks (like
the 2024-25 onion reserves), which can be released during
shortages to prevent price spikes.
 Increased Farmer Income: Farmers can sell their produce to
distant, high-value markets (including exports) rather than being
forced to sell locally at low prices before the crop rots.
 The Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI) provides financial
assistance under the Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana
(PMKSY). The scheme offers grants of up to ₹10 crore per
project to private entrepreneurs and cooperatives to set up these
integrated facilities.

Issues
Significant Infrastructure Deficits
 Capacity Gap: India faces a cold storage deficit of
approximately 30 to 35 million metric tonnes.
 Fragmentation: Over 90% of cold chain facilities are privately
owned and isolated, leading to a lack of standardization and poor
coordination across the supply chain.
 Mobile Infrastructure Shortage: Less than 1% of India's goods
vehicles are refrigerated (reefers), causing up to 30–40%
spoilage during transit.
 Component Imbalance: While cold storage capacity exists,
essential links like farm-gate pre-coolers, pack-houses, and ripening
chambers are severely lacking.
2. High Operational and Financial Barriers
 Cost of Operation: Running cold storage in India costs
roughly $60 per cubic meter, double the cost in Western countries
($30), primarily due to high fuel and electricity prices.
 Power Reliability: Inconsistent electricity supply, especially in
rural areas, forces companies to invest heavily in expensive power
backups. Power outages often lead to temperature fluctuations that
spoil entire batches of produce.
 Capital Intensity: High initial investment costs (minimum ₹50
million for a cold storage unit) often deter small farmers and
startups from participating in integrated schemes.
3. Geographical and Commodity Imbalance
 Regional Skew: Nearly 60% to 77% of India's cold storage
capacity is concentrated in just four or five states (Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal, Gujarat, and Punjab/Haryana), leaving eastern and
northeastern states largely underserved.
 Potato Dominance: Historically, approximately 65% to 70% of
cold storage space is utilized solely for potatoes, limiting the
 availability of multi-commodity facilities for other fruits, vegetables,
and dairy.
4. Technical and Skill Gaps
 Low Technology Adoption: Most units still use outdated insulation
and manual monitoring systems. Advancements like IoT-based
real-time tracking, AI logistics, and blockchain are only utilized by
a few major players.
 Workforce Deficit: There is a severe shortage of trained
personnel; only about 10% of the estimated 1.4 million workers
needed for cold chain operations are adequately trained.
 Information Silos: A lack of unified databases across ministries
hinders effective cold chain planning and real-time data
transparency.
5. Exclusion of Smallholders
 Farmer Access: Small and marginal farmers, who make up 86% of
households, often lack the volume or bargaining power to access
high-cost integrated chains, leading to continued distress sales

PM kisan sampada yojana and integrated cold chain

The scheme's main goal is to minimize post-harvest losses and

ensure remunerative prices for farmers. It provides end-to-end
solutions for perishable commodities including dairy, meat, poultry,
marine (except shrimp), and non-horticulture produce.
 Horticulture Shift: Fruits and vegetables were moved under
the Operation Greens component in 2022 to specialize supply
chain stabilization for those crops.
 Mandatory Links: To qualify for funding under the May 2025
guidelines, projects must set up Farm Level Infrastructure
(FLI) and connect it with either a Distribution Hub (DH) or
refrigerated/insulated transport.
2. Financial Assistance and Budget
The government significantly increased support for this sector in
late 2025:
 Total Outlay: In July 2025, the Union Cabinet approved an
additional ₹1,920 crore for PMKSY, raising the total allocation
to ₹6,520 crore for the current cycle (ending March 2026).
 Grants: The scheme provides a grant-in-aid of 35% of the eligible
project cost in general areas and 50% in difficult areas (North East,
Himalayas) and for SC/ST, FPOs, and SHGs, capped at ₹10 crore
per project.
 Irradiation Support: A specific ₹500 crore (or up to ₹1,000 crore
in some estimates) has been earmarked within the budget to
establish 50 Multi-Product Food Irradiation Units.
3. Operational Infrastructure Components
An integrated project under PMKSY typically includes:
 Farm Level Infrastructure: Pre-cooling units, weighing, sorting,
grading, and waxing facilities.
 Processing Centers: Facilities for IQF (Individual Quick Freezing),
blast freezing, and packaging.
 Distribution Hubs: Multi-product/multi-temperature cold storages
or Controlled Atmosphere (CA) storage.
 Logistics: Refrigerated vans, insulated trucks, or mobile tankers.
4. Impact and Progress (December 2025)
 Project Count: As of December 2025, approximately 404
projects have been approved, with 300 projects already
completed and operational.
 Capacity Created: Completed projects have generated an annual
preservation capacity of 25.52 Lakh Metric Tonnes (LMT) and a
processing capacity of 114.66 LMT.
 Employment: The scheme has generated an estimated 1.74 lakh
jobs since its inception.

Micro irrigation
 Micro irrigation is a modern method of irrigation; by this method
water is irrigated through drippers, sprinklers, foggers and by other
emitters on surface or subsurface of the land. Micro-irrigation is a
highly efficient method of watering crops by delivering water
directly to the root zone via emitters like drippers or micro-
sprinklers, significantly reducing water waste from evaporation and
runoff compared to traditional irrigation.
 Major components of a micro irrigation system is as follows.
 Water source, pumping devices (motor and pump), ball valves,
fertigation equipments, filters, control valves, PVC joining
accessories (Main and sub main) and emitters.
 In this system water is applied drop by drop nearer the root zone
area of the crop.
The drippers are fixed based on the spacing of crop. Many different
types of emitters are available in the market. They are classified as
Inline drippers, on line drippers, Micro tubes, Pressed compensated
drippers.
 Drip irrigation is most suitable for wider spacing crops. Micro
sprinkler irrigation system is mostly followed in sandy or loamy
soils. This system is most suitable to horticultural crops and small
grasses. In this method water is sprinkled in a lower height at
various directions.
 Portable micro sprinklers are also available. They distribute slightly
more water than drippers and micro sprinklers. They spray water in
not more than one meter. It is used for preparing nursery and lawns
in soils with low water holding capacity.
Advantages of drip irrigation system
 Water saving and higher yield
 High quality and increased fruit size
 Suitable for all types of soil
 Easy method of fertigation and chemigation
 Saving in labour and field preparation cost
Disadvantage of drip irrigation system
 High initial investment
 Clogging of emitters
 Possible damage of system components due to animals, etc.,

Types of Micro-Irrigation Systems

 Drip Irrigation: Water is applied drop-by-drop near the root zone
using emitters (drippers) placed on tubes, ideal for wider-spaced
crops.
 Micro-Sprinklers: Sprinkles water in a low-height spray, suitable
for horticultural crops, lawns, and sandy soils.
 Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI): Drip lines are placed
underground for maximum water efficiency.
 Portable Kits: Simple systems like bucket or drum kits for home
gardens and small farms, often gravity-fed.
Adopting micro-irrigation systems offers huge benefits
like significant water savings (30-90%), increased crop yields
(20-40%+), reduced energy and labor costs, and efficient fertilizer
use through fertigation, leading to higher farmer income and overall
sustainability by delivering water directly to roots, minimizing
waste, and controlling weeds/diseases.
Key Benefits:
 Water Conservation: Dramatically reduces water loss from
evaporation, runoff, and deep percolation, making it ideal for water-
scarce regions.
 Higher Crop Yields & Quality: Direct root-zone application
ensures plants get precise water, improving health, growth, and the
quality of produce.
 Cost Reduction: Lowers expenses on water pumping (energy
savings), fertilizers (efficient fertigation), and labor for weeding and
irrigation.
 Weed & Disease Control: Keeps soil between plants dry,
inhibiting weed growth and reducing fungal diseases.
 Energy Efficiency: Less water pumped means lower electricity
consumption.
 Improved Soil Health: Prevents soil erosion and nutrient leaching.
 Adaptable: Works well on varied terrains, soil types, and even with
mild saline water, unlike traditional methods.
 Precision Farming: Enables automated, site-specific application of
water and nutrients, boosting overall farm efficiency.
 Increased Income: Higher yields and lower input costs directly
translate to increased net profits for farmers.

Issues
Micro-irrigation faces challenges like high initial costs,
complex maintenance (clogging emitters, filter cleaning), need
for reliable electricity, and poor farmer awareness/training,
hindering adoption, especially for small farmers. Other issues
include delays in government subsidies, ensuring water quality,
 managing potential groundwater overuse, and fitting the technology
to diverse crops and farm sizes, making sustained scaling difficult
despite benefits.
Economic & Financial Hurdles
 High Initial Investment: The upfront cost of setting up systems is
a major deterrent for most farmers, notes Drishti IAS, theIAShub,
and INSIGHTS IAS.
 Subsidy Issues: Delays in subsidy processing and eligibility criteria
(like land ownership) often exclude small and marginal farmers,
say Drishti IAS and India Water Portal.
 Low Farm Income: Small landholdings and meager incomes make
affording even subsidized systems difficult for many, according to
Drishti IAS and India Water Portal.
Technical & Operational Issues
 Clogging: Mineral deposits, algae, bacteria, and even roots can
block emitters, requiring regular cleaning (chlorination/acid) or
replacement, notes Land-Grant Press and Green Business
Benchmark.
 Power Supply: Unreliable electricity affects timely water delivery,
notes ForumIAS.
 Filtration Needs: Filters also get clogged and need maintenance,
as explained in Land-Grant Press.
 Crop Suitability: Less effective or unsuited for certain crops like
paddy, notes [Link].
Management & Awareness Gaps
 Lack of Awareness: Inadequate location-specific information on
irrigation and fertigation scheduling limits uptake, says theIAShub.
 Water Quality: Using contaminated water with high minerals or
pollutants can exacerbate clogging and contaminate groundwater,
notes Envirobiotech Journals.
 Over-irrigation Risk: Poor management can still lead to excessive
groundwater use, as discussed in Envirobiotech Journals
[Link]

DRIP IRRIGATION
Drip irrigation, or trickle irrigation, is a highly efficient method that
delivers water and nutrients slowly and directly to a plant's root
 zone via a network of pipes and emitters, minimizing waste from
evaporation and runoff. This technique uses low flow rates, precisely
controlling soil moisture to promote optimal plant growth, improve
crop yield and quality, reduce weed growth, and save water, labor,
and energy compared to traditional methods.
Types of Drip Systems
 Surface Drip: Emitters placed on the soil surface.
 Sub-Surface Drip (SDI): Tubing buried below the surface for even
greater water saving.
Components of drip system
Major Components of Drip Irrigation System
 Pump station takes water from the source and provides the right
pressure for delivery into the pipe system.
 Control valves control the discharge and pressure in the entire
system.
 Filtration system cleans the water. Common types of filter include
screen filters and graded sand filters which remove fine material
suspended in the water.
 Fertilizer tank/venturi slowly add a measured dose of fertilizer
into the water during irrigation. This is one of the major advantages
of drip irrigation over other methods.
 Mainlines, submains and laterals supply water from the control
head into the fields. They are usually made from PVC or
polyethylene hose and should be buried below ground because they
easily degrade when exposed to direct solar radiation. Lateral pipes
are usually 13-32 mm diameter.
 Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of
water from the lateral to the plants. They are usually spaced more
than 1 metre apart with one or more emitters used for a single plant
such as a tree. For row crops more closely spaced emitters may be
used to wet a strip of soil. Many different emitter designs have been
produced in recent years. The basis of design is to produce an
emitter which will provide a specified constant discharge which does
not vary much with pressure changes, and does not block easily.
 By-pass assembly
 Pressure gauge
 Micro tubes
 Wetting pattern in drip irrigation
Unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation only wets part
of the soil root zone. This may be as, low as 30% of the volume of
soil wetted by the other methods. The wetting patterns which
develop from dripping water onto the soil depend on discharge and
soil type. Figure 64 shows the effect of changes in discharge on two
different soil types, namely sand and clay.
Crops suitable for Drip Irrigation System

Grapes, Banana, Pomegranate, Orange, Citrus, Mango, Lemon, Custard Ap

1. Orchard Crops
Cashewnut, Papaya, Aonla, Litchi, Watermelon, Muskmelon etc.

Tomato, Chilly, Capsicum, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Onion, Okra, Brinjal, Bitte

2. Vegetables
Spinach, Pumpkin etc.

3. Cash Crops Sugarcane, Cotton. Arecanut, Strawberry etc.

4. Flowers Rose, Carnation, Gerbera, Anthurium, Orchids, Jasmine, Dahilia, Marigold e

5. Plantation Tea, Rubber, Coffee, Coconut etc.

6. Spices Turmeric, Cloves, Mint etc,

7. Oil Seed Sunflower, Oil palm, Groundnut etc.

8. Forest Crops Teakwood, Bamboo etc.

Benefits of drip Irrigation

 Increase in yield up to 230 %.
 Saves water up to 70% compare to flood irrigation. More land can be
irrigated with the water thus saved.
 Crop grows consistently, healthier and matures fast.
 Early maturity results in higher and faster returns on investment.
 Fertilizer use efficiency increases by 30%.
 Cost of fertilizers, inter-culturing and labour use gets reduced.
  Fertilizer and Chemical Treatment can be given through Micro
Irrigation System itself.
 Undulating terrains, Saline, Water logged, Sandy & Hilly lands can
also be brought under productive cultivation.
Water conservation through drip
Water is conserved in the following ways:
 Drip irrigation application uniformity is very high, usually over 90%.
 Unlike sprinklers, drip irrigation applies water directly to the soil,
eliminating water loss from wind.
 Application rates are low so water may be spoon fed to the crop or
plant root zone in the exact amounts required (even on a daily or
hourly basis). In contrast, other methods entail higher water
application quantities and less frequency. If young plants need
water frequently, much of the water applied is often wasted to deep
percolation or runoff.
 Low application rates are less likely to run off from heavier soils or
sloping terrain
Issues with drip irrigation
Drip irrigation's main issues include high initial cost, susceptibility to
clogging from particles/salts, vulnerability to sun/animal damage, and
complex management requiring good water quality and filtration, leading
to potential soil salinity buildup if not properly managed, all demanding
regular maintenance and skill for optimal performance.
Cost & Installation
 High upfront cost: More expensive than traditional methods.
 Installation complexity: Requires careful design, planning, and
potentially high skill for setup.
Maintenance & Clogging
 Emitter clogging: Small openings easily blocked by sediment,
algae, mineral buildup (iron, calcium), or bacteria, requiring filters
and regular flushing.
 Leaks & breaks: Tubes can leak or break, leading to water waste.
 Wear & tear: UV light, sun, and rodents can damage plastic lines,
shortening lifespan.
Water & Soil Issues
  Water quality dependency: Poor water quality (high salts,
minerals) exacerbates clogging and salinity.
 Soil salinity hazard: High efficiency can lead to salt accumulation
at the wetting front, harming roots without sufficient leaching.
 Non-uniform distribution: Pressure variations can cause patchy
water delivery.
Operational Limitations
 Limited flow: Lower pressure can restrict water flow for high-
demand crops or large areas.
 Skill requirement: Demands higher skill for management
compared to other systems.
 Activation issues: Can't activate top-dressed fertilizers or
herbicides that need sprinkler action.
Other Disadvantages
 Root intrusion: Roots can grow into emitters, blocking them.
 Machinery damage: Heavy equipment can damage surface lines.

Key government intervention related to it

 Per Drop More Crop' (PDMC): This is the core component focused
on micro-irrigation. It promotes the adoption of drip and sprinkler
irrigation systems to maximize water use efficiency at the farm
level.
o Financial Assistance: The scheme offers substantial
subsidies to farmers for installing micro-irrigation systems.
o 55% of the cost for small and marginal farmers.
o 45% of the cost for other farmers.
o The funding pattern between Central and State
Governments is generally in a 60:40 ratio for most
states, but higher central assistance (90:10) is provided
for North Eastern and Himalayan states.
o Implementation: From 2022-23, the PDMC scheme is
implemented under the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY).
 Micro Irrigation Fund (MIF): A dedicated fund with an initial
corpus of ₹5,000 crore (later to be doubled to ₹10,000 crore as per
the 2021-22 budget announcement) has been created with
the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD).
 States can access loans from this fund at a reduced interest rate to
expand micro-irrigation coverage beyond the standard PDMC
provisions.
 'Sahi Fasal' Campaign: The National Water Mission launched this
campaign in 2019 to encourage farmers in water-stressed areas to
adopt less water-intensive and more water-efficient crops,
promoting awareness of micro-irrigation techniques.
Key Measures & Support Mechanisms
 Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Financial assistance to
beneficiaries is provided through the DBT mechanism to ensure
transparency.
 Technical Assistance & Training: The Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)
provide training, conduct field demonstrations, and offer advisories
on efficient water management, precision farming, and the proper
use of drip irrigation systems and fertigation.
 Focus on Water Conservation: The schemes emphasize an
integrated approach including rainwater harvesting ("Jal Sanchay"
and "Jal Sinchan") and the use of modern technologies like
underground pipelines and automated monitoring to reduce water
losses and improve efficiency.
 Cluster Approach: States are encouraged to prioritize the
implementation of micro-irrigation through a cluster-based approach
(e.g., 50 hectares and above in mainland states) to ensure effective
integration of water sources, distribution, and application.

Bamboo drip irrigation system

Dating back 200 years, tribes in northeast India have used bamboo
drip irrigation as a means of bringing water to seasonal crops. This
timeless and traditional technology uses locally available material
while harnessing the forces of gravity. An assortment of holed
bamboo shoots zig-zag downhill, diverting the natural flow of
streams and springs across terraced cropland. The advantages of
using bamboo are two-fold: it prevents leakage, increasing crop
yield with less water, and makes use of natural, local, and
inexpensive material.
The Jaintia, Khasi, and Garo hills of Meghalaya are largely made up
of steep slopes and generally rocky terrain where the soil has low
water retention capacity and where the use of groundwater
 channels is impossible. During the dry seasons, rainfed crops such
as paddy, betal leaf, and black peppers can be irrigated by bamboo
drip irrigation.
Within the Jainta hills, the small village of Nongbah relies on terrace
agriculture for paddy cultivation. There are no restrictions for
individuals tapping into water flows from perennial streams, natural
springs, or collection ponds. This enables farmers, nearly 97% of the
population, to cultivate paddy, betal leaf, and black peppers in
seasonal rotations. Meanwhile, drinking needs are met by perennial
springs during the dry months, from October to March.
Only during the winter is irrigation required, and the bamboo system
is used for crops that need relatively less water.
The few materials needed are a small dao (a type of local axe),
bamboo strands of various sizes, forked branches, smaller bamboo
shoots used for the channel diversions, and two willing laborers. A.
Singh, in his book Bamboo Drip Irrigation Systems, investigated its
use in Meghalaya and says that two workers can construct a system
covering one hectare of land in 15 days. About four or five stages of
irrigation zig-zag from the water source to the last point of
application. Along the way, 18-20 liters of water will eventually
disseminate at a rate of 20-80 drops per minute.

Sprinkler Irrigation System

Sprinkler irrigation system allows application of water under high
pressure with the help of a pump. It releases water similar to rainfall
through a small diameter nozzle placed in the pipes. Water is
distributed through a system of pipes, sprayed into air and irrigates
in most of the soil type due to wide range of discharge capacity.
Advantages
 Eliminates water conveyance channels, thereby reducing
conveyance loss.
 Suitable in all types of soil except heavy clay.
 Water saving up to 30% - 50 %.
 Suitable for irrigation where the plant population per unit area is
very high.
 Helps to increase yield.
  Reduces soil compaction.
 Mobility of system helps system operation easy.
 Suitable for undulating land.
 Saves land as no bunds required.
 Soluble fertilizers and chemicals use are possible.

Major Components of Sprinkler Irrigation System

1 Pumping station or Header Assembly 2 By-pass valve

3 Fertilizer tank 4 Filtration system

5 Pressure gauges 6 Control valves

7 HDPE / PVC Pipes 8 QRC Pump connector

9 Sprinkler Nozzles 10 Service Saddle

 Provides frost protection & helps in alteration of micro climate.

 Reduces labour cost.
A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following
components:
1. Pump unit
2. Mainline and sometimes sub-mainlines
3. Laterals
4. Sprinklers

5. Types of Sprinklers Based on Precipitation

6.
Precipitation Rate
Type of Sprinkler
(mm per hour)

Low Volume Sprinkler Less than 13

Medium Volume Sprinkler 13 - 25

Large Volume Sprinkler(Raingun) Above 25

 MIXED FARMING
Mixed farming is an agricultural system where a farmer grows
crops and raises livestock on the same farm simultaneously. It is a
multi-purpose practice that integrates activities like cattle rearing,
poultry, beekeeping, and fisheries to maximize resource efficiency
and provide a sustainable livelihood
Advantages of Mixed Farming
1. Risk Mitigation: By diversifying into both crops and livestock,
farmers are protected from total income loss if one enterprise fails
due to pests, disease, or unfavorable weather.
2. Resource Efficiency: Waste products are recycled internally; crop
residues (like straw or stalks) are used as animal feed, while animal
manure is returned to the soil as natural fertilizer.
3. Soil Fertility Improvement: Regular application of organic
manure from livestock enhances soil health, structure, and water
retention, reducing the need for expensive chemical fertilizers.
4. Steady Income Stream: Unlike seasonal crop harvesting, livestock
products like milk, eggs, and meat provide a continuous and more
stable cash flow throughout the year.
5. Environmental Sustainability: The system promotes biodiversity,
reduces chemical pollution, and helps control soil erosion through
diverse land use and natural nutrient cycling.
6. Labor Optimization: It ensures the farm family remains occupied
year-round, as livestock requires care even during off-seasons for
crops.
7. Enhanced Food Security: A single farm produces a variety of
nutrient-rich foods (grains, vegetables, milk, meat), improving the
household's overall diet.
it presents significant operational, economic, and technical
challenges for farmers in 2025.
1. Operational & Management Challenges
 High Workload and Complexity: Farmers must manage diverse
tasks simultaneously, including crop cycles and animal husbandry.
This intensive labor often leads to fatigue and burnout.
 Specialized Knowledge Requirements: Successful mixed
farming requires expertise in multiple areas, such as veterinary care
for livestock and agronomy for various crops. A lack of these
specialized skills is a major barrier to effective management.
 Labor Shortages: As rural populations decline due to urbanization,
finding skilled workers capable of handling multi-faceted farm duties
has become increasingly difficult.
2. Economic & Financial Barriers
 High Initial Capital Investment: Starting a mixed farm requires
significant upfront costs for purchasing livestock, specialized
machinery, fencing, and diverse seed types.
 Reduced Economies of Scale: Because resources (land, time,
money) must be divided among different ventures, farmers cannot
produce single crops in the massive volumes seen in large-scale
monoculture, often resulting in higher per-unit production costs.
 Market Vulnerability: Farmers must navigate and find buyers for
multiple types of products (e.g., meat, milk, and various grains).
Oversupply in any one of these markets can lead to low prices and
financial instability.
3. Biological & Environmental Risks
 Disease and Pest Management: Diseases can sometimes spread
more easily between animals and crops in a confined mixed system.
Monitoring both is time-consuming and costly.
 Resource Competition: Different crops or livestock may compete
for the same limited resources, such as land, water, and nutrients,
which can negatively impact overall productivity if not perfectly
balanced.
 Methane Emissions: While mixed farming reduces synthetic
fertilizer use, livestock (particularly cattle) still contribute
significant enteric methane emissions, which remain a major
environmental challenge for the sector.
4. Structural & Technical Issues
 Land Fragmentation: In regions like India, small and fragmented
landholdings (often less than 1.2 hectares) make it difficult to
implement the necessary infrastructure or mechanization for a
diverse mixed system.
  Technological Gap: There is a significant "digital divide" in 2025.
Many smallholder farmers lack the capital or training to adopt
modern tools like AI-based soil advice, automated feeding
systems, or precision irrigation that would make mixed farming
more efficient.
 Inadequate Infrastructure: Lack of cold chain storage and poor
rural road networks can lead to high post-harvest losses, especially
for perishable mixed farm products like milk and vegetables.

Case study:-
Samba district of Jammu demonstrated the benefits of combining
horticulture with field crops and livestock.
 The Model: Farmers grew citrus fruits alongside intercrops like
wheat and Indian mustard, integrated with goat rearing.
 Synergy: The manure from goats and fertilizers for intercrops
improved the soil fertility for the citrus trees.
 Economic Benefit: The citrus fruit yield increased by up
to 36% after three years of this integrated practice. The highly
profitable "Maize–Wheat–Fruit–Goat" system yielded net returns of
approximately ₹2.1 lakh, with a high system profitability of ₹576
per day.

Livestock
20th Livestock Census (2019)
 total livestock population of 536.76 million, reflecting
a 4.8% increase over the 2012 figures
 cattle – 193 ;buffalo – 109 ; goat – 148
 up>rj>mp in livestock population

livestock refers to domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting

to produce labor and essential commodities like milk, meat, and wool. In
India, this includes cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry.
The livestock sector has emerged as a robust "sunrise sector," growing
significantly faster than crop production
 Gross Value Added (GVA):
 o Agricultural GVA: Livestock contributes
approximately 31% to India's total agriculture and allied
sector GVA as of late 2025. This is a major increase from
roughly 24% in 2014-15.
o National GVA: The sector accounts for about 5.5% of the
total national GVA at current prices.
 Employment & Livelihoods:
o The sector provides employment to approximately 8.8% of
India's population.
o Over 20.5 million people depend directly on livestock for
their livelihood, with two-thirds of the rural community relying
on it for support.
o It is a key driver of gender equity, as women meet more
than 75% of the labor demand in livestock production.
 Global Market Leadership:
o Milk: India is the world's largest producer, contributing
nearly 24.8% of global milk production.
o Eggs: India ranks 2nd globally in egg production.
o Meat: India ranks 4th globally in total meat production and
is a leading exporter of buffalo, sheep, and goat meat.
 Rural Socio-Economic Impact:
o Income Stability: Livestock provides a steady, year-round
income stream, acting as a "moving bank" that farmers can
sell during emergencies like crop failures or medical
exigencies.
o Export Earnings: Total livestock product exports reached
approximately ₹66,249 crore in 2024-25, primarily driven by
bovine meat and dairy products.
o Agricultural Synergy: Livestock provide organic manure,
which reduces dependence on chemical fertilizers and
enhances soil fertility, supporting sustainable "mixed farming"
practices
livestock remains the backbone of the Indian rural economy, serving
as a critical source of income, nutrition, and social security for over 20.5
million people. Contributing approximately 31% to the Agriculture
GVA and 5.5% to the national GVA, the sector is a primary engine of
rural development and poverty alleviation.
Role in the Rural Economy
  Income Stability: Unlike seasonal crops, livestock provide a
steady, daily income through the sale of milk, eggs, and meat.
 "Moving Bank": Animals act as a living asset or capital that
farmers can sell during emergencies (e.g., medical crises or
weddings), providing essential financial resilience.
 Employment: The sector provides livelihood to two-thirds of the
rural community and is a major employer of less literate or
unskilled labor during lean agricultural seasons.
 Social Security: Owning prized animals (like pedigreed bulls or
high-yielding cows) enhances a farmer's social status and self-
esteem within the village community.
Advantages
 Women Empowerment: Over 75% of the labor in livestock
production is provided by women, giving them financial
independence and a stronger voice in household decision-making.
 Nutritional Security: Livestock directly provide high-quality
animal protein (milk, eggs, meat) to the farm family, combating
rural malnutrition.
 Integrated Sustainability: Livestock produce organic manure
(dung), which reduces the need for expensive chemical fertilizers,
improves soil health, and can be used as a clean energy source via
biogas.
 Resource Efficiency: In mixed farming systems, animals consume
crop residues that would otherwise be wasted or burned, converting
them into valuable protein and labor (draught power).
Disadvantages & Challenges
 Low Productivity: Despite having the world's largest livestock
population, India's average milk yield (approx. 1,777
kg/animal/year) is significantly lower than the global average
(approx. 2,699 kg).
 Disease Vulnerability: Frequent outbreaks of diseases like Foot
and Mouth Disease (FMD), Lumpy Skin Disease, and Brucellosis
cause direct economic losses estimated at nearly ₹50,000 crore
annually.
 Fodder Scarcity: India faces a chronic shortage of green fodder
(35% deficit) and dry fodder (11% deficit), as only 5% of cultivable
land is dedicated to fodder production.
  Environmental Impact: Livestock (specifically ruminants) are
major contributors to enteric methane emissions, accounting for
over 91.8% of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions in India.
 Market Exploitation: Most livestock products (except poultry and
milk) are sold through unorganized, informal channels dominated by
middlemen, leading to high transaction costs and unfair pricing for
farmers.
 Health Risks: Growing Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) due to
the misuse of antibiotics in rural livestock is a rising "One Health"
threat to both animals and humans
Poultry
poultry sector is a powerhouse of the Indian agricultural economy,
functioning as a high-growth "sunrise" industry that significantly supports
national food security and rural livelihoods.
Economic Contribution (2025 Statistics)
 GDP and GVA Share: The poultry sector contributes
approximately 1% to India's National GDP and about 14% to the
Livestock GDP. Within the agriculture sector specifically, it
accounts for roughly 5% of the Agricultural GDP.
According to the Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics (BAHS) 2025, released
in late 2025:
 Egg Production: India ranks 2nd globally, producing 149.11
billion eggs in 2024–25. The per capita availability has increased
to 106 eggs per year.
 Meat Production: India ranks 4th globally in total meat
production, with poultry meat alone accounting for 5.18 million
tonnes, representing about half of the country's total meat output.
 Commercial vs. Backyard: Commercial poultry accounts
for 84.49% of the national egg output, while backyard poultry
contributes 15.51%

Challenges: The industry faces high feed cost inflation (maize and soymeal prices
rose ~35% recently) and vulnerability to disease outbreaks such as H5N1 avian
influenza.

NOTE: Some general advantages of animal husbandry for rural economy can be :
Economic Advantages

 Financial Stability & Resilience: Livestock provide year-round, stable

income streams (through the sale of milk, eggs, or meat) that buffer rural
households against seasonal crop failures caused by weather or market
fluctuations. They act as "living banks" that can be liquidated during
emergencies.

 Poverty Alleviation: The sector directly improves the livelihoods of millions of

small and marginal farmers and landless laborers, lifting families above the
poverty line.

 High Employment Generation: Animal husbandry is highly labor-intensive

and provides consistent employment opportunities, particularly for unskilled or
semi-skilled rural populations during off-seasons for crop cultivation.

 Low Barrier to Entry: Many small-scale livestock activities, like backyard

poultry or a few goats, require minimal land and moderate initial investment,
making them accessible to the poorest sections of society.

 Export Earnings: Products like meat, leather, and milk derivatives generate
significant foreign exchange for the nation, with a portion of this wealth flowing
back to the rural production areas.

Social & Nutritional Advantages

 Women Empowerment: A substantial portion of labor in animal care is

provided by women. This involvement provides women with financial
independence and enhances their role in household decision-making.

 Improved Household Nutrition: Livestock products are rich in high-quality

protein, vitamins, and minerals. Increased access to milk, meat, and eggs
directly combats malnutrition within farm families.

 Social Security: Owning animals provides social status and a form of social
insurance within the village community.

Environmental & Agricultural Advantages

 Sustainable Integration (Mixed Farming): Animal husbandry supports a

circular agricultural economy. Animal manure acts as a vital organic fertilizer,
reducing dependence on expensive and environmentally damaging chemical
fertilizers and improving long-term soil health.
  Waste Utilization: Animals convert otherwise unusable crop residues and
agro-byproducts into valuable food products (milk/meat/eggs) and organic
matter.

 Energy and Draught Power: Livestock provide essential draught power for
tilling land and transport in rural areas, and their dung can be used to produce
biogas for cooking and lighting, reducing reliance on firewood.

Globalisation and its impact

Globalisation definition?

Globalisation means the growing interdependence of the world’s economies,

cultures, and populations, through cross-border trade in goods, and flows of
investment and people

Positive Impacts on agriculture

 Surge in Exports: India has emerged as a top exporter of agricultural

commodities. In 2024-25, exports reached approximately $51.9 billion, with
India ranking 8th globally in total agricultural exports. Key exports include
rice (ranked 1st), spices, buffalo meat, and marine products.

 Technological Modernization: Globalisation has facilitated the adoption of

"Agriculture 4.0" technologies, including AI-driven precision farming, drones
for crop stress analysis, and IoT sensors for real-time soil monitoring.

 Increased Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): FDI in agriculture grew to $12.5

billion by 2024, supporting the development of infrastructure like cold
storage, food processing parks, and advanced irrigation systems.

 Crop Diversification: Access to international markets has encouraged

farmers to shift from traditional subsistence crops to high-value cash crops
like horticultural produce (fruits and vegetables), flowers, and organic
products.

Negative Impacts

 Market Vulnerability: Increased integration makes Indian farmers highly

vulnerable to global price volatility, international trade wars, and shifting
currency values. For example, 2025 saw significant disruption from US-
imposed reciprocal tariffs on Indian agricultural goods.
  Pressure on Subsidies: Under World Trade Organization (WTO) rules, India
faces constant pressure to reduce agricultural subsidies (like for fertilizers and
electricity) to ensure a "level playing field," which can increase production
costs for small-scale farmers.

 Environmental Concerns: The push for high-export productivity has often

led to intensive farming practices, causing soil degradation, water depletion,
and a loss of agricultural biodiversity as farmers focus on a few high-yielding
global varieties.

 Inequality and Marginalization: Larger commercial farms with better access

to technology and capital benefit more from globalisation, often widening the
income gap and leading to the further marginalization of small and landless
farmers

Globalization impact on rural india

impact of globalisation on rural India is a complex "double-edged
sword" that has modernized agricultural infrastructure and expanded
markets while simultaneously deepening economic inequalities and
disrupting traditional social structures
Positive Impacts
 Technological Modernization: Globalisation has facilitated the
adoption of "Agriculture 4.0" tools, such as AI-based weather SMS
alerts, drone-based irrigation, and e-NAM (National Agriculture
Market), allowing farmers to obtain more competitive prices for their
produce.
 Commercialization of Agriculture: There is a significant shift
from sustenance to commercial farming, with rural producers now
accessing global markets for cash crops like spices, fruits, and
textiles.
 Expansion of Rural Services: Increased investment has improved
rural infrastructure, including roads and electricity. Digitization has
enabled telemedicine and tele-education in remote areas,
enhancing health and literacy outcomes.
 Employment Diversification: New avenues have emerged in rural
areas beyond traditional farming, such as data entry, digital
marketing, and agri-tourism.
  Women’s Empowerment: The rise of Micro, Small, and Medium
Enterprises (MSMEs) and self-help groups has increased financial
independence and decision-making power for rural women.
Negative Impacts
 Widening Socio-Economic Inequality: The benefits of global
trade are unevenly distributed, primarily favoring "capitalist
farmers" with large landholdings who can afford modern inputs.
Small and marginal farmers often struggle to compete with cheaper
global imports.
 Disruption of Social Structures: Increased migration of rural
youth to urban "gig economy" hubs has led to the fragmentation of
traditional joint families into nuclear units, often leaving elderly
populations isolated.
 Erosion of Local Culture: The "McDonaldization" and
"Walmartization" of the economy have introduced global
consumption patterns that can overshadow local traditions and
indigenous crafts.
 Environmental Degradation: Intense agricultural production to
meet global demand has led to overgrazing, soil depletion, and the
over-tapping of groundwater, as seen in many rural agricultural
belts.
 Dependency and Debt: Reliance on multinational corporations for
hybrid seeds and specialized fertilizers has limited the traditional
practice of seed-saving, often increasing the debt burden on small-
scale farmers

Aspect Globalisation Trend in Rural India

Agricultural Shift toward high-value horticulture and organic exports

GVA

Connectivity Rural internet penetration bridging the digital divide for market
prices

Labor Increased "feminization" of agriculture as men migrate for non-

farm work

Health Susceptibility to global pandemics and rising susceptibility to

lifestyle diseases
WTO and agriculture subsidies
The World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), in
force since 1995, aims to create a fairer global agricultural market by
reducing tariffs, export subsidies, and domestic support. For
India
, this has been a complex process of balancing international trade rules
with the essential needs of domestic food security and farmer welfare.
WTO & Agricultural Subsidies Framework
The AoA classifies domestic support into different "boxes" based on their
potential to distort trade:
 Amber Box: Trade-distorting subsidies, such as the Minimum
Support Price (MSP) and input subsidies (fertilizers, electricity,
seeds). These are subject to reduction commitments and capped at
a maximum of 10% of the total value of agricultural
production for developing countries like India.
 Green Box: Subsidies with minimal or no trade-distorting effect
(e.g., agricultural research, pest control, infrastructure
development, and domestic food aid). These are permitted without
limits.
 Blue Box: Subsidies linked to production-limiting programs (rarely
used by developing countries).
Impact on India
The WTO framework has a significant impact on India's agricultural policy:
 Pressure on MSP and Food Security: India's public stockholding
programs (PDS) for food security, which rely on the MSP system, are
categorized as Amber Box subsidies and thus face scrutiny for
potentially exceeding the 10% limit. This creates a conflict between
WTO obligations and India's need to feed its vast population.
 The "Peace Clause": In 2013, the WTO agreed to an interim
"Peace Clause" that prevents legal challenges against a developing
country's food security programs if their subsidy limits are
breached, provided they meet certain conditions and do not distort
global trade. India has invoked this clause for rice subsidies.
However, India is pushing for a permanent solution and a change
in the subsidy calculation methodology to reflect current prices
rather than outdated 1986-88 reference prices.
 Disparities in Subsidies: India consistently highlights that
developed countries command over 90% of global farm subsidy
entitlements and provide significantly higher support per farmer
 (e.g., up to $40,000 per farmer in the US vs. $300 in India). This
creates an uneven playing field in the global market.
 Trade Disputes: India has faced and is currently engaged in
ongoing WTO disputes regarding specific subsidies, such as those
for sugar and sugarcane. In 2021, a panel ruled against India's
sugar subsidies, which India appealed.
 Export Subsidies: Developed countries committed to eliminating
export subsidies in 2015, which helps level the playing field for
Indian exporters. However, India must align its own export
incentives with WTO rules.
 Market Access Concerns: While tariffs have generally decreased,
Indian exporters still face non-tariff barriers, such as stringent
Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures, in developed markets.
In essence, the WTO pressures India to reform its domestic support
systems to align with international trade norms, a challenging task given
the country's extensive food security and farmer welfare needs. India's
strategy involves actively negotiating for equitable rules and policy space
to safeguard its agricultural interests
World bank and poverty alleviation
The World Bank Group's primary mission is to end extreme poverty and
build shared prosperity in developing countries. It uses its financial
resources, technical expertise, and policy advice to help nations
implement projects and policy reforms designed to raise living standards
and create sustainable economic growth.
Core Goals and Strategies
The World Bank operates based on two core, measurable goals to be
achieved by 2030:
 End Extreme Poverty: The target is to reduce the percentage of
people living on less than the international extreme poverty line
(currently defined as $2.15 a day at 2017 Purchasing Power
Parity, or $3.00 at 2021 PPP) to under 3% globally.
 Promote Shared Prosperity: This goal focuses on fostering
income growth for the bottom 40% of the population in every
country, addressing inequality and ensuring that economic growth
benefits the least well-off.
Role and Mechanisms
The World Bank uses several mechanisms and institutions to fight
poverty:
  Financial Assistance: The World Bank provides low-interest loans,
zero-interest credits, and grants to governments.
o The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD) focuses on middle-income countries
and creditworthy low-income countries.
o The International Development Association (IDA) offers
interest-free loans and grants to the world's 75 poorest
countries.
 Key Areas of Investment: Funding supports a wide array of
development areas, including:
o Human Capital: Investing in health and nutrition programs
for mothers and infants, building schools, and supporting
national education programs.
o Infrastructure: Financing critical infrastructure projects like
rural roads, electricity transmission lines, dams, and urban
sanitation systems to improve connectivity and access to
services.
o Agriculture & Rural Development: Supporting climate-
resilient farming, irrigation projects, and value chain
promotion to enhance agricultural productivity and farmer
incomes.
o Social Protection: Helping countries establish social safety
nets and employment support programs to insure poor and
vulnerable people against economic shocks and natural
disasters.
 Policy Advice & Knowledge Sharing: Beyond financing, the
World Bank provides technical assistance and analytical services. It
works with governments to design and implement policy reforms
(like the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers or PRSPs) that foster
sustainable growth and improve service delivery.
 Private Sector Mobilization: Through the International Finance
Corporation (IFC) and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee
Agency (MIGA), the Bank Group encourages private investment in
developing countries, which helps create jobs and stimulate
economic growth.
Through these integrated approaches, the World Bank has contributed to
a significant reduction in global extreme poverty over the past decades

IMF and its role

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization
with 190 member countries focused on promoting global financial
stability, facilitating international trade, and encouraging sustainable
economic growth. It plays a key role in the international monetary system,
providing a framework for cooperation and offering financial support
during crises.
Core Functions of the IMF
The IMF carries out its work through three main functions:
 Surveillance (Policy Advice): The IMF monitors economic and
financial developments in its member countries and the global
economy. Through regular consultations, IMF staff assess economic
conditions and provide policy advice to help countries avoid crises.
 Financial Assistance (Lending): The IMF provides temporary
loans to countries facing balance of payments difficulties. These
loans allow countries time to implement necessary policy changes
and strengthen their economies. Loans often come with conditions
to ensure economic problems are addressed and funds are repaid.
 Capacity Development (Technical Assistance): The IMF offers
practical support and training to help member countries improve
their economic institutions and data collection. This includes
assistance in areas such as tax administration and central banking.
Key Objectives
The IMF's main goals, as outlined in its Articles of Agreement, include:
 Promoting international monetary cooperation.
 Ensuring stable exchange rates.
 Facilitating the growth of international trade.
 Promoting high employment and sustainable economic growth.
 Reducing global poverty.
Funding and Structure
The IMF's financial resources primarily come from quotas paid by its
member countries, which generally reflect their relative economic
standing. A country's quota determines its financial contribution, voting
power, and access to IMF funding. The IMF also uses the Special
Drawing Right (SDR), an international reserve asset.

FAO and its role in food security and agriculture

the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) remains the lead international agency dedicated to eradicating
hunger and transforming agrifood systems to be more efficient, inclusive,
resilient, and sustainable. Marking its 80th anniversary in 2025, the FAO
continues to serve as a global knowledge hub, technical advisor, and
policy-making forum for its 195 members.
Core Roles in the Agriculture Sector
 Knowledge and Innovation Hub: FAO drives agricultural
modernization through initiatives like the Digital Villages
Initiative, which brings science, technology, and AI to rural
communities to boost productivity. In 2025, its Science and
Innovation Forum specifically emphasized using AI for food safety
and climate-resilient farming.
 Technical Cooperation: The organization provides hands-on
expertise to farmers and governments on sustainable land and
water management, fisheries (through its Blue
Transformation agenda), and forestry.
 Standard Setting and Policy Advice: FAO hosts the secretariat
for international agreements such as the Codex Alimentarius for
food safety and the International Plant Protection Convention
(IPPC). It advises governments on creating legal and institutional
frameworks to ensure the Right to Food.
 Sustainable Resource Management: Its flagship SOLAW
2025 report provides practical solutions for the sustainable use of
natural resources amidst rising environmental pressures.
Role in Global Food Security
 Monitoring and Data Analysis: FAO tracks global hunger through
its annual State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World
(SOFI) report.
o 2025 Global Data: World hunger slightly decreased
to 8.2% of the population in 2024 (down from 8.7% in 2022),
though 28% of the global population still faces moderate or
severe food insecurity.
 Crisis Response and Emergency Aid: For 2025, FAO
requested $1.9 billion to provide life-saving agricultural assistance
to 49 million people in major crisis zones, such as the West Bank
and Sudan.
 Anticipatory Action: In July 2025, FAO launched the Financing
for Shock-Driven Food Crisis (FSFC) Facility, an innovative
 mechanism designed to fund proactive responses before food crises
escalate.
 Integrated Strategic Framework (2022–2031): All activities are
organized around the "Four Betters": Better Production, Better
Nutrition, a Better Environment, and a Better Life, with the
goal of leaving no one behind in the pursuit of SDG 2 (Zero
Hunger).
Partnership with India
The FAO and India share an 80-year partnership. In 2025, cooperation
focuses on:
 Climate Resilience: Supporting the transition to climate-smart
agriculture and sustainable intensification of crops like millets and
quinoa.
 Nutrition Systems: Assisting India's efforts to become
malnutrition-free by promoting nutrition-sensitive agriculture.
 Economic Goals: Aligning with India’s priorities to double farmers'
income and improve rural employment

Livestock classification as per the utility basis

, livestock in India are broadly classified based on their primary
utility into four main categories. This classification helps in managing
breeds for specific economic outputs like milk, meat, fiber, or labor.
1. Milch (Dairy) Breeds
These animals are primarily reared for high milk production. In these
breeds, the females are prolific milkers, while the males are often less
suited for heavy labor.
 Characteristics: High lactation yields (often exceeding 1,600 kg
per lactation) and well-developed udders.
 Indigenous Examples: Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, and Deoni.
 Exotic Examples: Holstein Friesian (highest yields globally) and
Jersey (high fat content).
2. Draught (Draft) Breeds
These breeds are specifically utilized for agricultural work and transport
due to their physical strength and endurance.
 Characteristics: Male animals (bullocks) are powerful and active,
ideal for ploughing and hauling. The females generally have low
milk yields, typically less than 500 kg per lactation.
  Examples: Hallikar, Amritmahal, Kangayam, Nagori, and Khillari.
3. Dual-Purpose Breeds
These breeds provide a balance of utility, where females produce a
moderate amount of milk and males are useful for agricultural work.
 Characteristics: Average milk production (approx. 500–1,500 kg
per lactation) and sturdy males capable of draught duties.
 Examples: Hariana, Kankrej, Tharparkar, Ongole, and Rathi.
4. Meat and Fiber Breeds
Apart from bovines, other livestock species are categorized by their
output of meat, wool, or hides.
 Meat Purpose: Predominant in goats (e.g., Black Bengal) and
poultry (broilers). In 2024-25, poultry meat accounted for
nearly 49% of India's total meat production.
 Fiber/Wool Purpose: Specifically breeds of sheep (e.g., Marwari)
used for wool production.
 Multipurpose Goats: Some goats like the Jamunapari are
classified as dual-purpose for both milk and meat.
Livestock Standing in India (2025)

Utility Leading Products (2024-25 India's Global

Category Estimates) Rank

Milch 247.87 Million Tonnes (Milk) 1st

Meat 10.50 Million Tonnes (Meat) 4th

Poultry 149.11 Billion (Eggs) 2nd

FARM MECHANISATION IN INDIA

farm mechanization in India has reached a transformative stage, moving
beyond traditional tractor-centric models toward an ecosystem of smart
machinery, precision tools, and shared-access platforms.
Current Status (2025)
 Overall Level: The national farm mechanization level stands at
approximately 45% to 50%. While significantly improved from
 previous decades, it remains below the 70-75% levels seen in
countries like China and Brazil.
 Farm Power Availability: Average power availability has risen to
nearly 4.0 kW/ha (reaching 3.93 kW/ha in some 2024-25
estimates), nearing the government's 2030 target.
Operation-Specific Trends: Seedbed preparation is highly mechanized
(70%+), while harvesting and threshing remain under-mechanized at
roughly 34%
Key Government Initiatives
 Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM): Now
merged under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), it
provides 40% to 50% subsidies to small, marginal, and women
farmers for machinery purchases.
 Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs): Over 40,900 CHCs and Farm
Machinery Banks (FMBs) have been established to provide rental
services, making expensive equipment like combine harvesters
accessible to smallholders.
 Namo Drone Didi: A flagship scheme providing 15,000 drones to
women self-help groups (SHGs) through 2026 for rental services like
pesticide spraying.
 Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF): Sanctioned over ₹37,000
crore by April 2025 to finance post-harvest infrastructure and
machinery.
Emerging Technologies
 Drones & AI: Increasing use of drones for crop monitoring and
precision spraying to reduce input costs (seeds/fertilizers) by 15–
20%.
 Autonomous Machinery: The introduction of electric and
driverless tractors is catering to labor shortages and rising fuel
costs.
 Digital Platforms: Growth of "Farming-as-a-Service" (FaaS)
startups that use apps to connect farmers with nearby machinery
owners.
Major Challenges
 Small Landholdings: Approximately 86% of Indian farmers own
less than 2 hectares, making individual ownership of high-cost
machinery economically unviable.
  Regional Disparities: States like Punjab (6.0 kW/ha) are highly
mechanized, while northeastern states like Mizoram (0.7 kW/ha)
have negligible adoption due to terrain.
 Credit Gaps: Despite subsidies, a 40% rural credit gap persists,
making it difficult for marginal farmers to secure loans for the
remaining equipment costs.
Power related issues in farm mechanisation
power-related issues remain a critical constraint to achieving India’s goal
of 4.0 kW/ha farm power availability by 2030. While farm power has risen
to roughly 3.5 kW/ha in 2024-25, several structural and operational
power challenges persist.
1. Electricity Supply and Infrastructure
 Unreliable Supply: Despite national progress, many rural areas
still face frequent outages and low voltage, which can damage
irrigation motors and electronic components in modern machinery.
 Inadequate Daily Hours: In many regions, farmers receive only 4–
6 hours of power daily for agricultural purposes, often during off-
peak night hours, hindering timely farm operations.
 Aging Infrastructure: Rural distribution systems suffer from aging
transmission lines and transformers, leading to high Aggregate
Technical and Commercial (AT&C) losses, which stood at
roughly 16.16% in 2024-25.
2. Energy Dependency and Costs
 Fossil Fuel Reliance: A large portion of mobile farm machinery,
particularly tractors, remains heavily dependent on diesel. High fuel
prices significantly increase the operational costs for small and
marginal farmers.
 Efficiency vs. Cost: Energy-efficient machinery often requires
higher upfront capital investment, which is a major barrier for
the 86% of farmers with small landholdings.
3. Clean Energy Transition Challenges
 Harnessing Renewables: While solar adoption is growing via
schemes like PM-KUSUM, scaling these solutions is hindered by a
lack of viable storage technologies and high upfront costs for solar
pumps.
 Storage and Mineral Access: The transition to electric tractors
and machinery is limited by the lack of cost-effective battery
storage and secure access to essential minerals needed for clean
energy technologies.
  Subsidized Power Overuse: In some states, free or heavily
subsidized electricity has led to the inefficient use of power and the
alarming depletion of groundwater levels.
4. Regional Disparities in Power Availability
 The "Power Gap": Significant disparities exist; while states
like Punjab and Haryana have higher farm power availability,
eastern and northeastern regions remain power-deficient, often
below 0.8 kW/ha.
 Terrain Barriers: In remote or hilly regions, extending the
conventional power grid and maintaining it is both physically and
financially challenging
PM KUSUM can play an important role in it
Yes, PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan
Mahabhiyan) plays a central role in resolving farm power issues by
providing reliable, daytime energy and reducing dependence on
traditional grids and fossil fuels.
As of November 30, 2025, the scheme has reached a major milestone
with a cumulative solar capacity of 10,203 MW installed across its
components.
Role in Solving Farm Power Issues
 Daytime Reliable Power: Traditionally, farmers received power
only at night or in erratic intervals. PM-KUSUM provides consistent
daytime electricity, allowing for safer and more efficient irrigation.
 Energy Independence (De-dieselization): Component B has
replaced over 9.42 lakh diesel pumps with solar standalone
versions as of late 2025, protecting farmers from volatile fuel prices
and reducing carbon emissions.
 Grid Stability & De-stressing: By solarizing agricultural feeders
(Component C), the scheme reduces the load on state grids during
peak times and cuts down transmission losses.
 Income as 'Urjadata': Farmers can earn additional income by
selling surplus solar power back to the grid. Under Component A,
farmers can earn up to ₹80,000 per hectare per year by leasing
land or selling power.

sources of power on farm -

human,animal,mechanical,electrical,solar,wind,biomass and biofuels
 farm power in India is characterized by a transition from traditional
muscle power to a "multi-source energy mix," with a heavy emphasis on
renewable integration.
1. Human Power
 Role: Essential for intricate tasks like nursery preparation,
transplanting, weeding, and harvesting of delicate horticultural
crops [1].
 Status 2025: Facing a labor shortage due to rural-to-urban
migration. Efficiency is being enhanced by "ergonomic hand tools"
and small-scale battery-operated weeders [2].
2. Animal Power
 Role: Primarily used for plowing, harrowing, and rural transport in
hilly terrains or very small landholdings (<1 hectare) [3].
 Status 2025: Gradually declining. However, it remains a pillar
of organic and natural farming models where cattle are
maintained for both labor and manure [4].
3. Mechanical Power (Internal Combustion Engines)
 Role: Provided by tractors, power tillers, diesel engines, and
combine harvesters [5].
 Status 2025: The dominant source of farm power (approx. 60-
70% of total power availability). There is a 2025 shift
toward higher-HP tractors and specialized machinery for "Custom
Hiring Centres" [6].
4. Electrical Power
 Role: Used for operating irrigation pump sets, dairy machinery
(milking machines), and cold storage units [7].
 Status 2025: Vital for the "Blue Revolution." Governments are
focusing on feeder separation to ensure 8–10 hours of dedicated
agricultural power supply [8].
5. Solar Power
 Role: Harnessing sunlight via Photo-Voltaic (PV) cells for water
pumping and lighting [9].
 Status 2025: Rapidly expanding via the PM-KUSUM scheme. As of
late 2025, over 10 GW of solar capacity has been added to the
agricultural sector, turning farmers from "Urjabhokta" (consumers)
to "Urjadata" (producers) [10].
6. Wind Power
 Role: Utilizing wind energy through windmills for pumping water or
generating small-scale electricity in coastal or gusty regions [11].
  Status 2025: Limited to specific geographies (e.g., Tamil Nadu,
Gujarat, Rajasthan). It is increasingly being used in hybrid solar-
wind systems for year-round reliability [12].
7. Biomass & Biofuels
 Role: Converting agricultural waste (crop residue, animal dung) into
energy [13].
 Status 2025:
o Biogas: Used for cooking and running small engines in
integrated farming models [14].
o Bio-CNG: In 2025, India is scaling up "Waste to
Wealth" plants that convert paddy straw into Bio-CNG,
addressing the issue of stubble burning [15].
o Biofuels: Ethanol blending (reaching 20% target in 2025)
uses sugarcane and grain surpluses to power farm machinery
indirectly through the national fuel mix

Water harvesting structure

water harvesting structures in India are categorized into traditional
indigenous designs and modern engineered systems. These structures are
critical for combating groundwater depletion, which has led to a total
annual groundwater recharge increase to 448.52 BCM (Billion Cubic
Meters) as of late 2025.
1. Traditional Water Harvesting Structures
These structures rely on local topography and community management.
 Khadins (Rajasthan): Long earthen embankments built across hill
slopes to collect surface runoff for agriculture.
 Ahars & Pynes (Bihar): A combined system of catchment basins
(Ahars) and diversion channels (Pynes) used to harvest floodwater.
 Johads (Rajasthan/Haryana): Small earthen check dams that
capture rainwater to improve groundwater levels.
 Taankas & Kunds (Arid regions): Underground, paved cylindrical
pits (Taankas) or saucer-shaped catchment areas (Kunds) used to
store rainwater for drinking.
 Zing (Ladakh): Small tanks used to collect glacier meltwater.
 Eri (Tamil Nadu): Interconnected tank systems that act as flood
control and irrigation reservoirs.
2. Modern Water Harvesting Structures
Modern techniques focus on high-efficiency groundwater recharge and
urban storage.
 Recharge Pits & Trenches: Pits (1–2m wide, 2–3m deep) or long
trenches filled with boulders and gravel to allow water to percolate
into shallow aquifers.
 Percolation Tanks: Artificially created surface water bodies on
permeable land designed specifically to allow runoff to seep into the
ground.
 Check Dams (Anicuts): Small barriers built across streams to slow
water flow, facilitating groundwater recharge rather than just
surface storage.
 Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting (RWH): Collecting rain from roofs
using gutters and pipes, then directing it into storage tanks or
recharge wells. In 2025, many states have made
this mandatory for new constructions.
 Recharge Shafts: Vertical or lateral shafts (up to 15m deep)
designed to bypass poorly permeable topsoil and recharge deeper
aquifers directly.
3. Innovative 2025 Trends
 Green Roofs & Rain Gardens: Urban designs that use vegetation
to absorb rainfall, reduce runoff, and improve air quality.
 Unlined Recharge Shafts: A newer design proving effective in
slow-infiltration soils like clay, allowing faster subsurface water
movement.
 Namo Drone Didi Integration: While primarily for agriculture,
drones are being explored in 2025 for mapping and monitoring
these structures' health and siltation levels.
Government Support & Schemes (2025)
 Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA): The flagship mission in 2025 focusing on
"Catch the Rain," targeting water-stressed districts for RWH
structure construction.
 Mission Amrit Sarovar: Targeted the development of 75 water
bodies per district; nearly 69,000 were completed or rejuvenated
by late 2025.
 Subsidies: Farmers can receive significant financial aid—up
to ₹1.35 lakh for farm ponds in Rajasthan or ₹52,000 in Uttar
Pradesh—to build these structures

controlled and modified food storage systems

 food storage systems have advanced significantly to extend the shelf life
of perishables like fruits, vegetables, and meats. The two primary
advanced systems used in the agricultural and food industries
are Controlled Atmosphere (CA) and Modified Atmosphere
(MA) storage.
1. Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage
CA storage is a highly precise system where the composition of gases
(oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen) is continuously monitored and
adjusted throughout the storage period.
 How it Works: In large, gas-tight sealed rooms, oxygen levels are
reduced (typically below 8%) and carbon dioxide levels are
increased (above 1%) compared to normal air. This "puts the
produce to sleep" by drastically slowing down its respiration and
ripening processes.
 Best For: Large-scale, long-term storage of bulk commodities,
particularly apples and pears, which can be kept for several months
to a year without quality loss.
 Key Characteristics:
o Continuous Regulation: Uses sophisticated sensors and gas
generators (like nitrogen generators) to maintain specific
setpoints.
o High Cost & Complexity: Requires significant capital for
specialized infrastructure and trained operators.
o Precision: Can adjust dynamically if internal conditions
change.
2. Modified Atmosphere (MA) Storage & Packaging
MA storage, often implemented as Modified Atmosphere Packaging
(MAP), involves a one-time alteration of the gas composition within a
sealed container or individual package.
 How it Works: The air inside a package is replaced with a specific
gas mixture (often nitrogen and carbon dioxide) before sealing.
Over time, the gas levels change dynamically based on the food's
natural respiration and the permeability of the packaging material.
 Best For: Short-term preservation during retail and transport, such
as for pre-packaged salads, fresh meats, and snacks.
 Key Characteristics:
o Static Initial Change: Once the package is sealed, there is
no active monitoring or further adjustment.
o Affordability: Generally cheaper and easier to implement
than CA systems.
 o Active vs. Passive: Can be active (flushing with a gas mix)
or passive (relying on the product's own respiration within a
semi-permeable film).
food storage structures - modern and traditional
food storage in India is undergoing a massive shift from traditional,
household-level methods to a high-capacity "scientific" infrastructure to
handle a record harvest of 354 million tonnes.
1. Traditional Storage Structures
These structures still store approximately 60–70% of grains at the
household level in rural India. They are typically made from locally
available materials like mud, bamboo, and stone.
 Bukhari: A square or rectangular structure made of mud or bricks
and cement, commonly used in Punjab for bulk storage.
 Morai: An outdoor conical structure shaped like a basket, often
raised on a platform to prevent rodent entry.
 Kothi: Large mud-built bins used indoors for grains like wheat and
maize. They are often partitioned to store different grains
simultaneously.
 Kanaja: A bamboo-woven structure plastered with mud and cow
dung, found in various regional designs.
 Hagevu: An underground pit system bell-shaped or cylindrical,
ideal for dry regions with low water tables to store up to 200 tons.
 Paanai/Peru: Earthen pots and bamboo baskets used for short-
term storage and seeds.
2. Modern Storage Structures
Modern systems utilize advanced engineering to minimize post-harvest
losses, which still reach nearly 22% annually.
 Steel Silos: Large, tall cylindrical structures with mechanized bulk
handling. As of mid-2025, 27 lakh tonnes of silo capacity are
operational, with plans to reach 9 million tonnes by 2027–28.
o Advantage: Requires only 1/3rd of the land compared to
conventional warehouses and reduces wastage to below 5%.
 Modern Godowns/Warehouses: Scientifically constructed
buildings managed by agencies like the FCI and CWC. These are
increasingly being established at the village level through Primary
Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS).
 Cover and Plinth (CAP): A temporary storage method where
grains are stacked on elevated platforms and covered with
waterproof sheets. While common, it is highly vulnerable to weather
and is being phased out in favor of silos.
  Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Cold Storage: Specialized for
perishables (fruits/vegetables), these rooms continuously adjust
oxygen and CO2 levels to extend shelf life for several months.
 Hermetic Bags: Airtight, chemical-free bags used by small farmers
to cut off oxygen and stop pest growth.

what are silos and its types

silos are defined as large-scale, vertical or horizontal structures designed
for the bulk storage of materials such as grains, cement, coal, or
fermented animal feed (silage). Modern silos are engineered to provide a
controlled environment—regulating temperature, humidity, and aeration—
to prevent spoilage from pests, moisture, and microbial activity.
Classification by Structure and Shape
1. Tower Silos (Vertical): These are the most iconic, tall cylindrical
structures.
o Flat-Bottom Silos: Designed for large-scale, long-term
storage (typically above 500 MT). They require mechanical
systems like sweep augers for complete unloading.
o Hopper-Bottom (Cone-Bottom) Silos: Feature a conical
base that allows for easy, gravity-fed discharge. They are
ideal for smaller quantities or frequent turnover, such as in
feed mills.
o Grain Bins: Often shorter and wider than traditional tower
silos, these are specifically used for dry grains like corn or
wheat.
2. Horizontal Silos:
o Bunker Silos: Above-ground trenches with concrete walls
where material (usually silage) is packed tightly and covered
with plastic tarps. They are cost-effective for very large
volumes.
o Trench Silos: Similar to bunkers but typically dug into the
ground.
3. Bag Silos (Silo Bolsas): Large, flexible, airtight plastic tubes.
These provide a portable and low-cost solution for temporary or
overflow storage during peak harvest seasons.
Classification by Construction Material
 Steel Silos: Currently the most popular choice due to their rapid
construction, lower foundation costs, and superior aeration control.
They are often galvanized to resist corrosion.
  Concrete Silos: Built from reinforced concrete or concrete staves.
They offer extreme durability (often lasting over 50 years) and
excellent thermal insulation, though they are more expensive and
permanent than steel.
 Fabric/Plastic Silos: Lightweight and cost-effective options for
small-scale or temporary storage of pellets and dry grains.
Advanced 2025 Features
 Low-Oxygen (Hermetic) Silos: Sealed to create an airtight
environment that naturally kills pests and prevents mold by limiting
oxygen, ideal for high-value or organic crops.
 Smart Monitoring: Integration of IoT sensors to track real-time
temperature, moisture, and

C O2

𝐶𝑂2
levels via mobile apps to detect early signs of spoilage

regional imbalance in industrial development in india?give some data and

what are the reasons for it
regional imbalance in India's industrial development is characterized by a
significant concentration of manufacturing, foreign investment, and
industrial infrastructure in a few western and southern states, while the
eastern, central, and northeastern regions continue to lag.
Current Data & Trends
 Economic Concentration: The top five states—
Maharashtra
,
Tamil Nadu
,
Uttar Pradesh
,
Karnataka
, and
Gujarat
—alone contribute 47.71% of India's total economy in 2025.
  FDI Leaderboard: In the 2024-25 fiscal year,
Maharashtra
led with 39% of all equity inflows, followed by
Karnataka
(13%) and
Delhi
(12%). Combined, these three regions attract 64% of India's total Foreign
Direct Investment.
 Industrial Infrastructure: Over 40% of India's total industrial
land is concentrated in just three states:
Maharashtra
,
Gujarat
, and
Tamil Nadu
.
 Fiscal Disparity: The top five industrial states (
Maharashtra
,
Karnataka
,
Delhi
,
Tamil Nadu
, and
Gujarat
) contributed 72% of India's direct taxes in FY24, while large states
like
Uttar Pradesh
,
Bihar
, and
Madhya Pradesh
contributed just 5%.
 Industrial Output: As of late 2025, mining activity remains highly
concentrated, with five states (
Assam
,
Chhattisgarh
,
Gujarat
,
Maharashtra
, and
Odisha
) accounting for 60% of all-state mining GVA
Reasons for Regional Imbalance
1. Historical Factors
 Colonial Legacy: During the British regime, development was
concentrated in port cities like
Mumbai
,
Kolkata
, and
Chennai
to facilitate trade with Britain, leaving the hinterlands underdeveloped.
 Early Mover Advantage: Regions that developed early industrial
bases continue to attract related industries and skilled workers,
creating a "virtuous cycle" that lagging regions struggle to
replicate.
2. Geographical & Locational Factors
 Coastal Advantage: Maritime states (except
West Bengal
) have consistently outperformed inland states due to strategic trade
route access and natural harbors.
  Difficult Terrain: The rugged topography of the Northeastern
and Himalayan states increases project costs, complicates
resource mobilization, and hinders infrastructure development.
3. Infrastructure Deficits
 Transport & Power: Developed states have superior road/rail
connectivity and consistent power supply. In contrast, lagging
regions face frequent outages and poor roads, which deters
investors.
 Digital Divide: Broadband penetration is lower in rural districts,
hindering modern business processes in the interior.
4. Policy and Governance
 Proactive State Policies: States with efficient administrative
systems and clear development visions, such as
Gujarat
and
Tamil Nadu
, have been more successful at attracting private investment.
 Political Instability: In some backward regions, instability, law and
order issues, or extremist violence have historically discouraged
capital inflow and led to capital flight.
5. Socio-Economic Factors
 Skill Gaps: Higher literacy and early emphasis on technical
education in states like
Kerala
and
Tamil Nadu
created a skilled workforce that attracts knowledge-based industries.
 Financial Depth: States like
Bihar
and eastern
Uttar Pradesh
have Credit-Deposit (CD) ratios below 50%, meaning savings mobilized
there are often lent out to industrialized coastal regions, leading to a
"capital outflow" from poor areas
what is horticulture?what are post harvest management practices in
horticulture,value addition and supply chain maangement in it?
horticulture in India has surpassed food grain production for over a
decade, contributing approximately 33% to the agricultural Gross
Value Added (GVA) despite using less than 10% of the total cropped
area
Horticulture is the branch of agriculture focused on the intensive
cultivation, processing, and marketing of high-value crops for food,
medicine, and aesthetics.
 Key Branches:
o Pomology: Cultivation of fruits.
o Olericulture: Cultivation of vegetables.
o Floriculture: Cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants.
o Plantation Crops: Includes tea, coffee, coconut, and rubber.
o Medicinal & Aromatic Plants: Production of plants for
pharmaceuticals and essential oils (e.g., Ashwagandha,
Mentha).
Post-Harvest Management (PHM)
PHM refers to the scientific handling of produce from the moment of
harvest to final consumption to minimize losses and maintain quality. In
India, post-harvest losses in fruits and vegetables remain high, ranging
from 4.5% to nearly 16% as of 2025.
 Primary Practices:
o Pre-cooling: Rapidly removing "field heat" to slow metabolic
processes.
o Sorting & Grading: Categorizing produce by size, weight,
and maturity to meet market standards.
o Cleaning/Washing: Removing soil and residues to ensure
safety and hygiene.
o Waxing/Edible Coatings: Applying thin layers to reduce
moisture loss and respiration.
o Curing: Drying the surface of root crops (like onions or
potatoes) to prevent infection.
o Atmospheric Control: Using Controlled Atmosphere
(CA) or Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) to
regulate gas levels (O₂, CO₂) and extend shelf life.
Value Addition
Value addition involves transforming raw produce into higher-value
products to increase profitability and decrease waste.
 Techniques:
o Primary Processing: Basic cleaning, cutting, and specialized
packaging.
o Secondary/Tertiary Processing: Converting perishables
into jams, jellies, juices, pickles, chips, or dehydrated
powders.
o Waste Utilization: Recycling peels and seeds into bio-
fertilizers, incense, or natural dyes.
 Benefits: It creates rural employment, stabilizes income during
harvest gluts, and opens international markets.
Supply Chain Management (SCM)
SCM in horticulture involves managing the two-way flow of goods,
information, and funds from the farm-gate to the end-consumer.
 Modern Trends (2025):
o Integrated Cold Chains: Linking farm-level infrastructure
(pack-houses) with refrigerated transport (Reefer vans) and
distribution hubs.
o Digital Integration: Using IoT sensors and AI-driven
analytics for real-time monitoring of storage conditions and
predicting spoilage.
o Aggregation Models: Leveraging Farmer Producer
Organizations (FPOs) to achieve economies of scale for
smallholders.
o E-Marketplaces: Platforms like e-NAM and direct tie-ups
with corporate retailers eliminate middlemen and improve
price discovery.
FISHERY SECTOR
The fisheries sector in india is a critical "Sunrise Sector," serving as a vital
engine for economic growth, foreign exchange, and food security. India
currently ranks as the second-largest fish producer and the second-
largest aquaculture producer globally, accounting for approximately 8% of
total world fish production.
Economic Contribution (2024–2025)
 GDP & GVA Share: The sector contributes roughly 1.1% to
India's total GDP and approximately 7.7% to the Agriculture
Gross Value Added (GVA).
 Export Powerhouse: Seafood exports were valued at
approximately ₹62,408 crore ($7.45 billion) for the 2024-25
fiscal year. India is the world's leading exporter of frozen shrimp,
which alone accounts for about 40% of the total export quantity and
66% of the dollar earnings.
 Production Growth: Total fish production reached a record 19.5
million metric tons (MMT) in 2024-25, marking a 104% increase
since 2013-14.
 Livelihood Support: The sector sustains the livelihoods of
approximately 30 million people. Women play a central role,
comprising about 56% of the post-harvest workforce in
processing and marketing.
Sectoral Highlights
 Inland vs. Marine: A major paradigm shift has occurred,
with inland fisheries now contributing over 75% (14.73 MMT)
of total production, while marine fisheries contribute roughly 25%.
 Top Producing States: Andhra Pradesh is the leading state for
fish production, followed by West Bengal, Gujarat, and Odisha.
 Key Export Markets: The United States remains the largest
importer of Indian seafood, followed by China, the European Union,
Southeast Asia, and Japan.
Major Government Initiatives
  Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY): A flagship
scheme with an investment of ₹20,050 crore (2020–2025) aimed at
modernizing the sector, enhancing productivity to 5 tons per
hectare, and doubling export earnings.
 Fisheries and Aquaculture Infrastructure Development Fund
(FIDF): A ₹7,522.48 crore fund providing concessional finance for
harbors, cold storage, and processing units.
 Kisan Credit Cards (KCC): Extended to fishers since 2019 to
provide working capital; as of June 2025, 4.76 lakh cards have been
issued with disbursements totaling ₹3,214.32 crore.
 Blue Economy 2.0: Focuses on climate-resilient activities,
restoration of coastal ecosystems, and development of mariculture.

Issues in fishery sector

1. Environmental and Sustainability Issues
 Overexploitation of Resources: Approximately 30% of India's
marine fish stocks are currently overexploited. Traditional "near-
shore" waters are heavily depleted, while high-value deep-sea
stocks remain under-utilized by local fishers due to a lack of
advanced equipment.
 Destructive Fishing Practices: Techniques like bottom
trawling and the use of small-mesh nets (<25mm) cause
significant damage to the seabed and lead to high juvenile fish
mortality. Trawlers often discard up to 10 kg of bycatch for every 1
kg of shrimp caught.
 Illegal and Unregulated Fishing: Illegal, Unreported, and
Unregulated (IUU) fishing remains a major threat, undermining
conservation efforts and causing massive economic losses
estimated at billions of dollars annually.
2. Climate Change and Pollution
 Ecosystem Disruption: Rising sea surface temperatures and
ocean acidification are altering fish migratory routes and breeding
patterns. Key species like the Indian oil sardine have seen sharp
declines in their traditional harvesting ranks.
 Extreme Weather: Increasing frequency of cyclones and storm
surges reduces the number of safe fishing days and destroys coastal
infrastructure.
 Water Pollution: Industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and
agricultural runoff (pesticides) have led to mass fish deaths in both
inland lakes and coastal zones.
3. Infrastructure and Post-Harvest Losses
  Supply Chain Gaps: Deficiencies in cold storage, ice plants, and
refrigerated transport lead to post-harvest losses of 20–25%.
 Modernization Hurdles: Many traditional vessels lack modern
technology such as GPS or fish finders, limiting their reach to deep-
sea waters.
 Market Inefficiencies: Small-scale fishers often suffer from poor
price discovery and exploitation by middlemen, receiving a minimal
share of the final profit.
4. Socio-Economic and Governance Challenges
 Economic Inequality: Mechanized fleets capture nearly 70% of
the total catch, while small-scale fishers—who make up roughly
80–90% of the workforce—struggle with low productivity and
minimal catch shares.
 Financial Barriers: Despite the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme,
small fishers still face high barriers to institutional credit due to lack
of collateral and perceived high risk.
 Regulatory Fragmentation: Governance is often disjointed across
the 13 coastal states and UTs, leading to inconsistent enforcement
of fishing bans and gear regulations.
2025 Regulatory Shift
To address these issues, the government notified the Sustainable
Harnessing of Fisheries in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
Rules, 2025. These rules mandate:
 Mandatory tracking devices on all vessels for better surveillance.
 Access Pass System via the ReALCraft portal to regulate
mechanized fishing.
 Strict prohibitions on destructive methods like pair/bull trawling
and use of LED lights
Aquaculture
Aquaculture, often referred to as "underwater agriculture," is the
controlled breeding, rearing, and harvesting of aquatic organisms in
various water environments. Unlike commercial fishing, which involves
catching wild fish, aquaculture takes place in managed settings to
enhance production and protect species from predators.
Core Components
 Target Species: Includes finfish (like carp and salmon),
crustaceans (shrimp and crabs), mollusks (oysters and mussels),
and aquatic plants such as seaweed and algae.
  Environments: Can be practiced in freshwater (ponds,
rivers), marine (oceans, coastal areas), or brackish
water (estuaries where salt and fresh water mix).
Main Types of Aquaculture
1. Freshwater Aquaculture: Farming in low-salinity bodies like
ponds, tanks, and reservoirs. In India, this is the most common form,
primarily focusing on carp species.
2. Mariculture: The cultivation of marine organisms in seawater, such
as in offshore cages for finfish or racks for oysters.
3. Brackish Water Aquaculture: Culturing species that thrive in
estuaries. India is a global leader in this type, particularly for shrimp
exports.
4. Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA): A sustainable
practice where waste from one species (e.g., fish) provides nutrients
for another (e.g., seaweed or shellfish).
Modern Techniques (2025 Updates)
 Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS): High-density indoor
systems that clean and reuse water through advanced filtration,
requiring minimal land.
 Biofloc Technology: A "green soup" method where beneficial
microbes recycle waste into natural feed, drastically reducing the
need for water exchange.
 Aquaponics: A system that combines fish farming with plant
cultivation (hydroponics) in a shared water environment.
Global and Indian Context (2025)
 Global Impact: Aquaculture now provides more than half of the
world's seafood for human consumption.
 India's Status: India is the second-largest aquaculture
producer in the world. As of 2025, the inland sector—largely driven
by aquaculture—contributes over 75% of India's total fish
production.
Modern aquaculture in 2025 increasingly relies on three core intensive
systems—Biofloc, RAS, and Aquaponics—to maximize production while
conserving land and water.
1. Biofloc Technology (BFT)
Biofloc is a "green water" technology that uses beneficial bacteria to
convert fish waste into high-protein feed.
 How it works: By maintaining a specific Carbon-to-Nitrogen
(C:N) ratio (usually >10:1) through the addition of carbon sources
like molasses or starch, heterotrophic bacteria grow rapidly. These
 bacteria form "flocs"—clumps of microbes and organic matter—that
neutralize toxic ammonia and serve as a supplemental, protein-rich
food for the fish.
 Key Benefit: Dramatically reduces feed costs (up to 50%) and
requires zero or minimal water exchange.
 Best For: Hardier species like Tilapia and Shrimp that can
tolerate high suspended solids.
2. Recirculating Aquaculture System (RAS)
RAS is a "clear water" high-tech system that continuously filters and
recycles 90% to 99% of the culture water.
 How it works: Water flows through a series of treatment
units: mechanical filters remove solid waste
(feces), biofilters use nitrifying bacteria to convert ammonia to
nitrate, and disinfection units (UV or ozone) kill pathogens.
 Key Benefit: Provides complete control over the environment
(temperature, oxygen, pH), allowing for year-round production of
high-value species in any location, including urban centers.
 Best For: Premium species like Salmon, Trout, and Barramundi.
3. Aquaponic System
Aquaponics is a symbiotic ecosystem that combines Aquaculture (fish
farming) with Hydroponics (soilless plant farming).
 How it works: Nutrient-rich wastewater from fish tanks is pumped
to plant beds. Nitrifying bacteria on the plant roots and grow media
convert fish waste (ammonia) into nitrates, which act as organic
fertilizer for the plants. The plants absorb these nutrients, effectively
cleaning the water before it is recirculated back to the fish.
 Key Benefit: Produces two streams of income (fish and vegetables)
with 90% less water than traditional farming and no chemical
fertilizers.
 Common Crops: Leafy greens (lettuce, spinach), herbs (basil), and
vegetables like tomatoes or peppers.
Comparison Table (2025 Data)

Feature Biofloc (BFT) RAS Aquaponics

Water Turbid Clear Clear

Clarity (Brown/Green)
Primary Nutrient Recycling & Water Reuse & Symbiotic Food
Goal Feed Biosecurity Production

Startup Medium (~₹4-5 High Very High

Cost lakh)

Complexit High (Microbial High High (Biological

y management) (Technical/Mechanical) balance)

Major Energy (Aeration) Energy Infrastructure

Expense (Pumping/Filtration)

Post harvest management of fishery in india

Post-harvest management is a critical focus area in 2025 to curb wastage
and enhance the income of fishers. By December 2024, India successfully
reduced national average post-harvest losses to 10–15%, a significant
improvement from the previous range of 20–25%.
1. Current Infrastructure Status (2025)
Under the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), India has
established a extensive support network as of November 2025:
 Cold Chain Capacity: 730 cold storages and ice plants have been
created.
 Logistics & Distribution: The fleet includes 26,348 fish transport
facilities, such as:
o 10,924 motorcycles and 9,412 bicycles equipped with ice
boxes for local delivery.
o 1,406 insulated trucks and 379 refrigerated trucks for long-
distance transport.
 Retail Outlets: 6,410 fish kiosks and 202 retail fish markets have
been modernized to improve hygienic sales.
2. Strategic Interventions
 PM-MKSSY (Micro-Enterprise Support): A ₹6,000 crore sub-
scheme launched to formalize fish vendors and micro-enterprises,
specifically focusing on improving value chain efficiencies.
 National Marine Fisheries Census 2025: Uses geo-tagged digital
data to identify infrastructure gaps (harbors, cold chains) for
evidence-based planning.
  Integrated Aqua Parks: The government is establishing five
integrated aquaparks to create end-to-end value chains that
combine production with immediate post-harvest processing.
3. Key Challenges & Loss Metrics
Despite progress, a 2024 study by the National Productivity Council (NPC)
highlighted specific areas where losses occur due to inadequate handling
and market delays:
 Inland Fisheries: Current loss rate is approximately 8.84%.
 Marine Fisheries: Current loss rate is approximately 9.3%.
 Major Culprits: Primary losses occur during handling at landing
centers and transportation, often due to a lack of immediate "pre-
cooling" facilities.
4. Technological Innovations (2025)
 Digital Auctioning: Modern fishing harbors are now implementing
online auctioning and IoT-based monitoring to ensure faster price
discovery and reduced holding time.
 Value Addition: Encouragement of processed products—such as
fish pickles, dried prawns, and ready-to-eat fillets—has been
boosted by a reduction in GST on key fish products from 12% to
5%.
 Women's Role: Women comprise 55% of the post-harvest
workforce, and targeted funding of up to 60% is provided for
women-led post-harvest startups.

Silviculture and its components

Silviculture is the art and science of controlling the establishment,
growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse
ecological and economic needs. Derived from the Latin words silvi (forest)
and culture (growing), it functions as the "caretaker" of forests at the
stand level, ensuring they remain productive and sustainable over the
long term.
Core Principles of Silviculture
As of 2025, silvicultural practices are guided by several foundational
principles designed to balance human requirements with environmental
health:
 Imitation of Nature: Management techniques often mimic natural
disturbances (like fire or windthrow) to maintain a forest structure
that closely resembles natural ecosystems.
  Conservation of Site Productivity: Ensuring that forest
management does not deplete soil nutrients or damage the site's
ability to support future generations of trees.
 Adaptive Management: Regularly monitoring forest health and
adjusting strategies based on changing conditions, such as climate
change, pest outbreaks, or new scientific data.
 Sustension and Continuity: The key principle of maintaining a
healthy forest structure capable of providing a continuous, long-
term supply of benefits, rather than just a one-time harvest.
 Control of Structure and Density: Actively managing the number
of trees per unit area (stand density) and their age/size classes to
optimize growth and minimize competition.
 Diversity and Resilience: Promoting varied species composition
and age classes to make the forest more resistant to pests,
diseases, and climate-related stressors.
Main Objectives
 Regeneration and Reforestation: Ensuring the successful birth
of new trees, either through natural seeding or artificial methods
like planting, to restore degraded lands.
 Sustainable Timber Production: Maximizing the volume and
quality of timber to meet economic demands while maintaining a
permanent forest cover.
 Biodiversity and Wildlife Habitat: Creating diverse forest
structures to provide food and shelter for various animal species.
 Environmental Services: Protecting watersheds to ensure clean
water, preventing soil erosion, and enhancing carbon sequestration
to mitigate climate change.
 Economic Viability: Shortening the rotation period (the time it
takes for a tree to reach harvestable size) to improve financial
returns for landowners and the community.
Silvicultural systems are categorized primarily by their method of
regeneration and the length of their growth cycle (rotation). In 2025, India
utilizes two main groups of systems to manage its diverse forest types,
supplemented by modern ecological techniques.
1. High Forest Systems
These systems focus on regenerating forests from seeds, whether
naturally occurring or through artificial planting. They are characterized
by long rotation periods and can result in either even-aged or uneven-
aged forest structures.
  Clearcutting (Clear-felling): The entire mature crop is removed in
a single operation, creating a fully exposed area for a new even-
aged stand. This is often used for light-demanding species.
 Shelterwood System: Mature trees are removed in a series of
partial cuts over time. This maintains a protective canopy to shelter
young seedlings from harsh weather until they are established.
 Selection System: Individual trees or small groups are selectively
removed across the forest. This promotes an uneven-aged structure
with continuous regeneration, maintaining a permanent forest
cover.
 Seed-Tree System: Most trees are removed except for a small
number of "seed trees" left to provide a natural seed source for the
next generation.
 Group System: Regeneration felling is done in scattered groups
rather than uniformly. Gaps are created to induce growth, which
then spreads outward until the groups merge.
2. Coppice Systems
These systems rely on vegetative regeneration from the stumps (stools)
or roots of harvested trees. They typically have short rotation periods and
are used for products like fuelwood and poles.
 Simple Coppice: The entire crop is cut to ground level at once to
stimulate sprout growth from the stumps.
 Coppice with Standards: A combination system where a lower
layer is managed by coppicing, while selected high-quality
"standard" trees are allowed to grow for multiple rotations to
produce larger timber.
 Pollarding: Similar to coppicing, but the tree is cut above head
height to keep new growth out of reach of grazing animals.
 Shelterwood Coppice: A variant where some overwood is retained
to protect the young coppice shoots.
Social forestry and its types
Social Forestry is the management and protection of forests and
afforestation on barren lands outside conventional forest areas to help in
environmental, social, and rural development. Coined in 1976 by the
National Commission on Agriculture (NCA), it is often described as
"forestry of the people, by the people, and for the people" because it
prioritizes meeting the daily needs of rural populations—such as fuelwood,
fodder, and small timber—to reduce pressure on traditional forests.
Different Types of Social Forestry
The NCA classified social forestry into three main categories, which are
further divided based on their specific application:
1. Farm Forestry
Individual farmers are encouraged to grow trees on their own land for
both commercial and non-commercial purposes.
 Purpose: Meet family domestic needs (fuelwood, shade,
windbreaks) or generate income by selling timber to industries like
pulp and paper.
 Practice: Trees are planted on field boundaries, margins of
agricultural fields, or fallow patches.
2. Rural Forestry
This category is broadly aimed at meeting the needs of rural communities
and is divided into two types:
 Agroforestry: The simultaneous raising of trees and agricultural
crops (including livestock) on the same unit of land. It combines
forestry with agriculture to produce food, fodder, and timber in a
single enterprise.
 Community Forestry: Trees are raised on community-owned or
public lands, such as village pastures, temple grounds, and
schoolyards. The entire community manages these plantations and
shares the benefits, providing landless individuals with access to
forest produce.
3. Urban Forestry
This refers to raising and managing trees on public and private lands in
and around urban centers.
 Focus: Creating green belts, parks, and roadside avenues to
improve air quality, reduce noise pollution, and provide aesthetic
and recreational benefits to city dwellers.
 Current Initiative: The Nagar Van Yojana is a key government
scheme designed to develop city forests across India.
4. Extension Forestry (Often considered part of Rural or Urban
Forestry)
This involves planting trees on wastelands and linear strips along
"extended" boundaries such as roads, railway lines, and canal banks.
 Goal: To increase the country's overall greenery by utilizing
unproductive land far from conventional forest areas.
Key Objectives & Status (2025)
 Environment: Protects agriculture from adverse climate factors,
prevents soil erosion, and acts as a carbon sink.
 Livelihood: Generates employment for unskilled workers; for
example, one hectare of plantation activity can generate 150 to 500
man-days of work.
  Global Standing: As of October 2025, India ranks 9th globally in
total forest area and 3rd in net annual forest area gain, largely
due to sustained social forestry and afforestation efforts.
1. Economic Advantages
 Income Generation: Farmers and communities earn significant
revenue by selling timber, pulpwood, and non-timber forest
products (NTFPs) like fruits, honey, and medicinal plants.
 Employment Opportunities: It creates massive employment for
landless laborers in activities like nursery preparation, planting, and
harvesting. One hectare of social forestry plantation can generate
between 150 to 500 man-days of work.
 Fuelwood and Fodder Security: By providing a local supply of
firewood and animal feed, it saves rural households (especially
women) hours of labor and reduces their dependency on expensive
commercial fuels.
2. Environmental Advantages
 Carbon Sequestration: Social forestry acts as a vital "carbon
sink," helping India achieve its Net Zero 2070 target by absorbing
atmospheric CO2.
 Soil and Water Conservation: Trees planted on boundaries and
wastelands prevent soil erosion, improve water infiltration, and help
recharge groundwater tables.
 Biodiversity Enhancement: Even small-scale plantations on farms
or community lands create corridors for birds, insects, and small
wildlife, improving local ecosystem health.
 Reduction in Forest Pressure: By meeting the demand for timber
and fuel locally, it significantly reduces the illegal cutting of trees in
protected and reserved national forests.
3. Agricultural Advantages
 Windbreaks and Shelterbelts: Trees planted along field margins
protect crops from high-velocity winds and reduce soil moisture
evaporation, often leading to higher crop yields.
 Soil Fertility: Certain species used in agroforestry
(like Leucaena or Subabul) fix nitrogen in the soil, reducing the need
for chemical fertilizers.
 Micro-climate Regulation: Trees help moderate extreme
temperatures around the farm, creating a more favorable
environment for sensitive crops.
4. Social and Urban Advantages
  Empowerment of Marginalized Groups: Community forestry
provides landless individuals and tribal communities with legal
access to forest resources for their basic needs.
 Urban Cooling: Under the Nagar Van Yojana, urban social
forestry helps mitigate the "Urban Heat Island" effect, reducing city
temperatures and noise pollution.
 Aesthetic and Recreational Value: Green belts and roadside
avenues improve the quality of life and provide recreational spaces
for urban populations.
5. Strategic Importance (2025)
 Green India Mission: Social forestry is a cornerstone of
the National Mission for a Green India, which aims to increase
forest cover to 33% of the country's geographical area.
 Industrial Raw Materials: It ensures a steady supply of raw
materials for the plywood, matchbox, and paper industries without
depleting natural forest reserves
Issues
1. Ecological and Technical Gaps
 Monoculture and Exotic Species: There is an excessive reliance
on fast-growing exotic species like Eucalyptus and Poplar. These
can cause groundwater depletion, soil nutrient loss, and a reduction
in local biodiversity compared to native species.
 Poor Species Matching: Lack of technical expertise often leads to
"right tree, wrong place," where species unsuitable for specific agro-
climatic conditions are planted, resulting in low survival rates.
 Emphasis on Quantity over Quality: Success is frequently
measured by the number of saplings planted rather than their long-
term survival or actual ecological impact.
2. Socio-Economic Challenges
 Small Landholdings: Approximately 86% of Indian farmers are
small or marginal. These farmers often resist social forestry because
they cannot afford to divert limited food-growing land to trees with
long gestation periods.
 Exclusion of the Poor and Women: Benefits often skew toward
large landowners or absentee landlords. Women, who are primary
collectors of fuelwood and fodder, are frequently excluded from
decision-making processes and benefit-sharing.
 Food Security Concerns: Large-scale diversion of fertile
agricultural land to commercial timber can jeopardize local food
production and security.
3. Market and Policy Constraints
  Restrictive Regulations: Despite 2025 reforms like the Model
Rules for Felling of Trees in Agricultural Land, complex state-level
rules for tree felling and transit permits still discourage farmers from
commercial plantations.
 Lack of Financial Support: Unlike traditional crops, social forestry
products often lack Minimum Support Price (MSP), specialized
insurance, and easy access to credit.
 Market Volatility: Farmers face uncertain market demand and
price fluctuations for timber, particularly when industrial buyers can
access cheaper imported pulp.
4. Institutional Issues
 Lack of Community Ownership: Many community woodlots are
viewed as "government property," leading to a lack of local
initiatives for their protection and maintenance.
 Fragmentation: Coordination remains poor between the Forest
Department, Agriculture Department, and Panchayats, leading to
overlapping or conflicting objectives.
 Inadequate Extension Services: There is a severe shortage of
trained consultants to provide farmers with real-time scientific
knowledge on integrated pest management and sustainable
harvesting.
AGROFORESTRY
Agroforestry is a sustainable land management system that integrates
the cultivation of trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock on the same
unit of land. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create
more diverse, productive, and ecologically sound land-use systems.
In 2025, agroforestry is recognized as a key strategy for India to achieve
its Net Zero 2070 goals, as it increases carbon sequestration while
doubling farmer income.

Major Types of Agroforestry Systems

Agroforestry is categorized based on the combination of its
components: Agri (crops), Silvi (trees), and Pastoral (livestock).
1. Agrisilvicultural Systems (Trees + Crops)
This is the most common system in India, where trees and agricultural
crops are grown together.
 Alley Cropping: Food crops are grown in "alleys" formed by rows
of trees or shrubs. The trees are often pruned to prevent shading
and provide mulch.
  Boundary Planting: Trees are planted along the edges of fields to
act as windbreaks or live fences (e.g., Poplar or Eucalyptus on farm
boundaries).
 Multispecies Tree Gardens: A dense mix of various fruit and
timber trees with understory crops (common in Kerala’s "Home
Gardens").
 Shelterbelts: Rows of trees planted to protect crops from wind
erosion and desiccation.
2. Silvopastoral Systems (Trees + Livestock/Pasture)
This system combines woody perennials with managed livestock grazing.
 Protein Banks: Trees with high-protein leaves (like Leucaena) are
grown specifically to be harvested as fodder for livestock.
 Living Fences: Thorny or dense trees are planted around pastures
to keep livestock contained.
 Trees on Rangelands: Scattered trees in grazing lands that
provide shade for animals and improve grass quality by nutrient
cycling.
3. Agrosilvopastoral Systems (Trees + Crops + Livestock)
This is the most complex and integrated form, common in tropical regions.
 Home Gardens: A highly diverse system where trees, food crops,
and small livestock (poultry/goats) coexist around the farmhouse.
 Woody Hedgerows: Used for browse, mulch, and soil conservation
while growing crops and allowing controlled grazing.
4. Other Specialized Systems
 Apiculture with Trees: Integrating beekeeping with flowering tree
species to improve honey production and crop pollination.
 Aquaforestry: Planting trees (like mangroves or specialized
shrubs) around fish ponds. The leaves provide nutrients for the fish,
and the trees protect the pond banks.
 Entomoforestry: Growing specific trees to support useful insects,
such as silkworms (Sericulture) or lac insects.

1. Economic Benefits
 Income Diversification: Farmers are no longer dependent on a
single annual crop. Trees provide long-term "insurance" or "savings
accounts" that can be harvested for timber, fruits, or fuel in times of
crop failure [1, 2].
  Reduced Input Costs: Certain tree species (like Gliricidia or
Leucaena) fix atmospheric nitrogen, significantly reducing the need
for expensive chemical fertilizers [3, 4].
 High-Value Non-Timber Products: It provides additional revenue
streams through honey (apiculture), silk (sericulture), and medicinal
plants that thrive in tree shade [1].
2. Environmental & Climate Benefits
 Carbon Sequestration: Agroforestry is a primary tool for India’s
Net Zero 2070 target. It sequesters significantly more carbon than
monoculture farming by storing it in both the biomass of the trees
and deep in the soil [4, 5].
 Soil Conservation: Tree roots stabilize the soil, preventing erosion
from wind and water. Leaf litter adds organic matter, improving soil
structure and water-holding capacity [3, 4].
 Micro-climate Regulation: Trees act as natural "air conditioners,"
reducing ambient temperatures around crops and livestock by

∘
2 C
2∘C
to

∘
5 C
5∘C
, which protects sensitive crops from heatwaves [1, 4].
3. Agricultural Productivity
 Windbreaks and Shelterbelts: Rows of trees reduce wind speed,
preventing "lodging" (bending) of crops and reducing the loss of soil
moisture through evaporation [4, 5].
 Water Management: Trees improve the infiltration of rainwater
into the ground, helping to recharge local aquifers and ensuring
water availability during dry spells [3].
 Enhanced Biodiversity: It supports pollinators (bees/butterflies)
and natural pest predators (birds/beneficial insects), which can lead
to better crop yields and reduced pesticide use [1, 4].
4. Strategic & Industrial Advantages
 Raw Material for Industry: As of 2025, over 80% of India’s
timber and 95% of its fuelwood needs are met from trees grown
outside forests (TOF), primarily via agroforestry [5, 6].
  Green Credit Program: Under the 2024-2025 initiatives, farmers
can earn Green Credits for plantation activities on degraded lands,
which can be traded for financial incentives [2].
 Food and Nutritional Security: The integration of fruit and nut
trees directly improves the dietary diversity and nutritional intake of
rural households
Issues
1. Regulatory and Legal Barriers
 Restrictive Felling and Transit Rules: Although the Green
Credit Rules (2024) and recent reforms have simplified some
processes, many states still require complex permits to cut and
transport trees grown on private land. This "permit raj" discourages
farmers who fear harassment by officials [1].
 Land Ceiling Laws: In some regions, restrictive land ceiling acts
prevent the large-scale integration of trees with agriculture, as the
land may be reclassified in a way that affects the farmer's legal
holdings.
2. Economic and Financial Constraints
 Long Gestation Periods: Unlike seasonal crops, trees take 5 to 20
years to provide a return. Most Indian farmers (86% are
small/marginal) cannot afford to wait years for income and lack
access to "bridge financing" to cover the gap [1].
 Absence of MSP: There is no Minimum Support Price (MSP) for
timber or most tree-based products. Farmers are often at the mercy
of middlemen and local timber markets, leading to high price
volatility.
 Inadequate Insurance: While the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima
Yojana covers traditional crops, specialized insurance products for
agroforestry (to protect against fire, pests, or storm damage to
trees) remain underdeveloped in 2025 [1].
3. Technical and Ecological Issues
 Resource Competition: Trees often compete with crops for
sunlight, water, and soil nutrients. If not managed through scientific
pruning and spacing, tree shade can significantly reduce the yield of
the primary agricultural crop.
 Quality of Planting Material: There is a critical shortage of high-
yielding, site-specific, and disease-resistant clones. Farmers often
plant low-quality saplings that result in poor timber quality and low
market value.
 Pest and Disease Risks: Large-scale monoculture agroforestry
(like vast stretches of Poplar or Eucalyptus) is highly susceptible to
pest outbreaks, which can spread to neighboring agricultural crops.
4. Knowledge and Extension Gaps
 Weak Extension Services: Agricultural extension workers are
often trained only in crop science and lack the specialized forestry
knowledge needed to advise farmers on "tree-crop compatibility."
 Data Gaps: There is a lack of localized, "ready-to-use" packages of
practices (PoP) for different agro-climatic zones, leaving farmers to
experiment through trial and error.
5. Market Fragmentation
 Lack of Processing Units: In many rural areas, there are no
nearby industries (paper mills, plywood factories) to buy the timber,
leading to high transportation costs that eat into the farmer's profit.
 Middlemen Dominance: The supply chain for "Trees Outside
Forests" (TOF) is highly unorganized, with intermediaries capturing
the bulk of the value.
Shifting cultivation
Shifting cultivation, also known as slash-and-
burn or swidden agriculture, is a traditional farming method where forest
patches are cleared and burned to create temporarily fertile land for
crops. After 2–3 years of harvest, when soil nutrients diminish, the plot is
abandoned for a "fallow period" to regenerate naturally while farmers
move to a new site.
Regional Types and Names
While the core process remains similar, shifting cultivation is known by
various local names across India and the globe:
 In India:
o Jhumming: North-eastern states (Assam, Nagaland,
Meghalaya, etc.).
o Podu / Penda
: Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
o Bewar / Dahiya
: Madhya Pradesh.
o Kumari: Hilly regions of the Western Ghats (Kerala,
Karnataka).
o Kuruwa
: Jharkhand.
o Batra
: South-eastern Rajasthan.
  Global Examples:
o Milpa: Mexico and Central America.
o Ladang: Malaysia and Indonesia.
o Roca: Brazil.
o Chena: Sri Lanka.
o Taungya: Myanmar.
Issues Associated with Shifting Cultivation
As of 2025, shifting cultivation is a subject of significant environmental
and socio-economic debate:
 Environmental Degradation:
o Shortened Cycles: Due to population pressure, traditional
fallow cycles of 15–20 years have shrunk to just 2–3 years.
This prevents full soil regeneration, leading to permanent
nutrient loss.
o Deforestation & Biodiversity Loss: Large-scale clearing
destroys native flora and fauna habitats. It is estimated
that 22% of fertile topsoil is lost during these practices.
o Hydrological Impact: Loss of tree cover increases runoff,
contributing to siltation in rivers like the Brahmaputra and
causing downstream flooding.
 Economic & Social Issues:
o Lack of Financial Inclusion: Because shifting cultivation
land is often not recognized as "agricultural land," farmers
lack formal land titles (pattas). This denies them access
to institutional credit and government subsidies.
o Food Insecurity: Transitioning to cash crops or restricted
cycles often disrupts traditional food security, as diverse
mixed-cropping is replaced.
 Policy Conflicts: There is often a mismatch between government
departments; while Forest Acts discourage the practice, agricultural
departments may promote cash crops for the same lands, confusing
local farmers.
Current Policy Direction (2025)
The Indian government and NITI Aayog are working toward a
transformational approach that rebrands shifting cultivation
as agroforestry. This shift aims to grant legal recognition to these lands,
enabling farmers to access credit while encouraging more sustainable
practices like the Nagar Van Yojana for urban greening or diversified
income through horticulture.
The Taungya system is a specialized form of agroforestry where
agricultural crops are grown between rows of planted trees during the
early stages of forest plantation establishment.
Developed in Myanmar (formerly Burma) in the 1850s, the term is derived
from the Burmese words Taung (hill) and ya (cultivation). It was originally
designed to provide a low-cost method for establishing teak plantations by
utilizing the labor of landless farmers.
How the System Works
1. Clearing: A patch of forest or wasteland is cleared by a community
or a group of farmers.
2. Planting: The Forest Department plants commercial tree species
(like Teak, Sal, or Pine) at specific intervals.
3. Intercropping: Farmers are allowed to grow agricultural crops
(such as maize, pulses, or vegetables) in the open spaces between
the young trees.
4. Maintenance: In exchange for the land use, farmers tend to the
young trees, performing weeding, watering, and protection from
animals.
5. Transition: After 3 to 5 years, when the tree canopy closes and
creates too much shade for crops, the farmers move to a new area
to repeat the process.
Types of Taungya Systems
 Departmental Taungya: Agricultural crops and trees are both
raised by the Forest Department using hired laborers.
 Leased Taungya: Land is given on a short-term lease to the
highest bidder or local farmers to grow crops while maintaining the
trees.
 Village Taungya: This is the most common form where landless
people or forest villagers are settled in a specific area and given
land for cultivation on the condition that they raise and protect the
forest plantations.
Advantages of the System
 Low-Cost Afforestation: The Forest Department saves
significantly on labor costs for weeding and plantation maintenance.
 Livelihood for the Landless: It provides land and a source of
food/income for poor, landless communities.
 Maximum Land Utility: Both timber and food are produced from
the same piece of land simultaneously.
  Improved Tree Growth: The soil disturbances and weeding
intended for the crops often result in faster growth for the young
trees.
Current Status and Issues (2025)
While historically successful, the Taungya system has faced scrutiny and
decline in recent years due to several factors:
 Exploitation Concerns: It has been criticized as a "bonded labor"
system where farmers do the hard work of forestry for very little
long-term security.
 Lack of Land Rights: Farmers do not gain permanent ownership of
the land, which discourages them from investing in long-term soil
health.
 Shift to JFM: In India, much of the Taungya approach has been
replaced by Joint Forest Management (JFM), which offers more
democratic participation and a share in the final timber profits for
local communities via the National Mission for a Green India.
 Soil Exhaustion: Continuous cropping on forest land without
proper fertilization can lead to rapid soil degradation
JFM
Joint Forest Management (JFM) is a partnership-based forest
management strategy in India where the state Forest Department and
local village communities collaborate to protect and manage degraded
forest lands. This decentralized approach is based on the principle of "care
and share," where communities provide labor and protection in exchange
for a share in the harvest of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and a
portion of the timber profits.
As of 2025, JFM remains a cornerstone of India’s participatory forestry,
governed through village-level institutions known as Joint Forest
Management Committees (JFMCs) or Vana Samrakshana Samithis
(VSS).

Advantages of JFM
 Democratic Empowerment: It shifts control from a centralized
"command and control" model to a participatory one, giving local
people a voice in how their surrounding resources are used.
 Livelihood Support: Communities gain legal access to fodder,
fuelwood, medicinal plants, and fruits. In many states, they also
receive 25% to 50% of the net profit from the sale of mature
timber.
 Cost-Effective Conservation: Local communities act as "natural
guardians," significantly reducing the cost of forest protection for
 the government. They are more effective at preventing illegal felling
and forest fires than limited forest staff.
 Ecological Restoration: JFM focuses on the "social fencing" of
degraded lands, allowing forests to regenerate naturally through
reduced grazing and human interference.
 Empowerment of Women: National guidelines mandate that
women must comprise at least 33% to 50% of the JFMC
executive body, ensuring their specific needs (like fuelwood) are
addressed.

Issues and Challenges (2025)

Despite its success, JFM faces several systemic issues that have led to its
evolution into the National Mission for a Green India:
 Unequal Power Dynamics: In many areas, the Forest Department
still holds dominant power over decision-making, while the JFMCs
act merely as "implementing agencies" rather than equal partners.
 Inter-Institutional Conflict: There is often a jurisdictional overlap
and conflict between JFMCs and the Gram Panchayats. The 73rd
Amendment empowers Panchayats over local resources, while JFM is
an administrative arrangement under the Forest Department.
 Benefit-Sharing Delays: The long gestation period of trees means
communities often have to wait 20+ years for timber profits.
Additionally, bureaucratic hurdles frequently delay the actual
disbursement of funds to the village committees.
 Forest Rights Act (FRA) 2006 Conflict: The FRA recognizes
"Community Forest Resource Rights," which grants permanent
ownership to tribal groups. This has made the older, department-
controlled JFM model redundant or contentious in many tribal-
dominated districts.
 Sustainability of Funds: Most JFMCs are active only as long as
there is project-based funding (like World Bank or CAMPA funds).
Once the funding stops, the committees often become defunct.
 Ecological Concerns: Some JFM projects focused too heavily on
commercial timber species (like Teak or Eucalyptus) to maximize
revenue, often at the cost of local biodiversity and the availability of
diverse NTFPs.

Cropping system
The term cropping system refers to crops, crops sequences and
patterns along with management techniques used on a particular
agricultural field over a period of years

It includes all spatial and temporal aspects of managing an agricultural

system
Cropping Pattern

It is a yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or crops

and fallow in a given area
Factors affecting Cropping Pattern
1. Geographic Factors
a. Relief

Relief like topography, hills, plains, valleys, etc., is are deciding factor for
cropping patterns.

E.g., Tea and coffee hills, Rice –Gangetic plains, Sugarcane- well-irrigated
regions.
b. Temperature
The temperature during sowing, reaping is different.

Some crops require higher temperatures and are sown in the summer
season.

Most growth period of crops falls under the rainy season. These are Kharif
Crops (Rice, Cotton) etc.

Other crops require lower temperatures and moisture and are sown in the
winter season (Wheat). These are Rabi crops.

E.g., Sugarcane gives a higher yield in South India than in the Northern
plains. They need warm climates.

c. Rainfall
The amount and distribution of rainfall influence the different Cropping
patterns.

In areas where land use depended exclusively on rainfall, the main

determining factor is the duration, amount, and distribution of rainfall.

Depending on the amount of rainfall, the following 3 types of cropping

patterns can be recognized.

Cropping pattern in areas of heavy rainfall-

These are the areas with more than 150 cm of annual rainfall.

It includes East India and the western coastal plains.

The animal population is fairly high due to the availability of fodder and
grazing area.

Major crops include rice, tea, coffee, sugarcane, jute, etc.

Cropping Pattern in areas of moderate/medium rainfall-

These are the areas with 75 to 150 cm of annual rainfall.

150 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for the cultivation of rice
whereas 75 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for maize, cotton and
soyabean.

These areas are rich in natural resources. E.g. Eastern part of Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha
region of Maharashtra.

Wheat is the principal rabi crop in these areas and millets are the natural
priority due to its less water requirement.

Wheat, maize, cotton, soybean, millets, etc., are the major crops.
Cropping patternin areas of low rainfall-

These are the areas with 25 to 75 cm (Semi-arid stretches of India) of

annual rainfall.

Major crops in this belt are millets, jowar, and bajra in the northern part,
jowar in the central and ragi in the southern part.

Mixed cropping is very common, in which pulses are mixed with cereals.

Cropping has been developed in such a way that no one crop dominates.

Wheat is the main rabi crop, which is grown in irrigated areas.

Dry land farming is a common practice in this region.

Millets, oilseeds (Groundnut, sunflower, rapeseed and mustard etc.),

pulses etc. are the major crops grown in this region.
d. Soil
Different crops require different edaphic conditions for their growth and
development.

Physical- Irrigation and drainage, soil moisture.

Chemical- Soil nutrients, pH, salinity.

Biological- Earthworms, Bacteria, Humus.

Rice is mainly grown in clayey soils, while loamy soils are best for
wheat.

The regur soil of the Deccan Plateau is ideal for the cultivation of cotton.
Coarse grains such as jowar, bajra, maize, ragi, barley, etc, are grown
in inferior soils (light sandy soils, light black soils, red and laterite soils,
etc)

Soils of the Darjeeling hills contain sufficient quantities of humus, iron,

potash and phosphorus which are necessary for tea bush to grow.
2. Economic Factors
The irrigation, power, size of land holdings, sale price of crops, the income
of farmers, insurance, and investment are important factors deciding the
cropping pattern of an area.

a. Irrigation
Irrigation is an important input and assumes greater significance in arid
and semi-arid regions where rainfall is scanty and erratic.

Irrigation is used in all cropping regions for high yields.

North Indian plain regions are well irrigated and support 2-3 crops of rice a
year
b. Size of land holding
Farmers with large holdings can opt for cash and help in crop
diversification, leading to changes in the cropping pattern (commercial
farming).

Subsistence farming- Farmers grow the food grains sufficient for their
family members because of small land holdings.

But in spite of crop diversification potential, large landholdings are used

mostly for monoculture of rice, wheat, etc., which has resulted in a
skewed food basket. That’s why there is a need for diverse crops and
which could be possible through different types of cropping systems and
patterns.
c. Available inputs and investments
A large sum of money is required for agricultural inputs such as fertilizers,
seeds, irrigation, etc.
Agricultural inputs as Seeds, fertilizers, water storage, marketing,
transport, etc. also affect the cropping pattern of a region.
d. Insurance against risk
Insurance provides a security net to farmers and minimizes the risk of
crop failures.

When farmers are secured from monsoon and fluctuating prices, it gives
them opportunity to diversify crops and farming. They can pursue
agriculture without any fear and with the most appropriate cropping
pattern choices.
e. Value

Millets in the hilly areas of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are being
replaced by high-value horticulture crops like apple.
f. Demand, Sale price of crops, and Income of farmers
Rice is the preferred crop in the densely populated regions, as there is a
ready market and high demand.

Farmers want to sell their crops at the highest price and want to get the
highest amount for their products so that their income level improves.

E.g., Farmers in North India after 1960 started producing rice and wheat,
as these crops fetched higher prices.
3. Political Factors/Governmental Policies
The legislative and administrative policies of the government may also
affect the cropping pattern. Intensive schemes for paddy, for cotton and
oilseeds, subsidies affect the cropping pattern.

Government can encourage or discourage certain crops due to various

reasons like drought, flood, inflation, etc.

Government can encourage any crop by providing subsidy on seeds,

fertilizers, electricity, and discourage any other crops by putting
restrictions on it.
4. Historical Factors
Historical patterns also affect the cropping pattern. E.g., Tea plantation by
British in Kangra valley in Uttarakhand.
Textile mills in Bombay province resulted in cotton plantations in the
intermediate region in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

Sugarcane is grown more extensively in North India even though the

conditions are most favorable in South India. This is because the
sugarcane cultivation was encouraged by British as an alternative to
indigo, which lost its significance and market in states like Uttar Pradesh
due to introduction of artificial dyes.
Types of Cropping Systems
a. Monocropping
Continuous production of one and the same crop year after year or
season after season is called mono cropping. E.g.:Rice-Rice, Bajra-
Bajra. The repetitive growing of the same sole crop on the same land in
one year.

Generally commercial crops that give higher returns are cultivated

through monocropping.

Farmers and agricultural systems are socio-economically dependent on

such crops. E.g., sugarcane, cotton, farming, etc.
b. Multiple cropping
The cropping system in which two or more crops are grown either in
succession or sequence, or association for the entire or part period of their
life cycles on the same field in a year is called multiple cropping.

This is a method of intensification of cropping in time and space

dimensions.

E.g., Sorghum, Wheat, Green Gram, Maize, Rice, Black gram, Linseed
c. Fallowing or Fallow in rotation
In scarcity areas (dry farming) where rainfall is very low, only two crops
are taken in three years as against one crop every year is called as
fallowing or fallow in rotation.

A fallow year or season is one in which the field is not cultivated with any
crop but left without a crop.
Types of Multiple Cropping
Growing two or more crops on the same field in a year. This is a method of
intensification of cropping in time and space dimensions.

Inter cropping
Growing two or more crops simultaneously with distinct row arrangements
on the same field at the same time.
a. Mixed cropping
Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row
arrangement is known as mixed cropping
Eg, Sorghum +Bajra + cowpea; Maize +Green gram +Pigeon pea
b. Relay cropping
It is the cropping system in which the succeeding crop (next crop) is sown
or planted when the first crop (preceding crop) has reached its
physiological maturity stage, or before it is ready to harvest, is called
relay cropping. E.g., Rice/Linseed/lentil/black gram/chickpea.
c. Alley cropping
The system of growing jowar, maize, bajra, or any other arable crop in the
alleys (passage between two rows) of leguminous shrubs like subabul
(Leucaena leucocephala) is called alley cropping.

Ex: Subabul raised at 6 m row spacing. The intercrops like cotton,

sorghum, and black gram is raised in the alley space.
d. Multi-storied cropping/Multi-tiered/ Multilevel Cropping
In this system, the crops of different heights and vertical layers of leaf
canopies, sunlight requirements, and root systems are grown together on
the same field is called multi-storied cropping.
e. Strip intercropping
Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in strips wide enough to
permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crops to
interact with each other.

Ex: maize, soybean, and oat are grown in strips

f. Parallel Cropping
Such crops have different growth habits and zero competition with each
other, but they are grown together.

E.g., Urd/Moong +Maize; Soybean with cotton

g. Companion Cropping
When the production of both intercrops is equal to that of their solid
planting.
e.g., Mustard/Potato/Onion +Sugarcane
h. Synergetic Cropping
In this type of cropping, yield of both the crops are higher than their pure
crops on unit area.

e.g., Sugarcane +Potato

Advantages of Intercropping:
Better use of growth resources, including light, nutrients, and water.

Suppression of weeds

Yield & stability -Even if one crop fails due to unforeseen situations,
another crop will yield and provide some secured income.

Successful intercropping gives higher equivalent yields (yield of base

crop + yield of intercrop), higher cropping intensity.

Reduced pest and disease incidences

Improvement of soil health and agroecosystem

Disadvantages of Intercropping:
Yield decreases because of the adverse competition effect if competitive
crops are intercropped.

Allelopathic effect:Allelopathy is the process by which some plants

release biochemicals into the environment through their leaves, stems, or
roots. These biochemicals can alter the growth of nearby plants,
either of the same species or different species.

Obstructs the free use of machines for intercultural operations

Large farmers with adequate resources are likely to get less benefit out of
intercropping.
Small farmers without adequate resources are likely to get less benefit out
of intercropping.
AI and Agriculture:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is technology that enables computers and
machines to simulate human intelligence, allowing them to learn, reason,
solve problems, perceive, and understand language to perform complex
tasks. It's a broad field encompassing sub-disciplines like machine
learning (ML) and deep learning
AI in agriculture uses smart technology like sensors, drones, and machine
learning to analyze data for precision farming, helping farmers optimize
resources, predict yields, detect diseases, automate tasks (like
weeding/harvesting), manage livestock, and make data-driven decisions,
ultimately boosting efficiency, sustainability, and profitability. It shifts
farming from guesswork to data-backed strategies, improving everything
from irrigation to crop health.
Key Applications of AI in Agriculture
 Precision Farming & Irrigation: Analyzes soil moisture, weather, and
crop needs to deliver water and nutrients precisely where needed,
reducing waste.
 Crop Monitoring & Disease Detection: Uses drone/satellite imagery
and sensors to spot pests, weeds, and diseases early, enabling
targeted treatment.
 Predictive Analytics: Forecasts weather, yields, and optimal
planting/harvesting times using historical and real-time data.
 Automated Machinery: Powers self-driving tractors and robotic
harvesters for efficient planting, weeding, and harvesting.
 Livestock Management: Monitors animal health and behavior via
sensors and cameras for better welfare and productivity.
 Soil Health Analysis: Provides insights into soil nutrient levels for
better fertilization strategies.
Benefits
 Increased Yields & Profitability: More efficient resource use and
better crop management lead to higher output.
 Reduced Costs: Less water, fertilizer, and pesticide waste.
 Enhanced Sustainability: Supports eco-friendly practices by
minimizing environmental impact.
 Better Decision-Making: Offers farmers actionable insights for
complex choices.

Case study:
Microsoft Chairman Satya Nadella recently highlighted the transformative
impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in agriculture through Project Farm
Vibes (PFV) in Baramati, Maharashtra, which has boosted crop yields by
40% while reducing resource consumption.
What is the Project Farm Vibes?
 About: Project Farm Vibes, developed by Microsoft Research with
the Agricultural Development Trust, Baramati (MH), is an open-
sourced AI suite of farm-focused technologies transforming farming
with data-driven insights, empowering researchers, farmers.
 Technologies Used:
o Azure Data Manager for Agriculture: Aggregates satellite,
weather, and sensor data for a holistic view of field
conditions.
o [Link]: Uses AI to analyze soil moisture, temperature,
humidity, and pH for precise farming recommendations.
o [Link]: Offers real-time, actionable insights for
sustainable farming and generates personalized
recommendations in local languages.
 Impact: 40% increase in crop production, with healthier and more
resilient crops.
o 25% reduction in fertiliser costs through precise, AI-guided
spot fertilization.
o 50% less water consumption, promoting sustainable
irrigation.
o 12% decrease in post-harvest wastage, improving
profitability.
o Reduced chemical runoff, soil erosion, and greenhouse gas
emissions and deforestation, leading to environmental
benefits.
What Challenges Does AI Adoption in Agriculture Face?
 Lack of Awareness: Many farmers, especially in rural India, lack
digital literacy to use AI-based tools effectively hindering large-scale
adoption.
 High Implementation Costs: AI solutions like drones, Internet of
things (IoT) sensors, and automated irrigation systems require
significant investment.
o Small and marginal farmers, who make up 85% of India's
farming community, struggle with affordability.
 Infrastructure Gaps: Unreliable internet connectivity in rural areas
restricts access to AI-powered platforms.
 o Out of 5,97618 inhabited villages in the country, 25067
villages lack mobile connectivity and Internet.
 Data Availability and Quality: AI relies on real-time and historical
data for accurate predictions. Incomplete or inaccurate agricultural
data limits AI’s effectiveness.
 Limited Customization: Most AI models are not tailored to
India's diverse agro-climatic conditions.
o More research is needed to develop region-specific AI
solutions.
Way Forward
 Data Frameworks: The AgriStack Initiative and India Digital
Ecosystem for Agriculture (IDEA) can be utilized as digital platforms
for farm data management, enabling accurate predictions through
seamless data integration.
o Utilize the National AI Centres of Excellence on developing
region-specific AI solutions for Indian agriculture.
 Digital Infrastructure: Public Wi-Fi hotspots under the Prime
Minister's Wi-Fi Access Network Interface (PM-WANI) and BharatNet
Project can enhance rural connectivity, enabling farmers to access
AI-driven platforms.
 Skilling and Awareness: The National e-Governance Plan in
Agriculture (NeGPA) educates farmers on AI applications,
while FutureSkills PRIME, reskills professionals in AI and emerging
technologies for agriculture.
 Financial Support: Under the Digital Agriculture Mission (2021-
2025), offer subsidized loans to agri-tech startups and farmer
cooperatives, promoting innovation in farming.
Key govt measures
o AI-integrated drip and sprinkler irrigation systems under the "Per
Drop More Crop" scheme, improving water efficiency.
o IoT-based irrigation solutions, developed by ICAR, which automate
water supply based on real-time field conditions, reducing wastage.
The National Pest Surveillance System, which leverages AI to monitor pest
activity and provide real-time alerts.
o Kisan e-Mitra, an AI-powered chatbot assisting farmers with queries
about the PM Kisan Samman Nidhi scheme.
DAIRY SECTOR IN INDIA?
Context: The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) has reached a
milestone in digitalizing the dairy sector, notably generating over 35.68
crore “Pashu Aadhaar” IDs.
About Digitalizing India’s Dairy Sector:
What it is?
 India is the global leader in milk production, contributing 25% of the
world’s output. Digitalization is the Second White Revolution,
shifting the focus from mere production to traceability, efficiency,
and value addition.
Importance of the Dairy Sector in India:
1. Rural Livelihood Security: It provides a regular source of income
for over 80 million rural households.
E.g. In regions like Vidarbha and Marathwada, dairy acts as a safety
net against crop failures, reducing the incidence of farmer distress.
1. Nutritional Security: Milk is a primary source of animal protein for
India’s largely vegetarian population.
E.g. Government programs like the Mid-Day Meal increasingly include
fortified milk to combat Vitamin A and D deficiencies in children.
1. Economic Contribution: The dairy sector contributes significantly
to the agricultural GDP, often surpassing the combined value of rice
and wheat.
E.g. In Gujarat, the Amul model contributes billions to the state
economy, demonstrating dairy as a commercial powerhouse.
1. Women Empowerment: Dairying is primarily managed by women,
providing them with financial independence.
E.g. Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh have
successfully taken over milk collection centers, enhancing their social
standing.
 1. Inclusive Growth: Livestock distribution is more equitable than
land distribution, benefiting small and marginal farmers.
E.g. Roughly 75% of rural households own just 2–4 animals, yet they
drive the bulk of India’s 25% global market share.
Initiatives Taken for Digitalization:
 National Digital Livestock Mission (NDLM): Creating Bharat
Pashudhan, a database for breeding, health, and vaccination
records.
 Pashu Aadhaar: Issuing 12-digit unique ID ear tags to animals for
full traceability.
 Automatic Milk Collection System (AMCS): Digitizing milk fat
testing and payments to ensure farmers get fair prices instantly.
 NDDB Dairy ERP (NDERP): An open-source software (ERPNext) to
manage supply chains from cow to consumer.
 GIS Route Optimisation: Using satellite mapping to reduce milk
procurement distances and fuel costs for cooperatives.
Overall Challenges in the Dairy Sector:
1. Low Productivity per Animal: Average milk yield in India is 987
kg per lactation, far below the global average of 2,038 kg.
E.g. Indigenous breeds often produce less than cross-bred varieties due
to a lack of focused genetic upgrades in many states.
1. Fragmented Supply Chain: About 75–85% of the marketable
surplus still flows through the unorganized/informal sector.
E.g. Local milkmen (Dudhiyas) in North India often lack cold chain
infrastructure, leading to higher spoilage and quality issues.
1. Feed and Fodder Scarcity: Rising costs of concentrates and
shrinking grazing lands affect profitability.
E.g. High inflation in maize and soybean prices recently forced many
dairy unions to hike milk prices to cover input costs.
1. Quality and Adulteration: Maintaining global sanitary standards
is a hurdle for exports.
E.g. India’s share in global dairy exports is <1% because many
products fail to meet the strict phytosanitary norms of the EU and USA.
1. Lack of Formal Credit: Smallholders struggle to get loans for
expanding herds or upgrading technology.
E.g. Farmers often rely on local moneylenders at high interest rates
because commercial banks perceive livestock as a high-risk asset.
Way Ahead:
 1. Scaling Breed Improvement: Focus on Artificial Insemination (AI)
and genomic selection to boost the productivity of indigenous cattle.
E.g. The Semen Station Management System (SSMS) ensures that
only high-quality, traceable semen doses are used nationwide.
1. Strengthening the Cold Chain: Expanding bulk milk chillers at
the village level to reduce spoilage and improve Clean Milk
Production.
E.g. NDDB’s AMCS integration allows cooperatives to monitor milk
temperature and quality in real-time from remote villages.
1. Promoting Value-Added Products: Shifting from liquid milk to
high-margin products like cheese, probiotics, and organic milk.
E.g. Brands like Epigamia and Amul are rapidly expanding into high-
protein yogurts to meet urban health-conscious demand.
1. Enhancing Export Competitiveness: Aligning Indian standards
with Codex Alimentarius to tap into South Asian and Middle Eastern
markets.
E.g. Creating Export Zones for dairy in states like Gujarat can help
standardize quality for international certification.
1. Formalizing Credit through Technology: Using Pashu Aadhaar
data as collateral for digital lending by banks.
E.g. Fintech startups are now exploring Livestock Credit Scores based
on the health and milk records stored in the NDLM database.
Conclusion:
By merging the traditional cooperative strength with cutting-edge digital
tools like NDLM and AMCS, India is evolving into a transparent and
efficient dairy superpower. This digital shift ensures that the benefits of
the White Revolution reach the smallest farmer, securing India’s position
as a global leader in sustainable and technology-driven milk production.
White Revolution
The White Revolution in India, also known as Operation Flood, was a
massive dairy development program launched in 1970 under Dr. Verghese
Kurien, transforming India from a milk-deficient nation into the world's
largest milk producer through a network of village dairy cooperatives,
eliminating middlemen, and empowering rural farmers, creating the
largest self-sustainable rural employment in the process
Contribution to India's Economy
 GDP Share: Contributes approximately 5% to the national
GDP and nearly 25% to the total Agricultural GDP.
  Market Value: The Indian dairy market was valued at
approximately $135.3 billion in 2024 and is projected to reach
nearly $314 billion by 2026.
 Livelihood: Supports over 8 crore (80 million) farmers,
predominantly small and marginal holders.
 Empowerment: Women make up 70% of the dairy
workforce and lead over 48,000 cooperatives, playing a critical
role in milk production and collection.
Advantages
 Economic Stability: Provides year-round income, acting as a
safety net against seasonal crop failures.
 Low-Cost Model: Driven by smallholders using crop residues as
feed, keeping production costs internationally competitive despite
lower yields.
 Nutritional Security: Vital source of high-quality protein and
calcium for India's largely vegetarian population.
 Sustainability: Promotes a circular economy through organic
manure for farming and biogas (Gobar-Dhan) for energy.
Issues and Challenges
 Low Productivity: Indian cattle average 1.64 tonnes/year,
significantly lower than the US (11 tonnes) or EU (7.3 tonnes).
 Feed & Fodder Scarcity: Deficits of 12% in green fodder and 23%
in dry fodder lead to rising input costs and lower yields.
 Infrastructure Gaps: Roughly 68% of the marketable
surplus remains in the unorganized sector, lacking cold storage and
quality-testing labs.
 Disease Threats: Outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) and
Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) continue to reduce livestock productivity.
 2026 Supply Concerns: Unseasonal rains and regional tensions in
2025 have led to tighter supply and margin pressure expected
to peak in early 2026.
Government Measures
 White Revolution 2.0 (2024–2029): Aims to establish 75,000
new dairy cooperatives and increase milk procurement to over
1,000 lakh kg per day by 2029.
 National Digital Livestock Mission (NDLM): Creating "Bharat
Pashudhan," a digital database where over 35.68 crore
animals have been issued a 12-digit "Pashu Aadhaar" for health
and breeding records.
  Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM): Focuses on breed improvement,
including free artificial insemination (AI) and the use of sex-sorted
semen.
 Financial Support: The Animal Husbandry Infrastructure
Development Fund (AHIDF) provides interest subvention for
private and cooperative investments in processing and feed plants.
 GST Reductions (Sept 2025): Tax removed on UHT milk and
packaged paneer; reduced to 5% for ghee and butter to boost
demand and support margins.
Future Outlook & Recommendations
 Professionalize Cooperatives: Transform cooperatives into
modern business entities with better management of value-added
products like cheese and probiotics.
 Increase AI Coverage: Only 33% of breedable bovines are
currently covered by AI; expanding this is essential for genetic
improvement.
 Climate-Smart Practices: Incentivize water-efficient technologies
and solar-powered cold chains to mitigate climate-related
productivity losses.
 Price Stabilization: Explore a Milk Price Stabilization Fund to
protect small farmers from market volatility.

BAHS
India's Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics for 2024-25 show leadership in
milk (world #1), eggs (world #2), and meat (world #4), with total milk at
~248 MT, eggs ~149 billion, meat ~10.5 MT, and wool ~34.57 million kg
 Milk: 247.87 Million Tonnes (MT), a 3.58% increase from 2023-24;
India ranks #1 globally.
 Eggs: 149.11 Billion nos., a 4.44% increase; India ranks #2 globally.
 Meat: 10.50 Million Tonnes, a 2.46% increase; India ranks #4
globally.
 Wool: 34.57 Million Kilograms, a 2.63% increase.
Per Capita Milk Availability: Increased to 485 grams/day in 2024-25
from 319 grams/day in 2014-15
Rashtriya Gokul Mission – An Important initiative supporting Dairy
Sector
The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying is
implementing Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM) since 2014 for
development and conservation of indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds,
genetic upgradation of bovine population and enhancement of milk
production and productivity of bovines. The revised Rashtriya Gokul
Mission has been introduced in March 2025, to accelerate the growth of
the livestock sector. It is being implemented as a Central Sector
component of the Development Programmes scheme with an additional
outlay of Rs. 1000 crore, making the total allocation Rs. 3400 crore for
the 15th Finance Commission cycle from 2021–22 to 2025–26.
The scheme continues the earlier activities of the Rashtriya Gokul Mission.
It focuses on strengthening semen stations, expanding the Artificial
Insemination network, and implementing bull production and accelerated
breed improvement programmes through sex sorted semen etc.
With the implementation of the Rashtriya Gokul Mission and other efforts
of the Government, milk production has increased by 63.56% in the last
ten years. Productivity has also increased by 26.34% in the last ten
years.
Artificial Insemination Coverage
Artificial insemination is one of the most effective technologies for
improving milk production and the productivity of bovines. At
present, 33% of breedable bovines in India are covered through this
method. Nearly 70% of the animals are still serviced by scrub bulls of
unknown genetic merit.
In 2024-25, a total of 565.55 lakh artificial inseminations were carried
out across the country. This marks an important step towards expanding
scientific breeding practices and improving the quality of livestock.
Nationwide Artificial Insemination Programme (NAIP)
The National Artificial Insemination Programme (NAIP) under the
RGM has made strong progress in recent years. Under NAIP, free AI
services are being delivered at the farmers’ doorstep across districts. As
of August 2025, the programme has covered 9.16 crore animals, 14.12
crores Artificial Insemination have been performed benefitting5.54
crore farmers.
Advanced Reproductive Technologies
To boost productivity, 22 IVF labs have been set up. Over 10.32
million doses of sex-sorted semen have been produced, of which 70
lakh doses have been used for artificial insemination. This helps farmers
secure more female calves and strengthen milk output.
Multipurpose AI Technicians in Rural India (MAITRIs)
To bring breeding services closer to farmers, Multipurpose AI Technicians
in Rural India, known as MAITRIs, have been introduced. These technicians
are trained for three months at accredited institutes and receive grants of
up to 50,000 rupees for necessary equipment. After 3 years, they
become self-reliant through the recovery of costs. Over the last 4
years, 38,736 MAITRIs have been inducted and are now delivering
services directly at farmers’ doorsteps.
Progeny Testing and Breed Multiplication
Milk production is a sex-limited trait, so the genetic worth of a bull is
judged by the performance of its daughters. This scientific process, called
progeny testing, helps in estimating the transmitting ability of bulls.
During 2021-2024, 3,747 progeny-tested bulls have been produced
against the 5-year target of 4,111. Alongside this, 132 breed
multiplication farms have been sanctioned to strengthen the
availability of quality animals.
Future Vision: White Revolution 2.0
The launch of Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for White Revolution
2.0 on 19.09.2024, and the formal launch on 25.12.2024, marks a fresh
push to strengthen dairy cooperatives, generate jobs and empower
women. The White Revolution 2.0 initiative will be implemented for five
years during 2024-25 to 2028- 29. By 2028-29, milk procurement by dairy
cooperatives is expected to reach 1007 lakh kg per day from current
levels. The plan includes: -
i. Expanding the coverage by dairy cooperatives by the formation
of 75,000 new Dairy Cooperative Societies. Women farmers will
be drawn into the organized dairy sector by setting up cooperatives
in every uncovered village.
ii. Strengthening of 46,422 existing Dairy Cooperative Societies.
iii. Embedding sustainability and circularity in the dairy sector by
formation of three exclusive Multi-State Cooperative Societies
(MSCS) to undertake the following activities: -
a. To supply cattle feed, mineral mixtures and other technical
inputs.
b. To promote organic manure production and sustainable waste
utilization through cooperative efforts, contributing to natural
farming and a circular economy by utilization of cow dung and
agricultural waste for conversion into organic fertilizers and
biogas, in response to rising demand for eco-friendly soil
inputs and national sustainability goals.
c. For Management of hides, bones and horns of fallen animals.
Conclusion
India’s dairy sector is the backbone of rural livelihoods and a symbol of
inclusive growth. As the largest milk producer in the world, the country
has combined farmer-led cooperatives, women’s participation and
scientific practices to achieve remarkable progress. With the momentum
of White Revolution 2.0, the sector is poised to boost productivity, expand
opportunities and continue transforming rural prosperity.
Modern Technology in the Dairy Sector
  Precision Livestock Farming (PLF):
o Wearable Devices: Smart collars, ear tags (Pashu Aadhaar),
and belts (e.g., BovSmart) use IoT and AI to monitor cattle
health, movement, and reproductive cycles in real-time.
o Health Monitoring: AI-driven systems detect early signs of
diseases like mastitis or lameness, reducing veterinary costs
by up to 30%.
 Automated Milking Systems (AMS):
o Robotic milking machines allow cows to be milked on their
own schedule, reducing animal stress and increasing milk
yield.
o Units like those from Lely or miRobot monitor up to 32
parameters during each milking session, including fat and
protein content.
 Blockchain for Traceability:
o Provides a tamper-proof digital record from the farm to the
consumer, ensuring food safety and building consumer trust.
 Supply Chain & Logistics:
o GIS Route Optimization: National Dairy Development Board
(NDDB) uses satellite mapping to optimize milk collection
routes, reducing fuel costs and travel time.
o Smart Cold Chains: IoT sensors monitor the temperature of
milk during transit and storage to prevent spoilage.
How to Improve Dairy Processing
Improving processing is critical, as India currently processes less than
30% of its milk into value-added products.
 Advanced Filtration Techniques:
o Ultrafiltration (UF): Concentrates proteins and removes
lactose, essential for making high-protein yogurts and lactose-
free milk.
o Microfiltration (MF): Used for cold sterilization, removing
bacteria and spores without the heat damage associated with
traditional pasteurization.
 Innovative Thermal Processing:
o Ohmic Heating: Rapid and uniform internal heating using
electric resistance, ideal for shear-sensitive products.
o Pulsed Electric Field (PEF): A non-thermal pasteurization
method that preserves fresh-like attributes, sensory
properties, and nutrients.
  Efficiency & Value Addition:
o Whey Utilization: Investing in equipment to process whey
(formerly a waste byproduct) into high-value protein powders.
o Automation: Implementing Manufacturing Execution
Systems (MES) to digitize factory floors, reducing human
error and ensuring consistent product quality.
 Sustainable Packaging:
o Transitioning from plastic sachets to recyclable,
biodegradable, or eco-friendly materials to meet rising
environmental standards.
 Digital Integration:
o Dairy ERP (NDERP): Using open-source Enterprise Resource
Planning to integrate finance, inventory, and production data
into a single platform for better decision-making

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Remember BAHS
Animal husbandry refers to livestock raising and selective
breeding. It is the management and care of animals in which the
genetic qualities and behavior of animals are further developed for
profit.
The Animal Husbandry sector plays a pivotal role in strengthening India’s
rural economy and ensuring food and nutritional security. Recognizing its
importance,
Given the increasing vulnerability of agriculture to climate change, future
interventions in animal husbandry must prioritize climate-smart livestock
farming. This includes promoting sustainable practices that enhance
productivity while reducing environmental impact. There is also a growing
need to stay abreast of emerging trends in livestock farming, consolidate
knowledge resources, and develop strategic, region-specifc approaches
for sectoral growth. The path ahead demands continuous innovation,
greater use of technology, and sustained support to our livestock. With
each step forward, we move closer to building a healthier, self-reliant, and
stronger India through a vibrant and inclusive livestock sector
The products from livestock farming comprise of milk, meat, egg, manure,
hides, skins, other by-products and wool. Livestock farming is gaining
popularity not only because of its direct contribution to nutritional security
but also for its manure as it paves for organic farming and sustainable
agriculture operations
ccording to DAHD&F Annual report 2022-23, about 54% of total milk
produced in our country is marketable surplus and remaining 46% is
consumed locally. Out of total marketable milk surplus, 40% is processed
either in cooperative and private sector and 60% is marketed by
unorganized sector.
In developed countries, 90% of marketable milk surplus is processed.
Thus, there is vast scope for further milk processing either in private or
cooperative sector and such transition is necessary for enhancing the
farmers’ income. Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries
had prepared a Draft National Action Plan for Dairy Development with a
target to double the income of dairy farmers through increasing organised
milk handling from 20% at present to 50% by 2022- 23. The action plan
includes creation of milk chilling facilities including bulk milk cooling,
processing infrastructure, value addition, organisation of milk collection
centres/ dairy cooperative societies, milk transportation facility and
marketing infrastructure to meet the requirement of increased milk
handling.
Meat processing infrastructure
Modernized slaughter houses are required for clean / hygienic meat
processing. There is a need to modernize the existing slaughter houses
and to establish modern meat processing plants for exploiting the
potential available for export of meat to other countries. APEDA has taken
an initiative to identify the modern slaughter houses for facilitating the
export of meat and its products.
There is very little processing in case of meat. Hardly 1% of the total meat
produced in the country is used for processing. Remaining meat is sold in
fresh or frozen form

Role of NABARD IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY OR LIVESTOCK SECTOR

Refinance support: Refinance support remained main mandate of NABARD
to supplement the resources of various RFIs and very often in many states
livestock sector occupies prime position among allied activities in terms of
refinance flow.
Working capital loans through KCC for Animal Husbandry and Fisheries
farmers:
Awareness creation and capacity building As a part of building knowledge
bank and dissemination of the same, state specific model schemes on
dairy were prepared and circulated widely among rural financial
institutions
Rural Infrastructure Development (RIDF) In order to facilitate the creation
of modern breeding and veterinary infrastructure, which is pre requisite
for quality produce and to penetrate into niche / global markets, under
Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF), loan assistance was given
to state governments. It is an excellent opportunity for state
governments, as loan is made available at an attractive interest rate of
2.75% at present.
Dairy Processing Infrastructure Development Fund (DIDF) As mentioned in
earlier chapter the cooperative milk processing plants have become
obsolete and there the demand for processing of milk is increasing. To
have focused approach for addressing these issues, GoI has decided to
establish a dedicated fund known as Dairy Processing Infrastructure
Development Fund in NABARD
Thus, NABARD’s refinance and finance products along with promotional
interventions or innovations address credit needs of the entire value chain
of livestock sector viz., breeding facilities, veterinary care, production,
procurement / aggregating, processing, cooling, storage, transportation
and marketing. The needy institutions can avail any of these facilities for
building the vibrant livestock sector.
White Revolution 2.0 1. White Revolution 2.0 aims to boost milk
procurement by dairy cooperatives from 660 lakh kg per day in 2023-24
to 1,007 lakh kg by 2028-29. 2. The Ministry of Cooperation’s strategy
focuses on expanding cooperative reach to new areas and increasing their
share in the organized dairy sector. 3. This initiative, building on the
legacy of Operation Flood, will enhance market access for dairy farmers,
generate employment, and empower women. 4. Target • White
Revolution 2.0 will increase milk procurement of dairy cooperatives by
50%, over the next five years. • It will do so by providing market access to
dairy farmers in uncovered areas and increasing the share of dairy
cooperatives in the organised sector.

Livestock - Cause for Green House Gases FAO, 2016 (as cited in FAO,
2017) estimates that Green House Gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture
(crops and livestock), forestry and other land uses (AFOLU) amount to 21
percent of total global GHG emissions. The main sources are: Release of
CO2 from forests when they are converted to fields and pastures, cleared
for logging, or degraded due to unsustainable management. Methane
from enteric fermentation in the digestive tracts of ruminant livestock,
flooded paddy rice fields. Nitrous oxide from fertilizer and manure use and
leguminous plants and trees
Agriculture remains the secondlargest source of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions in India
Enteric Fermentation: Methane emissions from livestock, particularly
cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats, remain a significant contributor
Manure Management and Crop Residue Burning: Emissions from manure
management rose by 1%, while crop residue burning decreased by 5.4%,
making it the only agricultural sub-sector with a decline in emissions.
Feed Production, Processing and Transport The CO2 emission arises from
the use of fossil fuel for production of fertilizer and transport of feed
whereas the N2O emission arises from the application of nitrogenous
fertilizers
Carbon dioxide emissions from energy consumption It occurs along the
entire livestock supply chain producing co2 emissions. At feed production
level, energy consumption mostly relates to the production of fertilizers
and to the use of machinery for crop management, harvesting,
processing, and transportation. Energy is also consumed on the animal
production site, either directly through mechanized operations, or
indirectly for the construction of the buildings and of equipment.
Livestock-Sufferer of Impacts of Climate Change Climate change
affects the livestock sector in multiple ways, both directly and indirectly.
Animal production is affected by climate change in four ways: the impact
of changes on livestock feed-grain availability and price; the impact on
livestock pastures and forage crop production and quality; changes in
livestock diseases and pests; and the direct effects of weather and
extreme events on animal health, growth and reproduction. The indirect
effects of climate-driven changes in animal production may result mainly
from alterations in the nutritional environment. Feed and Pasture Quality:
The impact of climate change may result in the deterioration of pasture
towards lesser quality subtropical C4 grasses in traditional temperate
regions as a result of warmer temperatures and less frost. However, there
may be increases in production owing to the increase in CO2 levels. It is
also possible that C4 species (maize, sorghum, sugarcane and tropical
grasses) may be replaced with C3 species (wheat, rice, soybean) owing to
increased levels of CO2 (Taub, 2010). Impact of heat stress on different
species: Livestock with highest production potential are at greatest risk of
heat stress. Farm animals with only a few sweat glands or none are
affected mostly (poultry, pig). High ambient temperatures impair egg
production by decreasing the weight and number of eggs as well as
reducing the egg shell quality, the deterioration of meat quality traits due
to heat stress occurs mainly due to higher rate of lipid peroxidation and
the altered electrolyte balance. Metabolic Disorders: Heat stress caused
anorexia in dairy cattle leads to metabolic disorders like ketosis. The
occurrence of ketosis leads to a decline in milk production and may lead
to mortality. The ability of dairy cows to adapt to the changes of the
environment depends on their genetic potential. The present-day
selection for reproduction in dairy cattle weakens heat tolerance. Impact
on Wool Industry: Climate change is likely to have implications for the
wool industry, principally through its effects on forage and water
resources, land carrying capacity and sustainability, animal health, and
competition with other sectors, in particular cropping. Diseases: Climatic
changes may influence livestock health through a number of factors,
including the range and abundance of vectors and wildlife reservoirs, the
survival of pathogens in the environment, and farming.
Mitigation
Mitigation activities are designed to reduce the sources and enhance the
sinks of greenhouses gases in order to limit the negative effects of climate
change.
a. Management Strategies i. Reducing the livestock numbers -
The option may not be suitable for the developing countries
which depend largely / solely on the livestock for their national
economic income The application of biotechnological aid can
meet out the loss of reduction in animal numbers, for
example, the use of recombinant BST (Bovine Somatotropin)
leads to an increase in milk production upto 10 to 20% in US
dairy cows with decreased emissions by about 9%.he adoption
of semen sexing technology for 25 percent of the dairy cows
in India was estimated to reduce male calf numbers by 9
percent and reduction of male calf achieved by sexing of
semen by AI also results in reduction in Emission Intensity
b. Animal Breeding with Low Methane Emissions: There are
differences between the individual animals in the quantity of
CH4 they emit per unit of dry matter intake (Pinares- Patino et
al., 2007 as cited in Sejian V, 2012). Therefore genetic
selection of animals that consume less feed or produce less
CH4 per unit of feed is one of the mitigation strategies which
is one of the future areas of research.
c. ncreasing the efficiency of livestock production: Improvement
in efficiency of ruminant animal’s production will generally
lead to a reduction of methane emitted per unit of product.
This can be achieved through genetic selection of animals for
increasing the productivity and nutritional manipulation
d. Grazing Management: Improving the quality of pastures and
implementing proper grazing management practices will
increase the animal productivity and lower CH4 per unit of
product.
b. Nutritional Strategies: Dietary Manipulation: The practices
which increase the digestibility of the ligno-cellulose feeds results
in lower methanogenesis.
c. Other Strategies: Development of vaccine containing antigen
derived from methanogenic bacteria (Gworgwor et al., 2006 as
cite in Sejian V, 2012) and an immunogenic preparation which
reduces the activity of rumen protozoa
8.7 Adaptation Adaptation includes all activities that help people
and ecosystems reduce their vulnerability to the adverse impacts
of climate change and minimize the costs of natural disasters.
Livestock’s vulnerability depends on their exposure to climate
shocks (duration, severity, location of stock and feed, water) and
its adaptation capacity depends upon the production system,
including choice of species and breeds, the availability/
adaptability of alternative feed resources
Climate Smart Livestock: The possible principles for climate
smart livestock are Resource use efficiency and building
resilience at farm and system level. With the current and
projected scarcity of resources and with an increasing global
demand for livestock products especially in Developing
Countries, the efficient use of resources (land, water and energy)
assumes great significance. The efficiency is generally measures
as the ratio of use of natural resources as input to the production
activities and output from production. For building resilience, the
adaptation options can be technological (eg. drought tolerant
crops), behavioral modifications (changes in dietary choices),
managerial choices (different farm management practices) and
policy alternatives (planning regulations and infrastructure).
8.9 Climate Finance Climate Finance refers to local, national or
transnational financing - drawn from public, private and
alternative sources of financing -that seeks to support mitigation
and adaptation actions that will address climate change

Agriculture diversification through Animal Husbandry (AH) is one

of the primary drivers of growth in rural economy. AH in India has
numerous opportunities for improvement, but also faces several
challenges. Contribution of livestock to farmers’ income is
significantly increasing with the decline in farm size, there is a
need for supporting allied activities to improve cash flow of small
and marginal farmers. Major key issues and suggestions are
highlighted as:

Major challenges of Animal

Husbandry sector are as under:
• Low Productivity
• Climate Change related factors
• Difficulty in availing Livestock
Insurance cover by the Livestock
farmers
• Weak Setup of Livestock Specific
Extension Services
• Weak Market Access

a. Low Productivity: The productivity of Indian livestock is

significantly lower than global average. Productivity across
various livestock species is a major issue especially in case of
dairy animals
 Suggestions: - Population of most of the indigenous
breeds has alarmingly gone down due to comparative
preferences for high producing exotic breeds. This calls
for an immediate action for systematic conservation,
genetic improvement, and sustainable utilization of
indigenous livestock breeds.
b. b. Breed Improvement: With mechanisation of Agriculture,
utility of male bovines has reduced. Farmers are not willing to
maintain Bullocks for agriculture or any other draft work.
Hence, male calves born at farmer house have become a
liability. Farmers often let the male calves loose; resulting in
increase in stray animal population. Only female calves can be
produced (with more than 90% accuracy) by use of latest
technology like Sex Sorted Semen in AI program. Use of sex
sorted semen will be game changer for the farmers as only
female calves are produced with almost 90% accuracy against
50:50 male to female sex ratio with normal semen.
c. c. Advanced breed improvement: High-quality breeds can be
expanded rapidly using sex-sorted semen, thereby improving
the productivity and quality of animals. small and marginal
farmers of small ruminants can available this facility
Indigenous Sex Sorted Semen’ at an affordable rate of ₹ 250/-
only
d. d. Population control: Uncontrolled population of animals can
be controlled using this technique, thereby reducing the
problem of stray animals.
e. e. Food security: Food security is an important issue with the
increasing population. Production of high-quality milk and
meat can also be increased using sex-sorted semen, thereby
ensuring food security.

f. Inadequate Artificial Insemination (AI) Services: - Poor

coverage of breedable bovine population and inadequate AI
 dose supply Suggestions: • Expand existing breeding farm
capacities. • Establish new breeding farms. • Strengthen
semen production stations and delivery mechanisms: Special
attention is needed in states where AI coverage is low. • Such
states may avail the assistance available under RIDF and
NIDA.

g. g. Feed and Fod der deficiency: - Deficiency of feed and fodder

results in low productivity. There is a need to promote private
investment for augmenting feed and fodder resources through
technologies like hydroponics, cultivation of improved
varieties, silage making, enrichment of crop residues by alkali
treatment etc.

h. h. Frequent outbreak of diseases: - Frequent outbreak of

diseases like Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), BQ, PPR,
Brucellosis, Swine fever and Avian Influenza etc., continue to
reduce productivity and production. However, the available
veterinary support in terms of infrastructure (for hospitals) is
qualitatively insufficient. Moreover, most of the existing
dispensary and hospital buildings are very old and in
dilapidated condition.

 Suggestions: Modernization of such physical

infrastructure may be planned by State Governments.
Financial assistance is available from NABARD under
RIDF and NIDA.
i. Disease diagnosis: Disease diagnosis, reporting, epidemiology,
surveillance, and forecasting mechanisms are to be
strengthened.
 Suggestions: Managing livestock diseases through
prophylactic controls with a strong laboratory diagnostic
system is the option for the concerned stakeholder
j. j. Climate Change: Climate change has become a major threat
and is impacting livestock productivity, food security of the
most vulnerable rural population.
 Suggestions: - • Climate Smart Livestock farming must
be the top priority for future initiatives on livestock
development. • Clean biogas option addresses a
problem of methane emissions from manure while slurry
from biogas plants provide organic input to crop
husbandry.
k. Livestock Insurance: Low Coverage: As of 2024, livestock
insurance coverage in India remains minimal, with only about
0.98% of the total animal population insured. The government
has initiated measures to increase this coverage to 5% of the
total animal population
 Suggestions: - • The Central Government has lowered
beneficiary premium contributions to 15% (earlier 20-
 50%). • Innovative and acceptable insurance models
may be designed to evolve a suitable scheme for
various species/ [Link] Campaigns:
Conducting awareness programs to educate farmers
about the benefits of livestock insurance.
l. l. Livestock Extension Services: Livestock extension services
needs improvement. The extension format, methodology and
set-up established for agriculture is inadequate to cater to the
needs of the livestock sector. Consequently, only 5% of the
farm households were able to access any information on
animal husbandry against 40% for crop farming. Suggestions:
• Strengthening of livestock extension services, either under
private or under public sector needs to be attempted. •
Regular training for extension workers on the latest
technologies and practices
m. m. Market Access: The local market meets the requirements,
but the main obstacles to the export of livestock products are
the much lower yields (milk or meat), quality problems with
small-scale animal holdings, the enormous domestic demand
driven by rising earnings, and the intermittent outbreaks of
FMD that distort public view of the disease. Concerns include,
among other things, high import taxes and substantial export
subsidies from wealthy nations. A significant portion of buffalo
milk and the global market for items made from cow milk are
further obstacles to the export of milk products. Further,
logistics and physical infrastructure continue to be major
issues for the export of cattle products.
 Suggestions: Creation of modern livestock-based food
processing plants, cold chain infrastructure along the
value chain, improved packaging, better market
channels and brand building should be focus for
promoting the exports of milk and meat products.
Export Promotion: Promoting exports through better
compliance with international standards and trade
agreements.
n. Other issues like Least technology adoption, failure to tap
value chain potentials, limited contract farming operations are
some of the challenges for livestock sector. Use of sexed
semen for rapid improvement of dairy animal productivity,
value chain approach and contract farming system may be
adopted for small ruminant and pig farming for ensuring faster
growth of these sectors.

FOOD PROCESSING IN INDIA : POTENTIAL AND CURRENT

STATUS,CHALLENGES AND WAY FORWARD
Food Processing involves transforming raw agricultural products into
consumable food items, adding value and extending shelf [Link] food
processing industry encompasses a wide range of activities, including the
processing, preservation, packaging, and distribution of food products.
The food processing industry in India plays a vital role in the country’s
economy and is an important contributor to the growth and development
of the agriculture sector. Food processing sector has been recognised as
a ‘sunrise sector‘
Type of Food Processing: The can be categorized
into primary and secondary products:
1. Primary products are made from processed raw materials,
like fruits and vegetables.
2. Secondary products are created by processing primary food items
into new products, such as jams, sauces, and butter.
Main reasons behind the Growth of Food Processing sector in
India:
1. Changing lifestyle and food preferences as a result of increasing
disposable income. Rising health consciousness among consumers is
driving demand for processed and packaged foods that
are safe and nutritive.
2. High level of agricultural output: India is the world’s largest producer of
milk, pulses, and jute. It is also the second largest producer of essential
crops such as rice, wheat, sugarcane, groundnut, vegetables, fruits, and
cotton.
3. Export opportunities such as proximity to key export destinations,
increasing connectivity with the global economy.
4. Proactive government policy & assistance with government
interventions like Mega Food Park Scheme.
Opportunities in the food processing sector:
 Quantity of raw material available: India has 52% cultivable land,
compared to 11% world average. It has the largest livestock
population, 17% of Global milk share (largest) and is the 2nd largest
producer of Fisheries, Fruits & Vegetables, Cereals, etc.
 High-yield Varieties (HYV) of Food: High-yield varieties (HYV) of food
like horticulture, dairy, etc have low shelf life. This is where FPI can
come into play and subsequently increase farmers’ income.
 Diversity: India has a variety of raw materials available which can
help develop a host of innovative food products from the diverse
raw materials.
 Expansion potential: India currently processes only 10% of its food
material, compared to the US at 65% and China at 23%. India also
has a cheap workforce which can be upskilled as necessary.
 Ensuring Nutritional Security: Processed foods when fortified with
vitamins and minerals can reduce the nutritional gap in the
population.
  Large Consumption Economy: With rising incomes and standard of
living, demand for items immediately available to eat or cook and
safe processed food
 High value addition: The 10% of processed food in India is 1/3 of the
total food market by value.
 Government support: Government has taken various steps for the
promotion of FPIs such as up to 100% FDI under the automatic
route, incentives under PM Krishi Sampada Yojana, Mega Food Parks
scheme and PLI in the FPI sector in India.
Challenges in food processing industry:
 Poor supply chain linkage: Lack of mechanization, high seasonality,
perishability, and lack of proper intermediation (supply chain)
results in a lack of availability of raw material. Due to inadequate
infrastructure, more than 30% of the produce from the farm gate is
lost.
 Infrastructure bottlenecks: FPIs need world class infrastructure and
logistics support in order to reduce wastage. This would require
support from Railways as well as Airways.
 Unskilled manpower: The existing manpower in the farming industry
needs to be trained in order to be employable in the FPI sector.
 Quality adherence low: Neither the crops nor the finished food is
graded according to the quality. This poses a challenge as high-
quality processed food in other markets act as competitors against
the low-quality product. This limits export potential.
 Low level of processing in certain sectors: Sectors like Fisheries
(8%), Poultry (6%), Horticulture food (2%), Consumer foods & Grains
have low processing infrastructure. These sectors also show
seasonality of operations and low-capacity utilisations.
 Not having enough product development and innovation.
 Deficiencies in the Regulatory Environment: There are numerous
laws, under the jurisdiction of different ministries and departments,
which govern food safety and packaging.

 What are the Challenges faced by the Sector In India?

 1. Low GVA despite high demand: Despite the increasing demand for
processed food and ready-to-eat food in India, the share of the sector in
overall GVA has only been 1.88% (2020-21) as against the share of
manufacturing at 17.86% and the share of GVA in agriculture at 16.26%.
 2. Lack of skilled manpower and modern technology: The availability of
skilled manpower has been identified as one of the major challenges facing
the industry in India. Many processing facilities use outdated technologies,
reducing efficiency and product quality.
  3. Infrastructure Bottlenecks: Inadequate cold storage facilities,
transportation systems, and processing infrastructure result in post-harvest
losses exceeding 30% of produce. The NITI Aayog estimates annual post-
harvest losses close to Rs 90,000 crore.
 4. Informalization and Unorganized Segments: The sector has a high
concentration of unorganized segments, representing almost 75% across
product categories. This causes inefficiencies in the production system.
 5. Supply Chain Inefficiencies: Fragmented supply chains with multiple
stakeholders and poor coordination lead to delays, waste, and low quality
products. For ex- Broken supply chain in the agricultural hinterland of Bihar.
 6. Regulatory Challenges: Stringent sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS)
measures in export markets impede Indian processed food exports. For
ex- Rejection of Indian processed exports by the EU.

 What Should be the Way Forward?

 1. Use of Smart technologies: Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence
(AI) Applications, Robotics and Automation should be used in the food
processing sector to increase productivity and decrease wastage.
 2. Focus on horticulture and animal products: Special focus must be put
on making India a market leader in global trade for at least five value
chains- processed fruits and vegetables, processed fish and sea food,
meat, dairy products, poultry and eggs by 2047.
 3. Skilled Manpower: The food sector must employ more
professionals trained in food technology, quality control, processing methods,
and food safety management.
 4. Better health markers: It must involve better health markers on the
packets. The regulatory mechanism governing food safety must be
strengthened and properly governed.
 5. Tapping the popularity of agricultural products: There is also a need to
tap the popularity of various food grains and coarse grains like millets which
are gaining increasing importance due to their nutritional benefits and
adaptability to various climatic conditions.
Conclusion:
The food processing sector is pivotal for India’s economic transformation,
farmer income enhancement, reduction of food waste, and rural
employment generation. It has the most profound impact on the rural
economy. With sustained focus on infrastructure, technology,
formalization, and market linkages, India is well-positioned to unlock the
full potential of this “sunrise industry” and emerge as a global food
processing hub.

DATA:
India’s food processing industry, valued at $336.4 billion, is the sixth
largest globally. It contributes around 12% to India’s manufacturing
GDP and employs over 1.9 million workers. With India
ranking 1st in milk and spices production, the sector is critical for value
addition and rural growth.
 Global Standing in Production: India’s Food Processing
Industry is the 6 largest in the world. India is the 2nd largest
th

producer of fruits & vegetables globally; it stands 1st in dairy

production.
 Economic Contribution: Contributes ~ 9% to Gross Value
Added (GVA) in the Agriculture sector & ~23% to the country’s
exports.
 Employment Generation: Supports over 7 million jobs across
the value chain, directly or indirectly.
Government Initiatives
 PM Kisan SAMPADA Scheme: To establish modern infrastructure
and efficient supply chain management, reduce farm wastage, &
enhance export of processed products.
 PM Formalisation of Micro Food Processing
Enterprises (PMFME) Scheme: ₹10,000 crore scheme under
Atmanirbhar Bharat to formalise micro-enterprises & SHGs in food
processing.
 Special Food Processing Fund: ₹2,000 crore fund set up under
NABARD to finance infrastructure & supply chain projects.
 Production Linked Incentive Scheme for Food Processing
Industry: Food & cold chain infrastructure classified under PSL to
ease credit access for entrepreneurs.
 Mega Food Park Scheme: Create integrated infrastructure for
storing and processing requirements of the food processing
industry.
 Budget 2024-25: Provisions for 50 irradiation units and 100 NABL
food labs to improve shelf life and safety for export readiness.
 National Makhana Board: Set up to globally position Indian
superfoods like makhana.
ORGANIC FARMING
Organic farming is a sustainable agricultural approach that avoids
synthetic chemicals and relies on natural inputs.
Principles of Organic Agriculture emphasise sustainability and
responsibility across four key areas that are Health, Ecology, Fairness and
Care.

Health: Organic agriculture prioritises the health of soil, plants, animals,

humans, and the planet, avoiding practices and substances harmful to
these interconnected systems.
Ecology: It aligns with natural ecological systems and cycles, working to
protect and sustain the environment, including biodiversity, climate, and
water resources.
Fairness: It fosters equitable relationships in production, distribution, and
trade, ensuring justice and accountability for environmental and social
impacts.
Care: Organic farming takes a precautionary and responsible approach,
considering the well-being of present and future generations through
transparent and inclusive decision-making.
Organic farming methods
Organic farming encompasses various methods like crop rotation,
polyculture, drip irrigation, organic pesticides, etc, for better soil, water,
and crop management.

Soil Management

Crop Rotation: Rotating crops to maintain soil fertility and control pests.
Minimum Tillage: Reducing soil disturbance to preserve soil health
Manures: Turning organic waste into nutrient-rich compost.
Crop Management

Polycultures: Growing multiple crops together to promote biodiversity.

Agroforestry: Integrating trees with crops to promote ecological balance.
Integrated Pest Management: Using natural methods to control pests.
Water Management

Drip irrigation: Efficiently delivering water directly to roots.

Mulching: Conserving water through mulch application.
Pest and disease control

Organic pesticides: Using natural pesticides like neem oil and pyrethrin.
Biological control: Using beneficial insects to control pests. Eg. Lady
Beetles against Whitefield
Need for Organic Farming
Conventional farming has led to biodiversity loss, environmental
degradation, health risks, and soil depletion, making organic farming a
sustainable alternative:

Environmental degradation: Conventional farming practices have led to

soil erosion, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity.
Health concerns: Pesticide and fertiliser residues in food have been linked
to various health problems. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), Pesticide exposure increases cancer and neurological disease
risks.
Soil degradation: Intensive farming degrades soil fertility, with India losing
approximately 5.3 billion tons of soil annually due to erosion (ICAR, 2015).
Water pollution: The use of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides in
conventional farming has contaminated water sources, posing a risk to
the environment.
Benefits of Organic Farming
Organic farming offers numerous advantages that contribute to
environmental sustainability, human health, and economic growth. By
reducing dependency on synthetic inputs and promoting natural
agricultural practices, it ensures a balanced and resilient farming system.
The following benefits highlight the significance of organic farming in
modern agriculture.

Soil Conservation: Organic practices like crop rotation reduce soil erosion,
helping maintain long-term soil fertility.
Water Conservation: By using efficient irrigation and mulching, organic
farming reduces water wastage.
Biodiversity: Organic farms encourage natural pest control and diverse
cropping, fostering healthier ecosystems.
Lower Pesticide Exposure: Conventional farming relies on synthetic
pesticides, increasing health risks.
Higher Nutritional Value: Organic crops use natural fertilisers, enhancing
their nutrient content.
Higher Earnings: Organic produce commands premium prices, increasing
farmers' income.
Preserving Traditions: Organic farming integrates traditional agricultural
knowledge, sustaining local practices.
Challenges of Organic Farming
Organic farming, while beneficial for the environment and health, faces
several challenges. These include higher production costs, lower yields,
difficulty in pest management, and limited market access. The following
are the details of these challenges:

Higher Production Costs: Organic farming often requires more labour and
costly organic inputs.
Lower Yields: Organic farming tends to produce lower yields per hectare
when compared to conventional farming, particularly in the first 2-3 years.
Pest and Weed Management: Managing pests without chemicals can be
more difficult in organic farms.
Certification and Regulation: Obtaining organic certification is costly and
time-consuming. In India, organic certification can take up to 3 years,
adding financial pressure on farmers.
Market Access and Pricing: Organic products face limited market access
and price competition.
Climate Vulnerability: Organic farming can be more susceptible to climate
impacts....

Status of Organic Farming in India

As per the Council on Energy, Environment, and Water, the following are
the acreage, geographies, and cultivation details of Organic farming in
India:
Area under organic farming: As of 2020, India had 2.78 million hectares
under certified organic farming, representing 2% of the total net sown
area.
Farmers practising organic farming: Over 1.9 million farmers were
registered under two certification systems by 2020. India has the top spot
in the world rankings for most organic producers.
Prevalence across India: Organic farming is widespread, especially in
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra. Sikkim is India's first 100%
organic state.
Major crops: Key organic crops include oilseeds, cotton, tea, and coffee,
with India leading in organic cotton production.
Export: India’s organic exports reached 1.3 million metric tons, valued at
₹3,500 crores (USD 470 million) in 2020.
Global leadership in cotton: India produced 51% of the world’s organic
cotton in 2018-19
Government Measures for Organic Farming
The Union and state governments have implemented several schemes,
such as the Organic Farming Policy, Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana,
and Soil Health Card, to promote organic farming at both national and
state levels.

National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP): Provides certification,

and financial aid, and promotes research to enhance organic farming
practices and market access.
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Launched in 2015, supports
farmers with financial aid and encourages cluster-based organic farming
for better resource sharing.
Organic Farming Policy: Aim to expand organic agriculture, boost
production and exports, and support small farmers with premium pricing
benefits.
Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region
(MOVCDNER): Focuses on organic farming growth in the Northeast
through certification, training, and market support.
State-Level Initiatives: Programs like the Sikkim Organic Mission and
Andhra Pradesh ZBNF promote organic farming with financial aid,
certification assistance, and marketing support..
Organic Farming Way Forward
To ensure the widespread adoption of organic farming, a multi-faceted
approach is required, focusing on research, policies, awareness,
certification, and technological advancements. The following measures
can help accelerate the growth of organic farming in India.
Research and Development: Investment in capacity building and training
for small-scale producers is essential. Emphasis should be on composting
techniques, quality assurance, and marketing strategies to enhance
organic manure production.
Policies and Schemes: A well-structured national program should be
developed, ensuring quality fertilisers through strict monitoring and
enforcement mechanisms.
Raising Awareness: Farmers should be trained through farmer-led schools,
ICT tools, expert interactions, and best-practice sharing to encourage on-
farm organic input production.
Smoother Certification Process: The high cost of certification deters small
farmers. Making certification accessible and affordable is crucial for wider
adoption.
Technological Advancement: Drones and AI can bridge productivity gaps,
optimise soil fertility, and support sustainable organic farming practices.
Supply Chain Management: Decentralized, local production of organic
inputs should be promoted to utilise regional resources, create
employment, and prevent adulteration....

ZBNF
ZBNF, or Zero Budget Natural Farming, is a chemical-free, sustainable
Indian agricultural method that aims for zero cost of production by using
on-farm resources like cow dung, urine, jaggery, and neem to create
natural inputs, avoiding expensive synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.
Popularized by Subhash Palekar, it focuses on soil health, biodiversity, and
reduced water usage through practices like minimal tilling, mulching, and
integrating livestock, making farming resilient and profitable for farmers
by lowering expenses and increasing income.
Key Principles & Practices
 Zero Budget: No external, purchased inputs, relying on materials
from the farm itself, meaning no money spent on fertilizers or
pesticides.
 Natural Inputs: Uses cow-based concoctions (Jeevamrutha,
Beejamrutha) and botanical extracts (Neem, Chili, Tobacco) for soil
nutrition and pest control
.
 Soil Health: Emphasizes keeping soil covered (living roots),
minimal soil disturbance, and adding organic matter.
 Water Conservation: Promotes efficient water use through
techniques like mulching and less irrigation.
  Biodiversity: Encourages diverse crops, trees, and integration of
animals.
Benefits
 Reduced Costs: Eliminates expenditure on costly synthetic
chemicals.
 Environmental Protection: Prevents chemical pollution of soil,
water, and air.
 Improved Farmer Income: Lowers costs and increases resilience,
boosting farmer earnings.
 Climate Resilience: Creates more robust farming systems.
Principles of Zero Budget Natural Farming
 No external inputs
 Soil to be covered with crops 365 days (Living Root)
 Minimal disturbance of Soil
 Biostimulantsas necessary catalysts
 Use indigenous seed
 Mixed cropping
 Integration of trees into the farm
 Water and moisture conservation
 Integrate animals in to farming
 Increase organic residues on the soil
 Pest-management through botanical extracts
 No synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides
Four main elements and models of ZNBF:
1. Bijamrita:
The seeds are treated with formulations prepared using cow dung and
cow urine from native cow species.
Benefits: The seeds sown in the field may be affected by fungus and
other seed born/soil borne diseases. The seed treatment using “Bijamrita”
protects the seeds from diseases.
2. Jiwamrita/Jeevamrutha:
Jiwamrita is prepared using cow dung and cow urine. It is used as an input
for the plants. It is a fermented microbial culture obtained from cow dung,
urine, jaggery, pulse flour and uncontaminated soil. This fermented
microbial culture when applied to soil, adds nutrients to the soil besides
acting as a catalytic agent to promote the activity of microorganisms and
earthworms in the soil.
Benefits: This culture stimulates microbial activity in the soil and
enhances nutrient availability for the plants, protects the crops against
soil pathogens and increases carbon content of the soil.
3. Acchadana/Mulching:
Mulching is the process of covering the top soil with crop wastes/organic
waste or with cover crops.
Benefits: Mulching materials decomposes and produces humus which
conserves top soil, increases water retention capacity of the soil,
decreases evaporation loss, encourages soil fauna besides enriching soil
nutrient status and controlling weed growth.
4. Waaphasa/Moisture (Soil Aeration):
Good aeration is required in the soil for plant growth and development.
Benefits: Due to the application of Jiwamrita and mulching, the aeration
of the soil increases, thus improves humus content, water availability,
water holding capacity and soil structure which is most suitable for crop
growth especially during drought periods.

How far is the Integrated Farming System (IFS) helpful in sustaining

agricultural production?
the Integrated Farming System (IFS) is considered a vital solution for
sustaining agricultural production, especially for the 86% of Indian
farmers who are small and marginal. By combining crops, livestock,
aquaculture, and agroforestry on a single landholding, IFS creates a self-
sustaining cycle where "waste" from one enterprise becomes a valuable
input for another.
1. Economic Sustainability
 Income Enhancement: IFS can increase farm productivity by 2–3
times. Research indicates it can yield 3.9 times higher net
returns compared to conventional rice-wheat systems.
 Year-Round Cash Flow: Unlike monocropping, which provides
income only at harvest, IFS generates daily or monthly revenue
through milk, eggs, honey, or vegetables.
 Risk Mitigation: Diversification acts as insurance. If a primary crop
fails due to unseasonal rains or pests, livestock or horticulture
components provide a financial buffer.
 Cost Reduction: Recycling on-farm by-products (e.g., using cow
dung as fertilizer or crop residue as cattle feed) reduces the need
for expensive external inputs like chemical fertilizers and
commercial feed.
2. Environmental Sustainability
 Soil Health: Continuous recycling of organic matter through
vermicomposting and green manure improves soil fertility and
physical structure.
 Climate Resilience: IFS reduces the "Global Warming Potential" of
farms by roughly 26% compared to traditional methods due to
lower chemical use and increased carbon sequestration in
agroforestry components.
 Water Efficiency: Techniques like integrating fish ponds into
paddy fields or using dairy-based biogas slurry help optimize water
use, which is critical as water scarcity increases in 2026.
3. Social and Nutritional Impact
 Dietary Diversity: Farm families gain direct access to a balanced
diet of cereals, pulses, vegetables, milk, and protein from fish or
eggs.
 Employment Generation: IFS is labor-intensive, creating 200%
more employment opportunities year-round, which helps utilize
family labor effectively and reduces rural-to-urban migration.
Challenges to Adoption
 High Initial Cost: Setting up specialized infrastructure like biogas
plants, ponds, or animal sheds requires capital that many small
farmers lack.
 Knowledge Gaps: Managing multiple enterprises (e.g., beekeeping
+ dairy + crops) is complex and requires specialized training.
 Market Access: Finding buyers for small quantities of diverse
produce (e.g., 5kg of honey, 10 liters of milk, and 50kg of grain) can
be difficult without organized cooperatives or FPOs.
Current Government Support (2026)
The government promotes IFS through the National Mission for
Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) and the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas
Yojana (RKVY), providing subsidies (e.g., up to ₹50,000 for 2 hectares in
some states) to help farmers establish integrated units.

IFS & ITS TYPES?

Integrated Farming System (IFS) is defined as a sustainable
agricultural approach that combines multiple farm enterprises—such as
crops, livestock, aquaculture, and agroforestry—into a single, cohesive
unit.
The system operates on the principle that "waste is only a misplaced
resource," meaning the by-products of one component become essential
inputs for another, creating a self-sustaining, closed-loop cycle.
Key Types of Integrated Farming Systems
IFS models are typically classified based on their primary land use or the
specific mix of enterprises tailored to local agro-climatic conditions.
1. By Land Use and Resource Availability
 Wetland-based Systems: Common in high-rainfall or irrigated
regions.
o Example: Rice + Fish + Poultry. Poultry droppings fertilize
the water for fish, and nutrient-rich pond water is used to
irrigate rice fields.
 Gardenland-based Systems: Typical for areas with moderate
rainfall and established orchards.
o Example: Coconut/Fruit crops + Dairy + Biogas +
Mushroom cultivation. Crop residues feed cows, while cow
dung fuels biogas units and provides manure for trees.
 Dryland-based Systems: Designed for arid and semi-arid regions
with limited water.
o Example: Millets + Small Ruminants (Goat/Sheep) +
Agroforestry. Drought-tolerant trees like Neem provide
shade and fodder, while goats provide manure for the soil.
2. By Enterprise Combination
 Crop-Livestock System: The most prevalent model in India (85%
of farms). It integrates cereal or legume production with cattle,
buffaloes, or goats.
 Agroforestry-based System: Integrates timber or fruit trees with
arable crops and livestock to prevent soil erosion and diversify
income.
 Horti-Pastoral System: Combines fruit trees (horticulture) with
pasture grasses for livestock grazing, optimizing space in orchards.
 Aquaculture-integrated System: Includes specific pairings
like Poultry-Fish or Duck-Fish, where bird houses are built directly
over ponds to simplify waste management and feeding.

WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE?

Sustainable agriculture in 2026 is defined as an integrated farming system
designed to produce food and fiber indefinitely without causing
irreversible damage to ecosystems. It balances three core
pillars: environmental health, economic profitability, and social
equity.
Core Practices Involved
Contemporary sustainable agriculture utilizes a variety of biological,
mechanical, and digital practices to maintain productivity while
conserving natural resources.
 Soil Health Management:
o Crop Rotation: Sequentially planting different types of crops
(e.g., cereals followed by nitrogen-fixing legumes) to prevent
nutrient depletion and break pest cycles.
o Conservation Tillage: Using "no-till" or "reduced-till"
methods to leave crop residues on the surface, which
prevents erosion, improves water retention, and builds soil
organic matter.
o Cover Crops: Planting species like clover or rye during off-
seasons to protect soil from wind and rain erosion and
suppress weeds.
 Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
o Prioritizes natural controls—such as introducing predatory
insects (ladybugs) or using pest-resistant crop varieties—
before resorting to chemical pesticides.
o Action thresholds are used to ensure chemicals are applied
only when economically necessary.
 Efficient Water Management:
o Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation: Delivering water directly to
plant roots to minimize evaporation and runoff, often saving
up to 50% of water per hectare.
o Rainwater Harvesting: Capturing and storing rainfall in farm
ponds or tanks for use during dry periods to reduce reliance
on groundwater.
 Diversified Systems:
o Agroforestry: Integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural
land to provide shade, act as windbreaks, and create
additional income streams (e.g., fruit or timber).
o Integrated Farming Systems (IFS): Combining crops with
livestock or aquaculture (e.g., rice-fish systems) to recycle
nutrients, where animal waste acts as a fertilizer for crops.
 Technology & Innovation (2026 Trends):
 o Precision Agriculture: Using AI, IoT sensors, and drones to
monitor soil moisture and crop health in real-time, allowing for
precise application of inputs.
o Renewable Energy: Adopting solar-powered irrigation
pumps and on-farm bioenergy systems to reduce dependence
on fossil fuels.
o Bioengineering: Utilizing CRISPR and other advanced
methods to develop climate-resilient, drought-tolerant, and
nutrient-efficient crop varieties.
While sustainable agriculture is essential for long-term food security, its
adoption in early 2026 faces several critical economic, technical, and
social hurdles.
1. Economic and Financial Barriers
 High Transition Costs: Shifting to sustainable methods often
requires substantial upfront investment in new equipment, organic
inputs, and specialized technologies.
 Yield Declines (The Yield Gap): During the initial 3–5 year
"conversion phase," farmers frequently experience a 20–30% drop
in yields as the soil recovers from chemical dependency.
 Subsidy Imbalance: Government subsidies in 2026 still heavily
favor conventional inputs. For instance, chemical fertilizer subsidies
remain significantly higher than incentives for organic alternatives,
making sustainable practices less competitive.
 Market Price Volatility: Farmers often struggle to sell their
produce at the premium prices required to offset higher labor costs,
as certified "organic" or "sustainable" status is not immediate.
2. Technical and Infrastructure Issues
 Knowledge and Awareness Gaps: Many farmers lack access to
technical training on complex practices like Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) or soil health monitoring.
 Fragmented Landholdings: In India, over 86% of farmers are
smallholders with less than 2 hectares, which makes it difficult to
implement large-scale sustainable practices like precision farming
or agroforestry effectively.
 Supply Chain Deficiencies: A lack of specialized cold storage and
transportation for diverse, perishable sustainable products leads to
post-harvest losses as high as 16% in some regions.
 Certification Hurdles: The process for obtaining organic
certification is often lengthy, expensive, and involves complex
documentation that can be a major barrier for illiterate or small-
scale farmers.
3. Social and Systemic Challenges
 Increased Labor Intensity: Sustainable farming is often more
labor-intensive (e.g., manual weeding, composting), which can be a
burden in areas facing rural labor shortages due to urban migration.
 Food Security Concerns: There is an ongoing debate in 2026
regarding whether sustainable methods can produce enough food to
feed a global population projected to reach nearly 10 billion by 2050
without significantly increasing land demand.
 Insecure Land Tenure: Farmers without secure long-term land
rights are less likely to invest in soil-building practices that may take
years to show financial results.
 Climate Change Paradox: While sustainable agriculture is a
solution for climate resilience, extreme weather events in 2026 (like
unpredictable monsoons and heatwaves) are currently disrupting
the very ecological processes these systems rely on
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE RESILIENT AGRICULTURE
Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and Climate-Resilient Agriculture
(CRA) represent a critical shift toward farming systems that can
withstand accelerating environmental volatility while ensuring global food
security.
Definitions and Core Pillars
 Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA): An integrated approach to
managing landscapes that addresses the interlinked challenges of
food security and climate change. It is built on three fundamental
pillars often called the "Triple Win":
1. Productivity: Sustainably increasing agricultural yields and
incomes.
2. Adaptation: Building resilience of food systems to climate-
induced shocks (droughts, floods, heatwaves).
3. Mitigation: Reducing or removing greenhouse gas emissions
(methane from livestock, nitrous oxide from fertilizers) where
possible.
 Climate-Resilient Agriculture (CRA): While frequently used
interchangeably with CSA, CRA is often viewed as the execution or
localized application of these technologies. In India, policymakers
often favor the term "Climate-Resilient" as it focuses heavily on
adaptation and food security, whereas CSA explicitly includes
emission reduction as a primary goal.
Key Practices in 2026
Effective climate-smart strategies are context-specific and tailored to local
agro-ecological conditions.
  Climate-Adapted Crops: Using varieties bred to survive extreme
conditions, such as "Scuba Rice" that survives submergence for
weeks or drought-tolerant maize hybrids.
 Water Stewardship: Precision irrigation (drip and sprinkler), solar-
powered pumps, and rainwater harvesting structures like check
dams and ponds to combat water scarcity.
 Soil and Nutrient Management: Practices like zero tillage, cover
cropping, and using leaf-color charts to optimize nitrogen
application, which saves up to 40% of fertilizer and builds soil
organic carbon.
 Agroforestry: Integrating trees into crops and livestock systems to
provide shade, improve microclimates, and act as carbon sinks.
 Digital & Early Warning Systems: Leveraging AI-based weather
advisories (like the Meghdoot app), satellite-based monitoring, and
drones for precision farming to reduce climate-related risks.
India's Strategic Initiatives
As a highly vulnerable country, India has established a robust framework
for CRA:
 NICRA (National Innovations in Climate Resilient
Agriculture): A flagship ICAR project demonstrating location-
specific technologies across over 448 climate-resilient villages.
 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Focuses
on soil health management, water-use efficiency, and integrated
farming, especially in rainfed areas.
 PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana): Operates
under the motto "More Crop Per Drop," promoting micro-irrigation to
maximize water productivity.
 BioE3 Policy: A newer framework positioning biotechnology-led
solutions, such as genome-edited crops, as a national priority for
climate resilience.
Critical Challenges
Despite its necessity, widespread adoption in 2026 is hindered by several
factors:
 Digital & Literacy Divide: While rural mobile connectivity is high,
many farmers lack the digital literacy to effectively use AI-based
climate alerts and precision tools.
 Cost Barriers: High upfront costs for micro-irrigation and
conservation machinery deter smallholder farmers (86% of India's
holdings) who often lack access to credit.
  Seed & Input Gaps: A significant "lab-to-land" delay means many
farmers still use old, vulnerable seed varieties despite thousands of
resilient varieties being developed.
AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY:
Our farmers are the 'Annadatas.' When our farmers prosper, India will
prosper - Prime Minister Narendra Modi
The sector is witnessing large-scale integration of modern tools—Artificial
Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), Machine Learning (ML), drones,
satellite mapping, and the JAM Trinity. These innovations are
revolutionizing farming practices and improving the lives of millions of
farmers
Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT)
To modernize agriculture and improve farmer welfare, AI and IoT are
being widely adopted. They help increase yields, encourage sustainable
practices, and address challenges related to weather, pests, and market
access.
• Kisan e-Mitra: Government of India has developed Kisan e-Mitra, an AI
Chatbot –to address farmers’ queries digitally in their own languages,
thereby empowering them through technological interventions
National Pest Surveillance System (NPSS): Launched on 15 August 2024,
NPSS uses AI and ML to detect pest attacks and crop diseases early.
Farmers and extension workers can upload crop images to NPSS app or its
portal [Link] instant analysis and expert advice.
Satellite-based Crop Mapping: AI-powered analytics help monitor crop
growth with weather patterns, enabling accurate forecasting and better
decision-making at the farm level.
• IIT Ropar – Technology and Innovation Foundation is developing IoT-
based devices and sensors aimed at enhancing saffron cultivation and
streamlining its supply chain across India.
Applications of AI and IoT include precision farming, climate monitoring,
smart greenhouses, livestock tracking, and drone-assisted farming.
Space Technology in Agriculture
FASAL (Forecasting Agricultural output using Space, Agro-meteorology
and Land based observations) Project: Under FASAL program, the
Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre (MNCFC) plays a crucial role in
Crop Production Forecasting for India. Using methodologies developed by
the Space Applications Centre (SAC), ISRO, the MNCFC generates crop
forecasts at District, State, and National levels for major crops of the
country
Real-time Drought Monitoring: Geoportals developed with Space
Applications Centre
(SAC), ISRO provide live updates on rainfall, soil moisture, crop condition,
water
storages etc.
Support to PM Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY): Under PMFBY, space
technology is being leveraged for several operational applications,
including smart sampling for crop cutting experiments (CCEs), yield
estimation, and dispute resolution related to area and yield.
• Krishi Decision Support System (Krishi-DSS): A cloud-based geospatial
platform integrating satellite images, weather, soil, and water data to
guide farmers and policymakers.
Use of Drones
Drones are emerging as game changers in agriculture, helping with
spraying, monitoring, and precision farming. The government has
introduced several initiatives to promote their adoption:
❖ Subsidies and Support under Sub-mission On Agriculture Mechanization
(SMAM): The Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization’ (SMAM) is one of
the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
(RKVY) implemented through the State Governments. Under this scheme,
financial assistance is provided to the farmers for purchase of agricultural
machines and equipments including the post-harvest and processing
machines on individual ownership basis. Financial assistance is also
provided for establishment of Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs) and Village
Level Farm Machinery Banks (FMBs) in order to provide machines and
equipments to the farmers on rental basis as per their requirements.
• 100% financial assistance, up to ₹10 lakh per drone, is provided
for purchase and field demonstrations by ICAR institutes, Farm Machinery
Training & Testing Institutes, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs).
• Farmers Producers Organizations (FPOs) are eligible for grants up
to 75% of the cost of Kisan Drones for demonstrations on farmers’ fields.
• In order to make available drone services to farmers on rental
basis, financial assistance @ 40% up to a maximum of Rs. 4.00 lakhs are
provided for purchase of drones by Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs) under
Cooperative Society of Farmers, FPOs and Rural entrepreneurs.
• Agriculture graduates establishing CHCs are eligible for 50%
assistance, up to ₹5 lakh per drone.
• Individual small and marginal farmers, SC/ST farmers, women
farmers, and farmers from North Eastern States are provided 50%
assistance, up to ₹5 lakh per drone.
• Other farmers are eligible for 40% assistance, up to ₹4 lakh per
drone.
Namo Drone Didi Scheme:
The Government has approved the ‘Namo Drone Didi’ Central Sector
Scheme with an outlay of ₹1261 crore for 2023-24 to 2025-26,
aimed at providing 15,000 drones to Women Self Help Groups
(SHGs). The scheme seeks to promote advanced agricultural
technology for improved efficiency, higher crop yield, and reduced
operational costs, while simultaneously empowering SHGs as drone
service providers to enhance their income and livelihood
opportunities. Under this initiative, selected Women SHGs are
eligible for Central Financial Assistance (CFA) covering 80% of the
drone package cost, up to a maximum of ₹8 lakh.

SVAMITVA Scheme: The scheme helps people in villages get legal

ownership papers for the houses and land they live on. Drones are
also being utilized for land mapping, helping farmers obtain legal
property ownership documents. As on July 2025, drone survey has
been completed in 3.23 lakh villages under the SVAMITVA Scheme.
This not only reduces disputes but also facilitates access to bank
loans, thereby improving farmers’ prosperity

JAM Trinity
The Jan Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile (JAM) Trinity ensures transparent and
leak-proof subsidy transfers directly into farmers’ bank accounts.
This system has eliminated middlemen and corruption, empowering
farmers [Link] instance, on 2 August 2025, honourable
Prime Minister Narendra Modi released the 20th instalment of PM-
KISAN, transferring ₹20,500 crore directly to the accounts of 9.7
crore farmers. This is a powerful example of how JAM is transforming
farmers’ lives.
Beyond these initiatives, the government continues to push forward
digital and technological missions in agriculture—whether through
the Digital Agriculture Mission or e-NAM (National Agricultural
Market). Each step is aimed at simplifying the farmer’s journey from
seed to market (Beej Se Bazaar Tak) and making Indian agriculture
self-reliant, efficient, and futureready.
Technology is no longer a distant concept for farmers—it has
become an everyday ally in the fields, empowering the true
providers of the nation, Annadatas.
 UNFPA REPORT AND DEMOGRPAHIC PERFORMANCE
The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) has released
its State of World Population (SOWP) 2025 report titled “The
Real Fertility Crisis”. It reaffirms India as the world’s most
populous country and highlights critical shifts in fertility,
ageing, and reproductive autonomy, urging focus on people’s
unmet fertility goals instead of fear of population decline.
What are the Key Highlights of the UNFPA Report 2025 Related to
India?
 Population Size and Projections: India’s population in April
2025 is estimated at 146.39 crore, the highest in the world. It is
expected to peak at 170 crore in the early 2060s, then
gradually decline.
o Life expectancy is projected at 71 years for men and 74
years for women.
 Fertility Rate Trends & Gaps: India’s Total Fertility Rate
(TFR) has dropped to 1.9, below the replacement level of 2.1.
o As per Sample Registration System (SRS) 2021, TFR
was 2.0, showing national-level achievement.
 However, states like Bihar (3.0), Meghalaya (2.9),
and Uttar Pradesh (2.7) still have high TFRs. 31
States/UTs are below replacement level, with
urban-rural gaps in 7 states.
o India’s fertility divide reflects regional inequality, high-
fertility states like Bihar, UP, and Jharkhand contrast with
low-fertility ones like Kerala, Delhi, and Tamil Nadu, due
to gaps in education, healthcare, development, and
gender norms.
 Youth and Working-Age Demographics: India has a strong
demographic advantage with 68% of its population in the
working-age group (15–64). Children aged 0–14 make up 24%,
while 26% are in the 10–24 age group.
o The elderly (65+) account for 7% of the population.
 Barriers to Reproductive Autonomy: Reproductive choices in
India are hindered by financial (40%), housing (22%), job
(21%), and childcare (18%) constraints, along with health
issues like infertility (13%) and poor maternal care (14%).
 o Social pressure (19%) and rising anxiety over climate,
politics, and economy also impact decisions.
 Policy Recommendations for India: The report urges India
to prioritise reproductive rights over population control by
ensuring universal access to contraceptives, maternal and
infertility care, and safe abortion.
o It recommends removing structural barriers like housing,
childcare, and job insecurity, extending services
to unmarried, LGBTQIA+, and marginalized groups,
improving data on unmet needs, and promoting gender
equality and social change through community initiatives.
What are the Key Demographic Statistics for India?

Indicator Value/Estimate

The median age of India’s population is

Median Age
Population Prospects).

Working-Age
68% of India’s population, approximately 96
Population (15-64
the working-age group.
years)

According to the National Family Hea

Literacy Rate 21 (NFHS-5), adult men and women (15–
literacy rates of 87.4% and 71.5%, respectiv

Labor Force
Male LFPR is 78.8% while female LFPR is 41.7
Participation Rate
aged 15 years and above. Overall LFPR for Ind
(LFPR)

Overall Literacy Rate The overall literacy rate for individuals ag

(ages 15+) 77.7% (NSO, 2021).

The dependency ratio stands at 47%, me

Dependency Ratio
dependents for every 100 working-age individ

Population in
Over 80% of India’s population resides i
Climate-Vulnerable
to climate change impacts.
Areas

Prevalence of NCDs Over 20% of the population suffers from

and Mental Health
 Issues diseases (NCDs), and around 15% face menta

What is the United Nations Population Fund?

 About: UNFPA is a subsidiary body of the UN General
Assembly and serves as the UN’s key agency for sexual and
reproductive health.
o It operates in over 150 countries, covering 80% of the global
population.

India's Demographic Dividend & UNFPA Insights:

 The Dividend: India's large working-age population compared to
dependents offers a huge potential boost to economic growth,
peaking around 2041.
 Window of Opportunity: This period (roughly until 2055) allows
India to convert human capital into prosperity by investing in
education, health, and jobs for its youth.
 Challenges: Rapid ageing, workforce shrinkage looming, need for
skilled workers, and addressing the "duality" of high-fertility and
low-fertility regions.
 UNFPA's Call to Action: Move beyond just TFR tracking to focus
on reproductive rights, access to contraception, infertility care,
challenging stigma, and supportive workplaces, ensuring inclusive
policies for all, to truly realize the dividend and achieve sustainable
development.

 Demographic dividend refers to the economic growth potential

resulting from changes in a population’s age structure. It occurs
when the working-age population (typically 15-64 years) is
larger than the dependent population (children and elderly). This
shift can lead to increased productivity, higher savings, and more
investment.
Significance of Demographic Dividend
 Enhanced Economic Growth: India’s working-age population (15-
64 years) will reach 67% by 2030, driving productivity and GDP
growth, potentially increasing per capita income.
 Increased Savings and Investments: A larger workforce boosts
savings and investments, funding infrastructure and innovation.
 India’s household savings rate has consistently been above 30%,
fuelling economic growth.
 Social Development: A youthful workforce can improve education
and healthcare, advancing progress on SDGs like poverty reduction
and literacy.
 Boost to Innovation and Entrepreneurship: With over 60,000
startups, India’s young population fosters entrepreneurship and
innovation, diversifying the economy.
 Global Competitiveness: India’s demographic advantage
positions it as a global manufacturing hub, attracting foreign direct
investment, which reached $84 billion in 2022.
 Improvement in Dependency Ratio: The increasing share of
working-age individuals lowers the dependency ratio, currently at
46.3%, allowing for better resource allocation.
 Improved Governance and Policy Implementation: A larger
workforce provides a bigger tax base, enabling more effective
governance and resource distribution for social welfare.
Challenges in Achieving Demographic Dividend
 Lagging Human Development Indicators: India ranks 134th in
the UNDP Human Development Index (2023/24), reflecting low
life expectancy and education quality.
 Prevalence of Hunger and Malnutrition: Ranked 105th on
the Global Hunger Index (2024), India faces high stunting,
wasting, and anaemia rates, particularly among women and
children.
 Skill Gap and Poor Human Capital: Over 70% of youth lack job-
relevant skills, and only 20-30% of engineering graduates find
suitable employment, indicating a significant skills-employment
mismatch.
 Low Female Workforce Participation: Female Labour Force
Participation is only 37% (PLFS 2022-23), limiting economic
growth and productivity.
 Dominance of Informal Economy: About 92% of India’s
workforce is in the informal sector, where workers face low
wages, insecurity, and limited upward mobility.
 Jobless Growth: With a labour force participation rate of
just 53% (NSSO 2017-18), India faces insufficient job creation,
compounded by deindustrialisation and technological disruptions.
 Health and Productivity Issues: Poor health and rising non-
communicable diseases (NCDs) reduce workforce productivity,
hindering economic growth.
 Technological Lag: Insufficient investment in high-tech industries
slows India’s transition to a knowledge-driven economy, affecting
global competitiveness.

 Unemployment and Underemployment: The current rate of

job creation is not sufficient to absorb the millions of young
people entering the labor market each year.
 In 2022, India's youth accounted for 83% of
the country's total unemployed population, according
to the India Employment Report 2024.
 Skill mismatch: Global Skills Gaps Measurement and
Monitoring Report of ILO 2023 indicate that 47% of Indian
workers, especially 62% of females are underqualified for
their jobs.
 Health and Nutrition: India still faces challenges related to child
malnutrition, maternal health, and access to quality
healthcare, which can impact the overall health and well-being
of its workforce.
 Gender Disparity: Female labor force participation in India is
relatively low compared to other countries.
 Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2021-22 highlights that
the FLFP 32.8% in India (47% global average)
 Regional Disparities: India's demographic dividend is not
uniform across all regions. Some states have already achieved
low fertility rates and are facing an aging population.
 Informal Economy: A large share of India's workforce is
employed in the informal sector, where workers often face low
wages, job insecurity, and lack of social protection.

Way Forward: Harnessing India’s Demographic Dividend

 Build Human Capital: Invest in quality education, healthcare, and
skills to create a globally competitive workforce, implementing NEP
2020 effectively.
 Strengthen Skilling Initiatives: Expand NSDC programs with
industry-aligned curricula focused on AI, green energy, and digital
entrepreneurship.
 Invest in Education: Increase public education spending to 6% of
GDP and promote equitable digital learning access.
 Enhance Health and Nutrition: Boost public health expenditure
to 2.5% of GDP and strengthen programs like Ayushman
Bharat and POSHAN Abhiyaan.
 Promote Job Creation: Focus on labour-intensive sectors like
MSMEs, simplify labour laws, and improve ease of doing business.
 Increase Female Workforce Participation: Provide gender-
responsive policies, flexible work options, and workplace safety
measures.
 Leverage Emerging Technologies: Support R&D in quantum
computing, biotechnology, and renewable energy with decentralized
innovation hubs.
 Address Regional Disparities: Foster inter-state partnerships to
balance workforce demands and implement a regional demographic
plan.
 Constitute a High-Level Task Force: Create a task force under
the PM to align demographic dividend goals with national
development strategies.
 Foster Entrepreneurship: Encourage startups and small
businesses with better access to finance and entrepreneurship
programs in education.

o With one of the youngest populations globally, sixty-five

percent of India's fast-growing population is under 35.
o The Economic Survey 2018-19 says that the demographic
dividend would peak around 2041, when the working age group
will be 59% of India's total population.

AGRICULTURE REFORMS – TECHNICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL

REFORMS
Indian agricultural reforms involve technological boosts like
the Green Revolution (HYV seeds, fertilizers), mechanization,
and irrigation, alongside institutional changes such as land
reforms (Zamindari abolition, tenancy laws), credit access
(KCC, NABARD), market regulation (MSP, eNAM), crop
insurance (PMFBY), and research/extension (ICAR, KVKs), all
 aiming to modernize farming, boost food security, improve farmer
income, and reduce rural distress through policy, infrastructure, and
technology integration, from traditional methods to modern AI/IoT.
Technological Reforms
 Green Revolution: Introduced High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds,
chemical fertilizers, and irrigation for increased food grains.
 Mechanization: Adoption of tractors, pumps, and other machinery
to improve efficiency.
 Irrigation: Expansion of irrigation through large projects (PMKSY)
and micro-irrigation to reduce monsoon dependency.
 Research & Education: ICAR, KVKs (Krishi Vigyan Kendras) for
R&D, training, and disseminating new techniques.
 Modern Tech: Current focus on Precision Farming, AI, drones, IoT
for data-driven decisions, pest control, and climate resilience.
Institutional Reforms
 Land Reforms: Abolition of Zamindari system, tenancy reforms
(rent control, security of tenure), consolidation of holdings to reduce
fragmentation.
 Credit & Finance: NABARD, Kisan Credit Card (KCC), interest
subvention schemes for timely, low-cost loans.
 Market Reforms: Minimum Support Price (MSP) & procurement,
creation of eNAM (online trading), contract farming regulations.
 Insurance & Welfare: Crop insurance (PMFBY) against natural
calamities, income support (PM-KISAN), Soil Health Card Scheme.
 Extension Services: Radio/TV programs, Agri-Clinics to educate
farmers on new methods and weather.
Impact
 Increased food production and self-sufficiency.
 Improved farmer incomes (through MSP, KCC) and reduced
exploitation.
 Reduced reliance on rain-fed agriculture.
 Foundation for diversifying into horticulture (White/Horticulture
Revolutions).

Indian agricultural reforms involve technological boosts like

the Green Revolution (HYV seeds, fertilizers), mechanization,
and irrigation, alongside institutional changes such as land
 reforms (Zamindari abolition, tenancy laws), credit access
(KCC, NABARD), market regulation (MSP, eNAM), crop
insurance (PMFBY), and research/extension (ICAR, KVKs), all
aiming to modernize farming, boost food security, improve farmer
income, and reduce rural distress through policy, infrastructure, and
technology integration, from traditional methods to modern AI/IoT.
Technological Reforms
 Green Revolution: Introduced High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds,
chemical fertilizers, and irrigation for increased food grains.
 Mechanization: Adoption of tractors, pumps, and other machinery
to improve efficiency.
 Irrigation: Expansion of irrigation through large projects (PMKSY)
and micro-irrigation to reduce monsoon dependency.
 Research & Education: ICAR, KVKs (Krishi Vigyan Kendras) for
R&D, training, and disseminating new techniques.
 Modern Tech: Current focus on Precision Farming, AI, drones, IoT
for data-driven decisions, pest control, and climate resilience.
Institutional Reforms
 Land Reforms: Abolition of Zamindari system, tenancy reforms
(rent control, security of tenure), consolidation of holdings to reduce
fragmentation.
 Credit & Finance: NABARD, Kisan Credit Card (KCC), interest
subvention schemes for timely, low-cost loans.
 Market Reforms: Minimum Support Price (MSP) & procurement,
creation of eNAM (online trading), contract farming regulations.
 Insurance & Welfare: Crop insurance (PMFBY) against natural
calamities, income support (PM-KISAN), Soil Health Card Scheme.
 Extension Services: Radio/TV programs, Agri-Clinics to educate
farmers on new methods and weather.
Impact
 Increased food production and self-sufficiency.
 Improved farmer incomes (through MSP, KCC) and reduced
exploitation.
 Reduced reliance on rain-fed agriculture.
 Foundation for diversifying into horticulture (White/Horticulture
Revolutions).
Land reforms :
Post Independence
 A committee, under the Chairmanship of J. C. Kumarappan was
appointed to look into the problem of land. The Kumarappa
Committee's report recommended comprehensive agrarian reform
measures.
 The Land Reforms of the independent India had four components:

1. The Abolition of the Intermediaries

2. Tenancy Reforms
3. Fixing Ceilings on Landholdings
4. Consolidation of Landholdings.
 These were taken in phases because of the need to establish a
political will for their wider acceptance of these reforms.
Abolition of the Intermediaries
 Abolition of the zamindari system: The first important
legislation was the abolition of the zamindari system, which
removed the layer of intermediaries who stood between the
cultivators and the state.
 The reform was relatively the most effective than the other reforms,
for in most areas it succeeded in taking away the superior rights of
the zamindars over the land and weakening their economic and
political power.

o The reform was made to strengthen the actual landholders,

the cultivators.
 Advantages: The abolition of intermediaries made almost 2 crore
tenants the owners of the land they cultivated.

o The abolition of intermediaries has led to the end of a parasite

class. More lands have been brought to government
possession for distribution to landless farmers.
o A considerable area of cultivable waste land and private
forests belonging to the intermediaries has been vested in the
State.
o The legal abolition brought the cultivators in direct contact
with the government.
  Disadvantages: However, zamindari abolition did not wipe out
landlordism or the tenancy or sharecropping systems, which
continued in many areas. It only removed the top layer of landlords
in the multi-layered agrarian structure.

o It has led to large-scale eviction. Large-scale eviction, in turn,

has given rise to several problems – social, economic,
administrative and legal.
 Issues: While the states of J&K and West Bengal legalised the
abolition, in other states, intermediaries were allowed to retain
possession of lands under their personal cultivation without limit
being set.

o Besides, in some states, the law applied only to tenant

interests like sairati mahals etc. and not to agricultural
holdings.

 Therefore, many large intermediaries continued to exist

even after the formal abolition of zamindari.
o It led to large-scale eviction which in turn gave rise to several
socio-economic and administrative problems.
Tenancy Reforms
 After passing the Zamindari Abolition Acts, the next major problem
was of tenancy regulation.

o The rent paid by the tenants during the pre-independence

period was exorbitant; between 35% and 75% of gross
produce throughout India.
 Tenancy reforms introduced to regulate rent, provide security
of tenure and confer ownership to tenants.

o With the enactment of legislation (early 1950s) for regulating

the rent payable by the cultivators, fair rent was fixed at 20%
to 25% of the gross produce level in all the states except
Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, and some
parts of Andhra Pradesh.
 The reform attempted either to outlaw tenancy altogether or to
regulate rents to give some security to the tenants.
 In West Bengal and Kerala, there was a radical restructuring of the
agrarian structure that gave land rights to the tenants.
 Issues: In most of the states, these laws were never implemented
very effectively. Despite repeated emphasis in the plan documents,
 some states could not pass legislation to confer rights of ownership
to tenants.

o Few states in India have completely abolished tenancy while

others states have given clearly spelt out rights to recognized
tenants and sharecroppers.
o Although the reforms reduced the areas under tenancy, they
led to only a small percentage of tenants acquiring ownership
rights.
Ceilings on Landholdings
 The third major category of land reform laws were the Land Ceiling
Acts. In simpler terms, the ceilings on landholdings referred
to legally stipulating the maximum size beyond which no
individual farmer or farm household could hold any land. The
imposition of such a ceiling was to deter the concentration of land in
the hands of a few.
 In 1942 the Kumarappan Committee recommended the
maximum size of lands a landlord can retain. It was three times the
economic holding i.e. sufficient livelihood for a family.
 By 1961-62, all the state governments had passed the land ceiling
acts. But the ceiling limits varied from state to state. To bring
uniformity across states, a new land ceiling policy was evolved in
1971.

o In 1972, national guidelines were issued with ceiling

limits varying from region to region, depending on the kind of
land, its productivity, and other such factors.
o It was 10-18 acres for best land, 18-27 acres for second class
land and for the rest with 27-54 acres of land with a slightly
higher limit in the hill and desert areas.
 With the help of these reforms, the state was supposed to identify
and take possession of surplus land (above the ceiling limit) held by
each household, and redistribute it to landless families and
households in other specified categories, such as SCs and STs.
 Issues: In most of the states these acts proved to be toothless.
There were many loopholes and other strategies through which
most landowners were able to escape from having their surplus land
taken over by the state.

o While some very large estates were broken up, in most cases
landowners managed to divide the land among relatives and
others, including servants, in so-called ‘benami transfers’
– which allowed them to keep control over the land.
 o In some places, some rich farmers actually divorced their
wives (but continued to live with them) in order to avoid the
provisions of the Land Ceiling Act, which allowed a separate
share for unmarried women but not for wives.
Consolidation of Landholdings
 Consolidation referred to reorganization/redistribution of
fragmented lands into one plot.

o The growing population and less work opportunities in non-

agricultural sectors, increased pressure on the land, leading to
an increasing trend of fragmentation of the landholdings.
o This fragmentation of land made the irrigation management
tasks and personal supervision of the land plots very difficult.
 This led to the introduction of landholdings consolidation.

o Under this act, If a farmer had a few plots of land in the

village, those lands were consolidated into one bigger piece of
land which was done by either purchasing or exchanging the
land.
 Almost all states except Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Manipur, Nagaland,
Tripura and parts of Andhra Pradesh enacted laws for consolidation
of Holdings.
 In Punjab and Haryana, there was compulsory consolidation of the
lands, whereas in other states law provided for consolidation on
voluntary basis; if the majority of the landowners agreed.
 Advantages: It prevented the endless subdivision and
fragmentation of land Holdings.

o It saved the time and labour of the farmers spent in irrigating

and cultivating lands at different places.
o The reform also brought down the cost of cultivation and
reduced litigation among farmers as well.
 Result: Due to lack of adequate political and administrative support
the progress made in terms of consolidation of holding was not very
satisfactory except in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh
where the task of consolidation was accomplished.

o However, in these states there was a need for re-consolidation

due to subsequent fragmentation of land under the population
pressure.
  Need of re-consolidation: The average holding size in 1970-71
was 2.28 hectares (Ha), which has come down to 1.08 Ha in 2015-
16.
 While Nagaland has the largest average farm size, Punjab and
Haryana rank second and third in the list respectively.

o The holdings are much smaller in densely populated states

like Bihar, West Bengal and Kerala.
 The multiple subdivisions across generations have reduced even the
sub divisions to a very small size.
The Bhoodan and Gramdan Movements
 Vinoba Bhave, a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, noticed the
problems faced by the landless harijans in Pochampalli,
Telangana.
 He led the movements in an attempt to bring about a “non-violent
revolution” in India’s land reforms programme.

o The movements were about urging the landed classes

to voluntarily surrender a part of their land to the landless
giving it the name- Bhoodan Movement.

 It began in 1951.
 In response to the appeal by Vinoba Bhave, some land owning class
agreed to voluntary donation of their some part of land.
 The Central and State governments had provided the necessary
assistance to Vinoba Bhave.
 Later, the Bhoodan gave way to the Gramdan movement which
began in 1952.

o The objective of the Gramdan movement was to persuade

landowners and leaseholders in each village to renounce
their land rights and all the lands would become the
property of a village association for an egalitarian
redistribution and joint cultivation.
 Under this movement, a village was declared as
Gramdan when at least 75% of its
residents with 51% of the land signified
their approval in writing for Gramdan.
o The first village to come under Gramdan was Magroth,
Haripur, Uttar Pradesh.
Successes of the Movement:
  The movement was the first post independence movement that
sought to bring social transformation through a movement and not
through government legislation.
 It created a moral ambience that put pressure on the big
landlords.
 It also stimulated the political activity among the peasants and
landless, providing a fertile ground for political propaganda to
organise peasants.
Drawbacks:
 The land donated was mostly those which were unfertile or under
litigation as a result although large areas of land was collected but
little was distributed among the landless.
 Gramdan movement was started in villages where class
differentiation had not emerged, there was little difference in
landholdings ownership, mainly in tribal areas.

o But it was not successful in areas where there was disparity in

landholdings.
 Further, the movement failed to realize its revolutionary potential.
Result:
 The movements received widespread political patronage.

o The movements reached their peak around 1969.

o Several state governments passed laws aimed at Gramdan
and Bhoodan.
 But after 1969 Gramdan and Bhoodan lost its importance due to the
shift from being a purely voluntary movement to a government
supported programme.

o In 1967, after the withdrawal of Vinoba Bhave from the

movement, it lost its mass base.
Way Forward
 It has now been argued by the NITI Aayog and some sections of
industry that land leasing should be adopted on a large scale to
enable landholders with unviable holdings to lease out land for
investment, thereby enabling greater income and employment
generation in rural areas.
 This cause would be facilitated by the consolidation of landholdings.
 Modern land reforms measures such as land record
digitisation must be accomplished at the earliest.
Conclusion
 The pace of implementation of land reform measures has been slow.
The objective of social justice has, however, been achieved to a
considerable degree.
 Land reform has a great role in the rural agrarian economy that is
dominated by land and agriculture. New and innovative land reform
measures should be adopted with new vigour to eradicate rural
poverty.

Land reforms in India focus on equity and productivity, historically

through abolishing intermediaries, tenancy regulation, land ceilings,
and consolidation, with modern models including digitizing
records (ULPIN, DILRMP), Model Tenancy Act, land pooling, and Digital
Public Infrastructure (DPI) for fairer land management, ownership clarity,
and empowering farmers via technology and policy updates like Bhu-
Aadhaar.
Historical Core Reforms (Post-Independence)
1. Abolition of Intermediaries: Eliminated intermediaries
(Zamindars, Jagirdars) to create direct state-farmer relationships,
making tenants landowners.
2. Tenancy Reforms: Regulated rents, provided security of tenure
(e.g., Operation Barga in West Bengal), and offered ownership rights
to tenants.
3. Ceiling on Land Holdings: Set maximum land limits per family to
redistribute surplus land to the landless, with varying state-level
limits.
4. Consolidation of Holdings: Reorganized fragmented plots into
viable, larger holdings for efficient farming.
5. Cooperative Farming: Encouraged joint cultivation for economies
of scale and productivity.
Modern & Model Reforms (Ongoing Initiatives)
 Digital Land Records:
o DILRMP (Digital India Land Records Modernization
Programme): Digitizing maps, records, and creating land
registries.
o ULPIN (Unique Land Parcel Identification Number)/Bhu-
Aadhaar: Assigns unique IDs to land parcels for clear
ownership.
  Model Tenancy Act (2016): Aims to formalize leases, protecting
both tenants and landlords, with NITI Aayog suggestions.
 Land Pooling & Banks: Schemes to aggregate land for
development (cities) and agricultural use, reducing fragmentation.
 Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): Creating an agriculture DPI
for farmer & land databases, linking to credit/services.
 Empowering Marginalized Groups: Focus on women's land rights
and tribal land protection.
 Land Management: Decentralized systems with Panchayats for
dispute resolution and IT-based administration.
These reforms aim to modernize land governance, enhance transparency,
empower farmers, and boost rural economic development through
technology and updated legal frameworks.

LABOUR CODES :
India's labour landscape is undergoing a historic transformation as
the four new Labour Codes became effective on November 21, 2025.
These reforms consolidate 29 colonial-era laws into four streamlined
codes, for the first time providing statutory recognition and specific
protections for the millions of people in the gig and platform economy.
1. Key Reforms for the Gig Economy
The Code on Social Security (2020) is the primary driver for gig worker
reform:
 Legal Recognition: For the first time, "gig worker," "platform
worker," and "aggregator" are legally defined. Gig workers are
recognized as those performing work outside traditional employer-
employee relationships.
 Social Security Fund: A dedicated fund will be created for
unorganised, gig, and platform workers. Aggregators (like Uber,
Swiggy, or Zomato) are required to contribute 1–2% of their
annual turnover, capped at 5% of the total amount paid to
gig/platform workers.
 Welfare Benefits: Registered gig workers become eligible for
social security schemes covering life and disability insurance, health
and maternity benefits, accident insurance, and old-age protection.
 National Database & Portability: Workers can self-register on
the e-Shram Portal to receive a unique Aadhaar-linked ID. This
makes their benefits portable, allowing them to retain a unified set
of benefits even when switching between different platforms.
2. Wage and Working Condition Impacts
 National Floor Wage: The Code on Wages (2019) introduces a
statutory floor wage. No state government can set a minimum wage
below this federally notified level, ensuring a baseline income for all
workers.
 Minimum Wage Eligibility: All workers, including those in the
unorganized and gig sectors, now have a statutory right to minimum
wages and timely payment.
 Algorithmic Accountability: Recent draft rules (January 2026)
and state-led efforts (e.g., Telangana) focus on increasing
transparency in how platform algorithms manage job allocation,
ratings, and penalties.
3. Eligibility Requirements (2026 Update)
According to draft rules released in January 2026, specific thresholds
have been proposed for gig workers to qualify for central social security
benefits:
 Standard Qualification: Engagement with a single aggregator for
at least 90 days in a financial year.
 Multiple Aggregators: If working across multiple platforms, the
required period increases to 120 days.
4. Major Challenges and Ongoing Developments
 Implementation Gaps: While the codes are effective, many
operational details—such as specific contribution rates and
grievance redressal mechanisms—depend on final rules currently
being framed by individual states.
 Worker Protests: In early 2026, nationwide strikes by app-based
delivery and transport workers highlighted demands for greater
dignity, algorithmic transparency, and stronger enforcement of
these new rights.
 State-Level Laws: States like Rajasthan (with the Rajasthan
Platform Based Gig Workers Act, 2023) and Karnataka have led
with their own welfare legislation ahead of full national rollout.

NITI Aayog's data remains the primary benchmark for understanding

India's gig economy. Their landmark study, India’s Booming Gig and
Platform Economy, along with subsequent updates, provides critical
insights into the sector's scale and challenges.
1. NITI Aayog Data & Projections
 Workforce Size: NITI Aayog estimated the gig workforce at 7.7
million in 2020-21. By early 2026, industry estimates suggest this
has already grown to nearly 17 million or more.
  Future Growth: The workforce is projected to expand to 23.5
million by 2029-30, tripling from its 2020 levels.
 Economic Impact: Gig workers are expected to form 6.7% of the
non-agricultural workforce and 4.1% of the total livelihood in
India by 2030.
 Skill Distribution: As of 2026, the sector is seeing a "hollowing
out" of the middle. While medium-skilled roles (e.g., routine
driving/delivery) currently dominate at 47%, their share is declining
as automation increases. Simultaneously, high-skilled (e.g., IT,
professional services) and low-skilled (e.g., cleaning, personal
assistance) roles are rising.
 Gender Gap: NITI Aayog data shows that while gig work offers
inclusivity, women are often concentrated in informal, low-wage
personal services, whereas men dominate transportation and
logistics.
2. Key Issues Faced by Gig Workers (2026)
Despite the flexibility offered, gig workers face significant systemic
challenges:
 Lack of Social Security: Over 82% of gig workers are classified
as informal, leaving them without health insurance, pensions, or
paid leave. A recent report highlighted that 90% of gig workers
lack savings, making them highly vulnerable to emergencies.
 Income Volatility & Low Wages: Many gig workers earn
between ₹15,000–20,000 per month, often falling below the
statutory minimum wage when considering the long hours worked.
Nearly 70% report difficulty managing household expenses due to
irregular pay and high platform commissions.
 Algorithmic Management: Workers are often managed by
opaque algorithms that dictate pay, job allocation, and ratings. This
leads to "Algorithmic Asymmetry," where platforms can
arbitrarily deactivate accounts—a major stressor for over 80% of
drivers and delivery personnel.
 Safety and Occupational Health: Pressure for fast delivery (e.g.,
10-minute models) forces workers into risky driving behavior.
Approximately 78% of gig workers report working more than 10
hours a day, leading to physical and mental exhaustion.
 Legal Misclassification: By being termed "independent
contractors," gig workers are often excluded from core labor
protections like the Industrial Relations Code, which limits their
bargaining power and access to formal dispute resolution.
3. NITI Aayog's RAISE Framework Recommendations
To address these issues, NITI Aayog proposed the RAISE approach for
the Code on Social Security (2020):
1. Recognise the varied nature of platform work for equitable scheme
design.
2. Allow innovative financing mechanisms for social security.
3. Incorporate platform-specific interests to avoid stifling job
creation.
4. Support workers through extensive awareness and the e-Shram
Portal.
5. Ensure benefits are portable and accessible across different
platforms.
These analyses of India's gig economy cover NITI Aayog data on workforce
growth, skill distribution, and the primary challenges faced by gig workers:
The Four New Labour Codes
1. Code on Wages (2019): Regulates minimum wages and bonus
payments across all sectors.
2. Code on Social Security (2020): Universalizes social security for
organized, unorganized, and gig workers.
3. Industrial Relations Code (2020): Streamlines laws related to
trade unions, industrial disputes, and retrenchment.
4. Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions
(OSHWC) Code (2020): Standardizes workplace safety and health
requirements across diverse industries.
Important Features & Impact (2026 Update)
1. The "50% Wage Rule" & Salary Restructuring
 Standard Definition: A single definition of "wages" now applies
across all codes.
 Allowance Cap: Basic salary plus dearness allowance must
constitute at least 50% of total remuneration (CTC).
 Impact: This increase in the basic wage component boosts long-
term benefits like Provident Fund (PF) and Gratuity but may lead
to a slight reduction in net take-home salary.
2. Enhanced Social Security Coverage
 Inclusion of Gig Workers: For the first time, gig and platform
workers are legally recognized and eligible for social security
schemes (insurance, health, etc.).
 Fixed-Term Employment (FTE): Direct, time-bound contracts are
now standardized. FTEs are entitled to the same benefits as
 permanent staff, including Gratuity after just one year of service
(instead of the usual five).
 Portability: Benefit entitlements are linked to a national database
(e.g., e-Shram Portal), making them portable across states for
migrant workers.
3. Modernized Working Conditions
 Flexible Working Hours: The standard remains an 8-hour day/48-
hour week, but employers can implement a 4-day work week with
12-hour shifts.
 Overtime Pay: All employees are entitled to overtime pay at twice
the normal wage rate for work beyond standard hours.
 Gender Equality: Women are permitted to work night shifts across
all establishments, provided they give consent and adequate safety
measures (CCTV, transport) are in place.
4. Streamlined Compliance & Industry Flexibility
 One System: Multiple registrations and licenses are replaced with
a Single Registration, Single License, and Single Return.
 Higher Thresholds: The limit for mandatory "Standing Orders"
(service rules) and government permission for layoffs has been
increased from 100 to 300 workers.
 Inspector-cum-Facilitator: The traditional "Inspector" role has
shifted to a facilitator who focuses on providing compliance
guidance rather than just penalties.
5. Dispute Resolution & Strikes
 Mandatory Notice: All workers must provide at least 14 days'
notice before going on strike.
 Faster Adjudication: Disputes must be resolved within fixed
timelines through two-member Industrial Tribunals.
 Re-skilling Fund: Employers must contribute 15 days'
wages toward a fund to help retrenched workers gain new skills for
future employment

PACS AND ITS ROLE AND ISSUES :

Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) are grassroots cooperative
institutions in India, providing farmers with short/medium-term credit,
farm inputs (seeds, fertilizer), and linkage to markets, fostering financial
inclusion; however, they struggle with poor recovery rates, inadequate
capital, operational inefficiencies (weak management, old bye-laws, tech
gaps), political interference, and high NPAs, hindering their effectiveness
despite efforts to modernize and diversify.
Role of PACS
 Credit Delivery: Provide affordable short and medium-term loans
for agricultural needs, acting as the first link to formal credit for
many rural families, with a focus on small & marginal farmers.
 Financial Inclusion: Promote savings, offer access to banking, and
bring rural communities into the formal financial system,
notes Chahal Academy.
 Input Supply & Marketing: Distribute essential farm inputs like
seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, and help members market their
produce, creating backward and forward linkages.
 Thrift & Mutual Help: Encourage savings and foster a spirit of
self-help and community support among members.
 Value Addition: Diversifying into activities like storage, milk
processing, and fisheries to enhance farmer income, say Ministry of
Cooperation and Vikaspedia.
Key Issues Faced by PACS
 Financial Weaknesses: Inadequate capital, low deposit
mobilization, high Non-Performing Assets (NPAs) leading to losses,
and challenges from loan waiver schemes.
 Operational Deficiencies: Old bye-laws, weak management, lack
of professional skills, poor digital infrastructure, and outdated
bookkeeping.
 Governance & Management: Political interference often
compromises financial discipline; lack of accountability and weak
corporate governance.
 Loan Recovery: High overdues hamper fund circulation, impacting
borrowing and lending power, notes Your Article Library.
 Inadequate Coverage & Reach: While geographically
widespread, member penetration and service quality vary, with
gaps in areas like the North-East.
Government Initiatives
 Modernization: Efforts to computerize PACS and adopt model bye-
laws to enable them to become multi-purpose societies, says
Ministry of Cooperation.
 Diversification: Encouraging new PACS in dairy, fisheries, and
other sectors to build forward/backward linkages.
 Initiatives for modernization of PACS:
 o Project for computerization in 18,000 PACS across the
country was inaugurated.
 Under ‘centrally sponsored project for
computerisation of PAC’ scheme, government aims
to computerise 63,000 functional PACS. This will
help in improving their operational efficiency,
ensuring speedy disbursal of loans, lowering of
transaction costs and increasing transparency.
o National Cooperative Database (NCD) was inaugurated by
Ministry of Cooperation.
 NCD provides all information about the cooperative
sector like number of co-operatives in states/UTs.
About PACS
 Definition: PACS are the grassroot level arms of short-term co-
operative credit structure (refer to infographics).
 Regulation:
o PACS are registered under Cooperative Societies Act and
are administered by concerned State Registrar of
Cooperative Societies (RCS).
 SCBs/DCCBs are also registered under provisions
of State Cooperative Societies Act of State
concerned and are regulated by RBI. However, PACS
are outside purview of Banking Regulation Act,
1949 and are not regulated by RBI.
 Refinancing: They are refinanced by NABARD through DCCBs
and SCBs.
 Functions:
o Gives short-term credit loans and collects repayment from
rural borrowers.
o They can also provide other input services, like seed,
fertilizer, and pesticide distribution to member farmers.
 Significance: PACS play a key role in financial inclusion.
o PACS account for 41 % of the KCC loans given by all
entities in the Country and 95 % of these KCC
loans through PACS are to the Small and Marginal
farmers (2022).
 Current Status: There are more than 65000 functional
PACS across country.
Issues faced by PACS
 Infrastructure: Absence of digital infrastructure, such as
computerized accounting systems, poor access to internet
connectivity limits their ability to streamline operations and also
hampers public trust in them.
 Financial: PACS suffer from inadequate capital, low levels of
deposits, and high non-performing assets (NPAs).
o Debt waiver schemes and interest subvention
schemes also have adverse impact on balance sheet of PACS.
 Human resource: Lack of trained staff and insufficient managerial
skills among members of PACS hinders their functioning.
 Governance: PACS are managed by a body elected from local
village groups which results in political Interference.
o Other governance issues, such as lack of transparency,
and inadequate accountability mechanisms have also
undermined the effectiveness of PACS.
 Regional disparity: PACS are largely concentrated in western
and southern states (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka etc.).

Initiatives to strengthen PACS

 Formation of new Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) by PACS: 1,10
by PACS with support of National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC).
 National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC): Established in 1
grants to State Governments for financing primary and secondary level cooperat
 Diversifying business portfolio
o Model Byelaws to make PACS multipurpose: Enable PACS to diversif
more than 25 business activities. E.g. dairy, fishery, floriculture, setting up
o PACS to function as Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samriddhi Kendras: T
and various other agri inputs to farmers at a single shop.
o PACS to operate as Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Aushadhi Ken
generic medicines to rural citizens.
o PACS to operate as Common Service Centers (CSCs).

Way Forward
 Encourage adoption of technology: Implementation of Common
Accounting System (CAS) and Management Information
System (MIS), establish common hubs that can provide
technological and other support services to PACS.
o Also, incentivize PACS for promoting adoption of mobile
banking, and e-governance platforms, etc.
  Financial strengthening: Introduced a risk-based lending
model and implement effective recovery measures to address
NPA issue.
o Enhance capital base of PACS through access to external
funding sources, diversifying their business portfolio, etc.
 Human Resource: Implement capacity-building programs, provide
better compensation and career progression opportunities to skilled
staff to retain them.
 Improving governance:
o Regular audits, and strict disclosure norms to ensure
transparency and accountability.
o Implement measures to insulate PACS from undue
political influence and ensure their autonomous functioning.

Salient Features of NEP, 2020

National Education Policy 2020 has been announced on 29.07.2020. The
National Education Policy 2020 proposes various reforms in school
education as well as higher education including technical education. A
number of action points/activities for implementation in school education
as well as higher education are mentioned in the National Education Policy
2020. Details of the salient features of NEP 2020 are as follows-

i. Ensuring Universal Access at All Levels of schooling from pre-

primary school to Grade 12;
ii. Ensuring quality early childhood care and education for all children
between 3-6 years;
iii. New Curricular and Pedagogical Structure (5+3+3+4);
iv. No hard separations between arts and sciences, between curricular
and extra-curricular activities, between vocational and academic
streams;
v. Establishing National Mission on Foundational Literacy and
Numeracy;
vi. Emphasis on promoting multilingualism and Indian languages; The
medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, but preferably till
Grade 8 and beyond, will be the home language/mother
tongue/local language/regional language.
vii. Assessment reforms - Board Exams on up to two occasions during
any given school year, one main examination and one for
improvement, if desired;
 viii. Setting up of a new National Assessment Centre, PARAKH
(Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for
Holistic Development);
ix. Equitable and inclusive education - Special emphasis given on
Socially and Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs);
x. A separate Gender Inclusion fund and Special Education Zones for
disadvantaged regions and groups;
xi. Robust and transparent processes for recruitment of teachers and
merit based performance;
xii. Ensuring availability of all resources through school complexes and
clusters;
(xiii) Setting up of State School Standards Authority (SSSA);
(xiv) Exposure of vocational education in school and higher education
system;
xv. Increasing GER in higher education to 50%;
(xvi) Holistic and Multidisciplinary Education with multiple entry/exit
options;
xvii. NTA to offer Common Entrance Exam for Admission to HEIs;
xviii. Establishment of Academic Bank of Credit;
(xix) Setting up of Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities
(MERUs);
xx. Setting up of National Research Foundation (NRF);
(xxi) ‘Light but Tight’ regulation;
xxii. Single overarching umbrella body for promotion of higher education
sector including teacher education and excluding medical and legal
education- the Higher Education Commission of India (HECI)-with
independent bodies for standard setting- the General Education
Council; funding-Higher Education Grants Council (HEGC);
accreditation- National Accreditation Council (NAC); and regulation-
National Higher Education Regulatory Council (NHERC);
xxiii. Expansion of open and distance learning to increase Gross
Enrolment Ratio (GER).
xxiv. Internationalization of Education
xxv. Professional Education will be an integral part of the higher
education system. Stand-alone technical universities, health science
universities, legal and agricultural universities, or institutions in
these or other fields, will aim to become multi-disciplinary
institutions.
 xxvi. Teacher Education - 4-year integrated stage-specific, subject-
specific Bachelor of Education
xxvii. Establishing a National Mission for Mentoring.
xxviii. Creation of an autonomous body, the National Educational
Technology Forum (NETF) to provide a platform for the free
exchange of ideas on the use of technology to enhance learning,
assessment, planning, administration. Appropriate integration of
technology into all levels of education.
xxix. Achieving 100% youth and adult literacy.
xxx. Multiple mechanisms with checks and balances will combat and stop
the commercialization of higher education.
xxxi. All education institutions will be held to similar standards of audit
and disclosure as a ‘not for profit’ entity.
xxxii. The Centre and the States will work together to increase the public
investment in Education sector to reach 6% of GDP at the earliest.
xxxiii. Strengthening of the Central Advisory Board of Education to ensure
coordination to bring overall focus on quality education.

NEP, 2020 aim to increase the GER to 100% in preschool to secondary

level by 2030 whereas GER in Higher Education including vocational
education from 26.3% (2018) to 50% by 2035.
The Central Sector Scheme Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya National
Mission on Teachers and Teaching (PMMMNMTT) was launched in 2014 to
address comprehensively all issues related to Teacher Training/ Capacity
Building and Professional Development of Teachers. Under the
components, the total 95 Centres were established throughout the
country through which faculties/Teachers have been trained. Currently,
The Standing Finance Committee has appraised the Scheme and
recommended for continuation till 2025-2026 with the total outlay of Rs.
493.68 crore. Under the PMMMNMTT Scheme Centres are established on
the basis of the proposals received from education institutions, their
screening by Screening Committee and approval by Project Approval
Board.

UNDP HDI and HUMAN DEV REPORT

The UNDP Human Development Report 2025 (HDR 2025), titled "A Matter
of Choice: People and Possibilities in the Age of AI," ranks India at 130th
out of 193 countries, an improvement from 133rd in 2022, with its
Human Development Index (HDI) value rising from 0.676 (2022) to 0.685
(2023), placing India in the "medium human development" category near
the high-development threshold. India's progress reflects gains in life
expectancy (reaching 72 years), education, and income, though
significant inequality, especially gender disparities, persists and tempers
overall human development.
India's Key Data in HDR 2025:
 Rank: 130th (up from 133rd)
 HDI Value: 0.685 (up from 0.676)
 Category: Medium Human Development
 Life Expectancy: 72 years (highest ever)
 Mean Years of Schooling: Rose to 6.9 years
 Expected Years of Schooling: Increased to 13 years
 Gross National Income (GNI) per Capita (PPP): Increased to
$9,046 (2023)
Key Takeaways:
 Progress & Challenges: India shows strong improvement in core
HDI metrics (health, education, income) but significant inequality,
particularly gender gaps, reduces its overall score, notes UNDP in
India.
 AI Focus: The report emphasizes Artificial Intelligence's potential to
reshape development, a topic relevant to India's growing tech
sector, according to UNDP.
 Regional Context: India's growth outpaces the South Asian
average, yet remains below "high human development," a threshold
of 0.700.

Challenges in Human Development

Health
 Unequal Access to Healthcare: Disparities in healthcare availability
between urban and rural areas.
 Malnutrition: Persistent malnutrition among children and women,
despite government schemes.
 Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs): Rising prevalence of diabetes,
hypertension, and other lifestyle diseases.
 Public Health Infrastructure: Shortages of hospitals, medical staff,
and equipment.
Education
  Quality of Education: Learning outcomes remain suboptimal despite
high enrollment rates.
 Gender Disparity: Girls face barriers to education, particularly in
rural areas.
 Dropout Rates: Economic pressures lead to high dropout rates
among marginalized groups.
 Digital Divide: Limited access to digital infrastructure in remote
regions hampers online learning.
Income and Living Standards
 Income Inequality: Economic growth has not translated into
equitable income distribution.
 Unemployment: High youth unemployment despite increased
educational attainment.
 Housing and Sanitation: Inadequate access to safe housing and
sanitation facilities for millions.
 Social Exclusion: Marginalized communities, such as Scheduled
Castes and Tribes, face systemic barriers.
Government Initiatives for Human Development
Health
 Ayushman Bharat: Provides free healthcare coverage to
economically vulnerable families.
 National Health Mission (NHM): Focuses on strengthening rural
healthcare systems.
 Mission Indradhanush: Aims for universal immunization coverage.
 POSHAN Abhiyaan: Targets malnutrition through integrated nutrition
programs.
Education
 Right to Education Act (RTE), 2009: It guarantees free and
compulsory education for children aged 6-14.
 Mid-Day Meal Scheme: It improves nutrition and attendance among
schoolchildren.
 Skill India Mission: It enhances employability through vocational
training.
 Digital India: It promotes e-learning and digital literacy.
Living Standards
 Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): It ensures affordable housing
for all.
  Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: It focuses on sanitation and eliminating
open defecation.
 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA): It provides employment and income security in rural
areas.
 Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY): It enhances
rural electrification.
Role of Technology and Innovation
 Digital Health: Telemedicine platforms like eSanjeevani improve
healthcare access.
 EdTech Platforms: Companies like BYJU’S and government initiatives
like DIKSHA bridge educational gaps.
 Smart Cities: Enhance urban living through sustainable
infrastructure.
 AI and Big Data: Facilitate targeted policymaking and monitoring.
Way Forward
 Investing in Health: Increasing public health expenditure to
ensure universal healthcare.
 Education Reforms: Focusing on quality education, teacher
training, and inclusive digital learning.
 Reducing Inequality: Implementing progressive taxation and
welfare schemes to narrow income disparities.
 Empowering Women: Enhancing gender parity in education,
employment, and leadership.
 Environmental Sustainability: Balancing development with
ecological conservation to ensure long-term well-being.
Conclusion
India has made commendable progress in human development, but
significant challenges remain. By adopting a holistic and inclusive
approach, prioritizing health, education, and equitable living standards,
India can achieve sustainable human development. Empowering its
people is not just a moral imperative but also a strategic necessity for the
nation’s growth and global stature.
IMPORTANT FEATURE of Indian economy – structural and institutional
features
The nature of the Indian economy as of 2026 is defined by its transition
from a primarily agrarian society to a fast-growing,
diversified developing market economy. It is characterized by
its "mixed" nature, where both private and public sectors operate side-by-
side.
Structural Features
The structural framework of the Indian economy refers to how various
sectors contribute to the National Income and how resources are
distributed.
 Mixed Economy: India blends private enterprise with state
intervention. The government controls strategic sectors like defense
and railways, while the private sector dominates IT, retail, and
manufacturing.
 Sectoral Imbalance: Despite rapid modernization, the economy
still exhibits a "dualistic" structure. While the service sector is the
largest contributor to GDP (approx. 59-60%), the agricultural
sector remains the largest employer, supporting over 50% of the
workforce.
 Occupational Distribution: A heavy reliance on the primary
sector (agriculture) is a defining structural feature, though there is
an ongoing shift toward the tertiary (service) and secondary
(industrial) sectors due to urbanization.
 Income Inequality: Wealth is highly concentrated, with the top 1%
of the population owning approximately 53% of the country's
wealth.
 Low Per Capita Income: Despite being one of the world's largest
economies by total GDP, India's high population results in a low per
capita income compared to developed nations.
 Capital Deficiency: Low savings rates among the general
population, often due to low income, lead to slower capital
formation and a reliance on foreign investment for large-scale
infrastructure.
Institutional Features
The institutional framework includes the social, legal, and political
structures that govern economic behavior.
 Economic Planning: India operates under a planned development
model. While the Planning Commission was dissolved in 2014, its
successor, NITI Aayog, serves as the premier policy "think tank" to
foster cooperative federalism and long-term strategic planning.
 Traditional Social Framework: Deep-rooted social institutions
like the caste system and joint family structures continue to
influence economic mobility, labor participation, and wealth
distribution.
 Regulatory Environment: The economy has evolved from a
heavily regulated "license-permit raj" to a more liberalized model
following the 1991 LPG (Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization)
reforms.
 Banking and Credit Systems: The institutional finance system is
a mix of formal (nationalized and private banks) and informal
sectors (moneylenders), with the latter still playing a significant role
in rural credit.
 Market Imperfections: Inefficiencies in the mobility of goods and
labor, often due to bureaucratic hurdles or poor rural connectivity,
lead to price fluctuations and underutilization of resources

In 2026, the Indian economy is the world's fourth-largest by nominal

GDP, having recently surpassed Japan, and remains the fastest-growing
major economy. It is a mixed developing economy characterized
by significant structural shifts toward digital services and modern
manufacturing despite persistent challenges like low per capita income
and a large informal sector.
Structural Features
The structural nature of the Indian economy highlights the distribution of
production and employment across sectors.
 Sectoral Imbalance: The service sector is the primary driver of
growth, contributing over 55% to the GDP. However,
the agricultural sector remains the largest employer, supporting
over 40% of the workforce despite its declining share in total output
(approx. 15–18%).
 Dualistic Structure: A modern, technologically advanced industrial
and service core (e.g., IT hubs in Bengaluru and Hyderabad)
coexists with a traditional, low-productivity rural economy.
  Informal Economy: A vast majority of the workforce (roughly 83%)
is employed in the unorganized sector, which includes small-scale
trade and daily wage labor.
 Income Inequality: Wealth is highly concentrated; as of 2026, the
top 1% of the population holds approximately 40% of the country's
wealth.
 Low Per Capita Income: Despite its large nominal GDP (over $4
trillion), India's per capita income remains low, estimated
at $2,934 for 2026, significantly behind developed nations.
Institutional Features
The institutional framework refers to the systems, policies, and social
structures that govern economic activity.
 Mixed Economy Model: Both public and private sectors coexist.
The government maintains a major role in strategic areas like
defense, railways, and energy, while private enterprise dominates
retail and manufacturing.
 Planning and Policy: While formal "Five-Year Plans" have ended,
the economy is guided by NITI Aayog's long-term strategic
frameworks, such as the "Viksit Bharat" vision for 2047.
 Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): India has built a world-class
digital framework (including Unified Payments Interface and
BharatTradeNet) that has accelerated financial inclusion and
formalization.
 Regulatory Reforms: The economy continues to transition through
major reforms, including GST 2.0 for tax rationalization and new
labor law overhauls intended to increase manufacturing
competitiveness.
 Financial Market Development: India possesses a sophisticated
banking system and growing stock markets (BSE and NSE), which
have seen a surge in institutional and retail investment by 2026.
 Demographic Pressure: With a population exceeding 1.4 billion,
the economy faces intense pressure to create millions of jobs for its
young workforce, a challenge often referred to as the "demographic
dividend" or "burden".
In 2026, data regarding inequality in
India
presents a complex and somewhat contradictory picture, largely due to
different measurement methodologies. While one prominent report ranks
India
as highly equal, other datasets highlight extreme disparities.
The World Bank "4th Most Equal Country" Ranking
According to the World Bank's Spring 2025 Poverty and Equity Brief,
India was ranked as the 4th most equal country globally, based on data
from 2022–23.
 India's Ranking: Ranked 4th after the Slovak Republic, Slovenia,
and Belarus.
 Significance: This suggests that India has outperformed all G7 and
G20 nations, including China and the US, in reducing consumption-
based disparities. It highlights a "silent revolution" where
approximately 171 million people were lifted out of extreme
poverty between 2011 and 2023.
The Inequality Paradox: Methodological Context
Economists caution that this high ranking is based on consumption
expenditure rather than income or wealth.
 Consumption vs. Income: Consumption data often masks wealth
gaps because the ultra-rich's spending is capped, while their income
and assets continue to grow exponentially.
 Contrasting Data: The World Inequality Report 2026 presents
a starkly different view, noting that the top 1% of Indians hold
over 40% of national wealth, while the bottom 50% own just 3%.
By income-based metrics, India's Gini score is estimated at 61–62,
placing it among the most unequal nations.
Gini Coefficient and India's Score
The Gini Coefficient is a statistical measure of distribution where 0
represents perfect equality and 100 represents perfect inequality.
 India's 2026 Status: India's consumption-based Gini score is
reported at 25.5 for 2022–23, an improvement from 28.8 in 2011.
 Global Comparison:
o India: 25.5 (Moderately low inequality category).
o China: 35.7.
o United States: 41.8.
What This Signifies for India
 Inclusive Welfare Success: The ranking signifies the success of
targeted government schemes like Jan Dhan Yojana (financial
inclusion) and Ayushman Bharat (healthcare), which have stabilized
basic living standards.
 Hollowed Middle Class: Critics argue the gains are primarily at
the bottom (poverty reduction) and the top (wealth accumulation),
leaving a "hollowed-out" middle class and stagnant real wages for
the bottom 60% of earners.
  Call for Reform: The dual nature of these reports signifies a need
for deeper structural reforms, such as progressive taxation and
increased investment in human capital, to ensure wealth is as
equitably distributed as basic consumption.

bridging economic inequality in India requires a multi-pronged approach

that combines progressive fiscal policies with large-scale structural
reforms. Current expert recommendations and government initiatives
focus on the following key strategies:
1. Fiscal and Tax Reforms
 Progressive Taxation: Implementing higher tax rates for the ultra-
wealthy. Experts suggest a 2% annual wealth tax and a 33%
inheritance tax on estates exceeding ₹10 crore could generate
revenues equal to roughly 2.73% of India's GDP, providing massive
funds for redistribution.
 Rationalizing Indirect Taxes: Reforming the GST structure to a
two-slab regime (5% and 18%) to reduce the tax burden on
essential goods and services, which disproportionately affects lower-
income households.
 Closing Tax Loopholes: Strengthening tax administration to
reduce evasion and ensuring that the effective tax burden on the
very wealthy is not lower than that of the middle class.
2. Investing in Human Capital
 Universal Public Services: Significantly increasing public
spending on health (target 2.5% of GDP) and education (target
6% of GDP) to ensure that quality services are accessible to all, not
just those who can afford private options.
 Skill Development: Modernizing vocational training through
programs like PM Kaushal Vikas Yojana and integrating AI-ready
skills into curricula to ensure the workforce can access higher-
paying, modern jobs.
3. Strengthening Labor and Social Security
 Employment Guarantees: Expanding and refining schemes
like MGNREGA, which in some regions now offers up to 125
days of guaranteed wage employment, to provide a stronger
income floor for the rural poor.
 Gig and Informal Worker Protection: Implementing the newly
unified Labour Codes to extend social security, health, and
maternity benefits to gig and platform workers who previously
lacked these protections.
  Raising Minimum Wages: Periodically adjusting minimum wages
in line with inflation to protect the real purchasing power of low-
income earners.
4. Inclusive Growth and Entrepreneurship
 Targeted Credit Access: Expanding collateral-free loans through
schemes like PM Vishwakarma (for artisans) and Stand-Up
India (for women and SC/ST entrepreneurs) to enable wealth
creation at the grassroots level.
 Support for MSMEs: Reducing compliance burdens and improving
credit flow to micro-enterprises, which are the primary engines of
job creation in India.
5. Addressing Social and Regional Divides
 Positive Discrimination: Ensuring the effective implementation of
reservation policies, including for Economically Weaker Sections
(EWS), to promote social justice and economic mobility.
 Decentralized Planning: Using digital platforms like PM Gati
Shakti and "Viksit Gram Panchayat Plans" to ensure infrastructure
and development funds reach underserved rural areas effectively.
These government reports and analyses detail strategies for reducing
economic inequality in India through progressive taxation, public service
investment, labor reforms, and inclusive growth initiatives.

1. The Gini Coefficient Paradox

The Gini Coefficient measures inequality on a scale of 0 (perfect equality)
to 100 (perfect inequality). India's scores vary significantly based on the
data source:
 Consumption-based (World Bank): India's Gini score fell from
28.8 in 2011 to 25.5 by 2022–23. This places India in the
"moderately low" inequality category, ranking as the 4th most
equal country globally for consumption.
 Income-based (World Inequality Lab): India’s income Gini is
estimated at 61.0 (or 0.61) as of 2023–2026, marking a significant
rise from 0.47 in 2000.
 Wealth-based: The Gini for wealth inequality is even higher
at 75.0 (or 0.75).
2. Wealth and Income Concentration (2026 Reports)
The World Inequality Report 2026 characterizes India as having some
of the highest inequality levels in the world.
  The Top 1%: This group holds approximately 40.1% of national
wealth and captures 22.6% of total national income.
 The Top 10%: Owns roughly 65% of total wealth and
captures 58% of national income.
 The Bottom 50%: Collectively holds just 3% to 6.4% of national
wealth and receives 15% of national income.
3. Poverty and Livelihood Indicators
Despite high wealth concentration, large-scale poverty reduction has
occurred:
 Extreme Poverty Reduction: Approximately 171 million
people were lifted out of extreme poverty (under $2.15/day)
between 2011 and 2023, bringing the rate down to 2.3%.
 Income Benchmarks: Monthly earnings of ₹30,000 place an
individual in the top 30% of earners. The bottom 10% of households
saw their share of income fall to 2.38% in recent years.
4. Structural Disparities
 Gender Gap: Female labor force participation remains stagnant at
roughly 15.7%, and women earn only 18% of total labor
income in India.
 Rural-Urban Divide: While 92% of urban households have access
to clean cooking fuel, only 49.8% of rural households do.
 Human Development: India reportedly loses
approximately 30.7% of its human development potential due
to internal inequalities.

KVK’s
Krishi Vigyan Kendras are district-level agricultural extension centers
established in 1974 under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
Their primary goal is to serve as a bridge between agricultural research
and the farming community, ensuring that scientific knowledge is
translated into practical outcomes. KVKs are designed to introduce
innovative technologies, enhance farm productivity, and promote
sustainable practices tailored to local agro-climatic conditions. They focus
on training, demonstrations, and advisory services covering multiple
domains such as crop production, horticulture, livestock, fisheries, and
agroforestry. Each KVK functions as a knowledge hub that supports
farmers with real-time solutions on soil health, pest management, water
conservation, and post-harvest management. With more than 700 centers
spread across India, KVKs are important in achieving national food
security and strengthening rural livelihoods.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra Features

The KVK model is unique in its farm-centric approach to technology
dissemination. Each KVK acts as a Farm Science Centre, targeting the
district’s specific agricultural challenges and opportunities. Krishi Vigyan
Kendras have the following features:

Through on-farm testing and frontline demonstrations, farmers are

directly exposed to new crop varieties, innovative techniques, and
improved farming tools, ensuring hands-on experience.
Capacity-building initiatives include training programs for farmers, rural
youth, women, and extension workers, focusing on modern farming skills
and entrepreneurship.
KVKs also function as resource hubs, providing soil and water testing
facilities, seed production units, and farm mechanization guidance.
Their methods integrate crop cultivation, horticulture, fisheries, animal
husbandry, and agroforestry, enabling a holistic model of rural
development.
By promoting organic farming, integrated pest management, and climate-
resilient practices, KVKs also play a major role in environmental
sustainability.
Additionally, they provide entrepreneurship by supporting farmers in
value addition, agri-marketing, and small-scale enterprises, thereby
strengthening the rural economy
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Objectives
The Krishi Vigyan Kendras aim to translate agricultural research into field-
level solutions with a focus on technology transfer, skill development, and
sustainable farming. Their objectives include:

Technology Assessment & Demonstration: Checking and refining

agricultural technologies to suit diverse agro-climatic zones through field
trials.
Skill Development: Conducting vocational training for farmers, women,
and rural youth to enhance employment opportunities and modernize
traditional practices.
On-Farm Testing (OFT): Addressing real-world farming problems by testing
technologies under farmers’ conditions for better adaptability.
Frontline Demonstrations (FLD): Showcasing advanced crop varieties,
livestock practices, and soil conservation methods to encourage adoption.
Knowledge Dissemination: Offering advisory services in soil health, pest
and disease management, irrigation practices, and climate adaptation.
Promoting Sustainability: Encouraging eco-friendly practices, organic
farming, and conservation of natural resources.
Diversification: Strengthening allied activities such as fisheries, dairy,
horticulture, and agroforestry to increase rural income sources.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Importance
The importance of Krishi Vigyan Kendras lies in their grassroots-level
impact on agricultural growth and rural development.

They are instrumental in bridging the research farmer gap, ensuring that
innovations from agricultural universities and research institutes reach
farmers effectively.
By conducting need-based training programs, KVKs empower farmers with
scientific knowledge, enabling them to adopt cost-effective, productive,
and climate-resilient techniques.
Their on-field demonstrations provide practical exposure, while advisory
services offer real-time solutions to crop and livestock issues.
KVKs also promote integrated farming systems and organic practices,
ensuring both ecological balance and economic sustainability.
By encouraging entrepreneurship and skill-based employment, KVKs
enhance rural income and resilience.
Their localized, participatory approach makes them vital for food security,
poverty reduction, and rural empowerment in India.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Challenges
Despite their contribution, KVKs face many structural and operational
challenges.

Resource constraints such as limited funds, outdated infrastructure, and

inadequate equipment hinder efficiency.
Many centers suffer from a shortage of trained professionals, especially in
advanced areas like digital agriculture, precision farming, and climate
adaptation.
Outdated technology dissemination and weak research-extension linkages
often leave farmers dependent on old practices.
Awareness levels among small and marginal farmers remain low, reducing
the outreach of KVK programs. In several regions, coordination gaps
between KVKs, local administrations, and agricultural universities lead to
duplication of efforts.
Additionally, monitoring mechanisms are weak, with limited evaluation of
the long-term impact of programs.
Connectivity issues in remote areas further reduce access to KVK services.
Addressing these problems through enhanced funding, skill enhancement,
and stronger integration with digital platforms is essential for KVKs to
realize their transformative potential

The concept of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) was developed by the Mohan
Singh Mehta Committee in 1973, with the idea championed and
promoted by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the "Father of Green Revolution in
India," to bridge the gap between agricultural research and farmers
through vocational training and practical learning. The first KVK was
established in Puducherry in 1974, following these recommendations for
experiential learning and technology transfer to enhance rural livelihoods.
Core Principles of KVKs:
 Experiential Learning: Learning by doing, focusing on practical
skills.
 Technology Transfer: Acting as a vital link between agricultural
research institutions and farming communities.
 Vocational Training: Providing skills to farmers, farmwomen, and
youth for self-employment.
 Flexibility: Tailoring programs to local needs, resources, and
potential.
There are 731 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) in the country. State/UT wise
number of KVKs is given in Table below

KVKs are viewed as one of India’s important institutional innovation

inspiring the world in the 21st Century (ICAR, 2012).This institutional
innovation is also likely to spread to other parts of the world like Africa
(Kumar, 2013). If KVKs have to contribute effectively, their roles need to
be clarified and their relationships with the host institute needs to be
streamlined. KVKs should have the freedom to decide on its functioning
without getting involved in the activities of the host institute which are not
in line with the mandates set for the former. Powers to implement the
approved technical programme of the KVK should be fully delegated to
the PC. KVKs being a field oriented organisation need a different type of
management which is different from the way a research institute is
managed. KVK personnel working in the host institutions have to be
brought back and existing vacant posts in KVKs should be filled up
urgently. The recommendations of the High Power Committee on
Management of KVKs should be implemented without any further delay.
Without addressing these types of governance challenges, one shouldn’t
be expecting any major impact from the KVKs.
The High Power Committee on KVK Management (chaired by Dr. R.S.
Paroda) recommended a strategic shift for Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)
towards a farmer-centric vision, focusing on Technology Assessment
and Demonstration for Wider Application and Capacity
Development (TADACD), enhancing district-level infrastructure for
localized focus like "One District, One Focus Produce" (ODFP),
strengthening coordination with ICAR, State Governments, and ATMA, and
improving administrative/financial management for greater impact and
sustainability in Indian agriculture.
Key Recommendations & Focus Areas:
 Mandate & Vision:
o Vision: Science & technology-led growth for enhanced
productivity, profitability, and sustainability.
o Mission: Farmer-centric growth through appropriate
technologies in specific agro-ecosystems.
o New Mandate (TADACD): Technology Assessment,
Demonstration for its wider Application, and Capacity
Development.
 Infrastructure & Operations:
o Permanent Presence: Establish strong district-level KVK
infrastructure for focused research and extension.
o "One District, One Focus Produce" (ODFP): KVKs to lead
efforts on high-potential commodities for value chain
development.
 Management & Coordination:
o National/State Councils: Set up coordinating bodies for
uniform monitoring and regional accountability.
o Coordination: Improve linkages with ICAR, State Agriculture
Universities (SAUs), and extension systems (like ATMA).
 Administrative & Financial Reforms:
 o Guidelines for efficient technical, administrative, and financial
management.
 Visibility & Impact:
o Focus on generating outcomes, addressing farmer problems,
and promoting improved technologies.

Key Government Actions and Initiatives

 100% Central Funding: KVKs are entirely funded by the Central
Government through the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), which covers their pay, allowances, operational costs, and
infrastructure development.
 Infrastructure Upgrades: The government makes continuous
efforts to upgrade KVK infrastructure, including administrative
buildings, farmers' hostels, demonstration units, and soil testing
labs. A significant budget provision of over ₹77 crore was made in a
recent year for this purpose. The goal is to provide required
infrastructure in all remaining KVKs expeditiously.
 Technology Dissemination: KVKs serve as a crucial link to
transfer new agricultural technologies from research labs to farmers'
fields. This includes promoting:
o Climate-smart agriculture and sustainable farming
practices.
o Micro-irrigation systems and efficient water use.
o Farm machinery and equipment, often through custom
hiring centers.
o Soil Health Card Scheme to educate farmers on soil
nutrient management.
o Natural farming under the Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati
Programme (BPKP).
 Special Programs: The government implements various special
programs through KVKs to address specific needs, such as:
o Attracting and Retaining Youth in Agriculture (ARYA) to
promote agricultural entrepreneurship among rural youth.
o Nutri-sensitive Agricultural Resources and Innovations
(NARI) to promote nutrition-sensitive agriculture.
o Knowledge Systems and Homestead Agriculture
Management in Tribal Areas (KSHAMTA) for development
in tribal regions.
 o "Farmer FIRST" and "Mera Gaon Mera Gaurav" initiatives
to link villages directly with research systems.
o Pulses and seed hubs to augment the availability of quality
seeds.
 Digital Integration: An online Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)
Portal has been launched to monitor KVK activities nationally and
provide timely information and advisories to farmers via web and
mobile technology. KVKs also use the mKisan portal to send mobile
agro-advisories.
 Human Resource Support: Efforts are being made to ensure KVKs
have adequate staff. The government aims to fill vacant positions
and ensure promotions and academic parity for KVK scientists and
staff based on their qualifications.
 Convergence with Other Schemes: KVKs act as nodal agencies
to ensure convergence with other government schemes like the
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima
Yojana, and the National Livestock Mission, providing farmers a
single point of access to various benefits.
 Monitoring and Review: The government has a strong monitoring
system, involving regular reviews at national, zonal, and district
levels by ICAR and other bodies to ensure efficiency and
effectiveness.

AGRI EXTENSION SERVICES:

Agricultural extension services are crucial systems that bridge the gap
between research and farmers, delivering new knowledge, technologies,
and skills to boost productivity, sustainability, and rural livelihoods
through education, training, and support. Key providers include
government bodies (like ICAR, Ministries of Agriculture), research
institutions, NGOs, private companies (input dealers, agri-entrepreneurs),
farmer organizations, and para-extension workers (like Krishi Sakhis).
What Agricultural Extension Services Are
 Knowledge Transfer: Disseminating scientific findings, new
techniques (e.g., natural farming, soil health), and market
information to farmers.
 Capacity Building: Offering training, skill development, and
problem-solving support for pests, diseases, and management.
  Linkage Creation: Connecting farmers with essential inputs
(seeds, fertilizers, credit) and markets.
 Feedback Loop: Gathering farmer challenges to inform research
and policy.
Institutions Providing Extension Services
 Government Agencies: Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), State Agriculture Universities (SAUs), Departments of
Agriculture, Ministries of Agriculture & Rural Development (e.g.,
Krishi Sakhi Convergence Program).
 Research Institutions: Universities and national research centers
(e.g., IFPRI for research on improvements).
 Farmer Organizations: Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs),
Cooperatives, Self-Help Groups (SHGs).
 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Working at the
grassroots level to empower farmers.
 Private Sector: Input suppliers (seeds, pesticides), private banks,
agri-entrepreneurs, and consulting firms.
 Para-Extension Workers: Trained local individuals like Krishi
Sakhis, acting as "farmers' friends".
 Information & Communication Tech (ICT): Digital platforms,
media, and mobile services delivering information

 Currently, agriculture R&E system in India is dominated by the

public sector and is led by the Indian Council of Agriculture
Research (ICAR).
o ICT led interactive technology information dissemination-
VISTAAR (Videos on farm technologies to be developed, technical
vetting to videos, monitoring of state nodal agencies &
stakeholders).
o Application and promotion of drone technology in agriculture
across the country.
o Involvement in big data management (ICAR-CSISA
Collaborative project) for obtaining feedback regarding
technology adoption and development of strategies for upscaling
and out-scaling
 National Mission on Agriculture Extension and Technology
(NMAET): Introduced to enable delivery of technology and improve
current agronomic practices of farmers under four sub missions,
namely:
 o Sub Mission on Agricultural Extension (I),
o Sub Mission on Seed and Planting Material (SMSP),
o Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM) and
o Sub Mission on Plant Protection and Plant Quarantine (SMPP).
 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs): KVKs are field research units of
the ICAR and are meant to test new seed varieties, agronomic
practices, machinery etc. in field conditions across different agro-
climatic zones before these are cleared for adoption by farmers.
o Additionally, they conduct farmer outreach programmes
through on-farm demonstration plots, training etc.
 Other players in public sector: State Agricultural Universities
(SAU) and ICT-led extension interventions by MoA&FW.
o ICT-led schemes include m-Kisan, Kisan Call Centre etc.
 Extension services by Private sector: Mostly by input dealers,
such as those marketing seeds, fertilizers and farm machinery.
o E.g., Companies such as IFFCO and KRIBHCO etc. undertake
extension activities by conducting farmer meetings,
organizing crop seminars, arranging for soil testing facilities
etc.

Challenges with India's Agricultural Extension System

 Lack of Investment: India spends about 0.7% of its agri-GDP on
agri-Research and Education (R&E) and Extension and Training
together, of which only 0.16% is allocated to Extension and Training.
 Regional Variations: There are considerable variations in
presence of extension system and investments across various
states.
o Eastern states which are also a few of the poorest states
with high dependency on agriculture and low agriculture
productivity are also the states with lowest spending on
Agriculture R&E.
 Skewed Allocation: India's allocation of agriculture extension and
training is highly skewed towards crop husbandry (92%) while
livestock sector contributes significantly to agri. Output.
  Lacks outcome orientation: The public extension delivery system
has functioned more as targeted activity based rather than targeted
outcomes-based mechanism.
Way Forward
 Market-led system: There is an urgent need to re-prioritise the
existing extension system to transcend from the traditional food
security perspective to a more market led-extension system.
 Linking research and extension: Strengthen links between
research and extension by increasing cross sharing of
experiences between the public, private and civil society sectors.
 Diversification: Diversify agriculture R&E portfolio away from
crops and more towards animal husbandry and dairy (high value
agriculture).
 Innovation networks: Designing and implementing innovation
networks through digital platforms to permit free two-way flow
of ideas and technologies. E.g., Ranking of KVKs through KVK Portal-
DARPAN
o Collaboration with private partners under Public-Private-
Peasant-Policy Partnership (P-P-P-P-P) mode.
 Agri-Rural Markets: Periodical rural markets can be developed
into retail cum logistics hub named Primary Agri-Rural Markets
(PRAMs) which include facilities for aggregating produce, grading,
price discovery and increasing the bargaining power of farmers.

Key issues in agricultural extension include irrelevant or impractical

advice, lack of trained personnel, weak links with research, poor funding,
and challenges with technology adoption, leading to a disconnect between
extension services and diverse farmer needs, especially concerning
market access, leading to confusion with private sector influence and
inadequate reach to remote areas.
Content & Relevance
 Irrelevant Advice: Advice often focuses on production, not market
needs, and isn't tailored to diverse farm conditions (soil, climate,
resources).
 Production-Centric Focus: Overemphasis on crops, neglecting
significant sectors like livestock and fisheries.
Human & Institutional Factors
 Under-trained Staff: Extension workers lack knowledge of the
latest technologies and effective communication methods.
  Weak Research-Extension Link: Poor coordination and differing
goals between researchers and extension agents hinder relevant
technology transfer.
 Funding & Skewed Allocation: Insufficient funds and skewed
spending (e.g., high crop focus, low animal husbandry).
 Policy & Management Gaps: Weak management, lack of
outcome-orientation, and poor implementation of programs.
Technology & Communication
 Digital Divide: Poor adoption and utilization of modern ICTs for
data and information sharing.
 Inadequate Information Systems: Lack of integrated systems to
provide comprehensive info (weather, soil, etc.).
Farmer Access & Equity
 Unequal Reach: Remote and marginalized farmers are often
missed by extension services.
 Private Sector Influence: Farmers often choose private inputs
over public advice due to misinformation and sales pressure.
 Farmer Heterogeneity: A "one-size-fits-all" approach fails
smallholders, women, and diverse ethnic groups.
Systemic & External Challenges
 Fiscal Sustainability: Difficulty in proving impact to secure
donor/political support.
 Contextual Shocks: Pandemics (like HIV/AIDS), climate change,
and pest outbreaks strain existing systems.

RASHTRIYA GOKUL MISSION and DAIRY SECTOR :

Rashtriya Gokul Mission – An Important initiative supporting Dairy
Sector
The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying is
implementing Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM) since 2014 for
development and conservation of indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds,
genetic upgradation of bovine population and enhancement of milk
production and productivity of bovines. The revised Rashtriya Gokul
Mission has been introduced in March 2025, to accelerate the growth of
the livestock sector. It is being implemented as a Central Sector
component of the Development Programmes scheme with an additional
outlay of Rs. 1000 crore, making the total allocation Rs. 3400 crore for
the 15th Finance Commission cycle from 2021–22 to 2025–26.
The scheme continues the earlier activities of the Rashtriya Gokul Mission.
It focuses on strengthening semen stations, expanding the Artificial
Insemination network, and implementing bull production and accelerated
breed improvement programmes through sex sorted semen etc.
With the implementation of the Rashtriya Gokul Mission and other efforts
of the Government, milk production has increased by 63.56% in the last
ten years. Productivity has also increased by 26.34% in the last ten
years.
Artificial Insemination Coverage
Artificial insemination is one of the most effective technologies for
improving milk production and the productivity of bovines. At
present, 33% of breedable bovines in India are covered through this
method. Nearly 70% of the animals are still serviced by scrub bulls of
unknown genetic merit.
In 2024-25, a total of 565.55 lakh artificial inseminations were carried
out across the country. This marks an important step towards expanding
scientific breeding practices and improving the quality of livestock.
Nationwide Artificial Insemination Programme (NAIP)
The National Artificial Insemination Programme (NAIP) under the
RGM has made strong progress in recent years. Under NAIP, free AI
services are being delivered at the farmers’ doorstep across districts. As
of August 2025, the programme has covered 9.16 crore animals, 14.12
crores Artificial Insemination have been performed benefitting5.54
crore farmers.
Advanced Reproductive Technologies
To boost productivity, 22 IVF labs have been set up. Over 10.32
million doses of sex-sorted semen have been produced, of which 70
lakh doses have been used for artificial insemination. This helps farmers
secure more female calves and strengthen milk output.
Multipurpose AI Technicians in Rural India (MAITRIs)
To bring breeding services closer to farmers, Multipurpose AI Technicians
in Rural India, known as MAITRIs, have been introduced. These technicians
are trained for three months at accredited institutes and receive grants of
up to 50,000 rupees for necessary equipment. After 3 years, they
become self-reliant through the recovery of costs. Over the last 4
years, 38,736 MAITRIs have been inducted and are now delivering
services directly at farmers’ doorsteps.
Progeny Testing and Breed Multiplication
Milk production is a sex-limited trait, so the genetic worth of a bull is
judged by the performance of its daughters. This scientific process, called
progeny testing, helps in estimating the transmitting ability of bulls.
During 2021-2024, 3,747 progeny-tested bulls have been produced
against the 5-year target of 4,111. Alongside this, 132 breed
multiplication farms have been sanctioned to strengthen the
availability of quality animals.

Seeds and certified seeds:

Seeds are the reproductive units of plants, containing an embryo and food
supply, while certified seeds are high-quality, genetically pure seeds
produced under strict standards, ensuring traits like high yield, disease
resistance, and cleanliness for reliable crop production, identified by
special blue tags. They are a crucial step up from uncertified seeds,
guaranteeing quality through third-party inspection and offering better
performance for farmers.
What are seeds?
 A seed is a plant's way of reproducing, containing a baby plant
(embryo) and a food source (endosperm/cotyledons) in a protective
coat.
 They are fundamental for agriculture, providing the starting material
for crops.
What are certified seeds?
 Progeny of Foundation Seed: Certified seeds are the next
generation from certified "foundation seeds," themselves derived
from breeder seeds, ensuring genetic lineage.
 Quality Controlled: A formal, legally sanctioned system ensures
they meet high standards for genetic purity (often 99%+) and
physical purity, minimizing weeds and other crop seeds.
 Improved Traits: They carry desirable traits developed through
research, such as better yield, pest/drought resistance, or faster
growth.
 Third-Party Verified: Certification agencies inspect fields and
processing plants, issuing distinctive blue tags for quality assurance.
 Commercial Seed: They are the main commercial seed type sold
to farmers, providing a reliable start for a successful harvest.
Key Differences from Non-Certified Seeds
 Purity: Certified seeds have strict purity, while non-certified seeds
can have significantly higher weed content, as per Wind River Seed.
 Traceability: Certified seeds have a traceable history back to the
breeder, unlike general seeds, as noted on Kisaan Helpline.
what are reasons for low adoption of certified seeds in india
Low adoption of certified seeds in India is primarily due to a combination
of economic, infrastructural, and informational barriers, which lead
most farmers to rely on farm-saved seeds. Key reasons include high costs,
limited availability, and a lack of awareness about the benefits.
Economic and Financial Barriers
 High Cost and Affordability: Certified seeds, especially hybrids,
are often more expensive than farm-saved or local varieties,
creating a significant financial barrier for resource-poor and
marginal farmers.
 Lack of Credit: Limited access to credit and input subsidies further
restricts the ability of farmers to purchase high-quality seeds.
 Income Volatility: The unpredictable nature of farm income can
make farmers risk-averse, discouraging them from investing in more
expensive certified seeds with uncertain outcomes.
Supply Chain and Infrastructure Challenges
 Limited and Untimely Availability: Certified seeds are often
unavailable in sufficient quantities or do not arrive in time for the
sowing season, particularly in remote or rainfed areas.
 Inadequate Distribution Networks: Poor transportation and a
lack of local retail outlets mean farmers often have to travel long
 distances to acquire certified seeds, adding to costs and
inconvenience.
 Storage Issues: Insufficient local seed storage infrastructure leads
to a loss of seed viability and decay, especially for small producers,
which makes saving and using their own seeds seem more practical.
 Counterfeit Products: The presence of counterfeit or substandard
seeds in the market leads to farmer mistrust of formal seed
suppliers, as they may have had previous negative experiences with
poor quality products.
Informational and Cultural Factors
 Reliance on Farm-Saved Seeds: A deep-rooted, traditional
practice involves farmers retaining their own seeds from the
previous harvest, which is a key reason for a low Seed Replacement
Rate (SRR).
 Lack of Awareness and Knowledge: Many farmers have
insufficient knowledge about the benefits of using certified seeds,
how to identify quality seeds, and the associated modern agronomic
practices.
 Weak Extension Services: Inadequate agricultural extension
services and a low ratio of extension workers to farmers limit direct
communication, hindering the transfer of information about new,
improved varieties and techniques.
 Risk Aversion: Farmers may be resistant to adopting new varieties
due to a fear of production failure or poor performance, preferring to
stick with traditional, known varieties that are better suited to local
conditions.
By addressing these multifaceted challenges through improved
accessibility, affordability, and education campaigns, India can encourage
greater adoption of certified seeds and enhance agricultural productivity
and food security.

ISSUES WITH CERTIFIED SEEDS

Issues with certified seeds include high cost, poor availability/distribution,
farmer mistrust from past poor experiences, counterfeiting, complex
regulations for producers, and misconceptions about their benefits (like
being chemically harmful) or performance, all leading to low adoption
despite potential yield benefits. Regulatory gaps and enforcement issues
allow substandard seeds to enter the market, undermining the system,
while farmers face challenges with paperwork and accessing information,
creating a disconnect between technology and farm-level reality.
Farmer-Level Issues
  Cost & Affordability: Certified seeds, especially hybrids, can be
expensive for smallholder farmers, leading them to cheaper,
uncertified alternatives.
 Availability & Timeliness: Seeds may not reach remote areas or
arrive too late in the season, forcing farmers to buy locally.
 Trust & Misconceptions: Farmers distrust the system due to
experiences with fake certified seeds or misconceptions that they
are chemically harmful, tasteless, or nutritionally inferior.
 Lack of Awareness: Insufficient extension services mean many
farmers don't understand the benefits or proper use of certified
seeds.
Systemic & Regulatory Issues
 Counterfeiting & Fraud: The market is flooded with fake certified
seeds, eroding credibility.
 Weak Enforcement: Poor monitoring and coordination allow
substandard seeds to bypass certification.
 Complex Regulations: Stringent, cumbersome, and slow
regulatory processes create bottlenecks for legitimate seed
companies.
 Intellectual Property: Issues with variety protection and royalty
collection complicate the system.
 Research-Extension Gap: Advances in seed technology often fail
to reach farmers quickly due to poor communication channels.
Producer & Market Issues
 Documentation Burden: Seed companies face extensive record-
keeping, and certifiers struggle with fraud prevention.
 Illegal Trade: Unapproved seed varieties (like certain cottons)
undermine licensed players.
Farmer-Friendly Legislation Issues
 Compensation Disputes: Laws like the PPVFR Act have diluted
compensation provisions, making it hard for farmers to get recourse
when seeds fail.
Indian government initiatives promote certified seeds through subsidies,
infrastructure development, and focused programs like the National
Mission on Seeds, Sub-Mission on Seeds and Planting Material
(SMSP), and Seed Village Programme, aiming to boost production,
ensure quality via systems like SATHI, increase Seed Replacement Rates
(SRR), and empower farmers with better yields through schemes like
NFSM and RKVY-RAFTAAR for subsidized distribution.
Key Initiatives & Programs:
  National Mission on Seeds & Planting Material (SMSP): Aims
to increase certified/quality seed production, strengthen the seed
multiplication chain, and support infrastructure like seed processing
units and labs.
 Seed Village Programme (SVP): Decentralizes quality seed
production within villages, making them self-sufficient and
improving access to improved varieties for farmers.
 National Food Security Mission (NFSM): Subsidizes certified
seeds for key crops (rice, wheat, pulses, oilseeds) to lower costs for
farmers and boost domestic production, notes Shakti Vardhak
Hybrid Seeds.
 Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY-RAFTAAR): Provides
financial support for state-level seed programs, including
distributing mini-kits of new varieties at nominal costs, according to
the PIB press release.
 Seed Mini-Kit Programme: Distributes free/subsidized kits of
improved seeds (pulses, oilseeds, cereals) to demonstrate benefits
and encourage adoption, especially for smallholders.
Infrastructure & Quality Control:
 SATHI Portal: A digital platform for seed traceability and quality
control, allowing QR code-based checks to reduce spurious seeds, as
detailed in a YouTube video.
 Seed Testing Labs: Support for labs (Testing, DNA Fingerprinting,
Seed Health) to ensure quality standards, notes a PIB press release.
 National Seed Reserve: Maintains a buffer stock of quality seeds
for emergencies, per the PIB press release.
Legal Framework:
 National Seed Policy, 2002: Establishes the framework for quality
assurance, certification, and distribution, enhancing availability,
according to [Link].
 The Seeds Act, 1966 & Rules: Provides the legal foundation for
regulating seed quality and certification procedures, as explained
by Nimbus Academy.

Draft Seeds Bill, 2025

Source: PIB
Subject: Government Schemes
Context: The Government of India has released the Draft Seeds Bill, 2025
for public consultation to overhaul India’s seed regulation framework.
  It aims to replace the Seeds Act, 1966 and Seeds (Control)
Order, 1983 with a modern, farmer-centric and innovation-driven
system.

What it is?
 A modern legislation to regulate seed quality, protect farmers,
and build a transparent, traceable, and accountable seed
ecosystem, including registration, certification, and QR-based
digital tracking.
Background / Need:
 Existing laws (Seeds Act, 1966; Seeds Control Order, 1983) became
outdated amid rising hybrids, GM traits, private R&D and global
trade.
 Earlier reform attempts (like the 2004 Seeds Bill) stalled.
 The 2025 Draft Bill introduces digital traceability, farmers’
rights, graded penalties, and ease of doing business.
Aim:
 Ensure high-quality seeds with clear germination, purity and health
standards.
 Protect farmers from spurious, misbranded or sub-standard seeds.
 Strengthen transparency through a central Seed Traceability Portal
and QR codes.
 Promote private R&D and reduce compliance burden with
decriminalised minor offences
Key Features of the Draft Seeds Bill, 2025:
1. Mandatory Registration of Seed Varieties:
 No seed can be sold for sowing unless it is registered based on
Value for Cultivation and Use (VCU) trials.
 Varieties notified under the 1966 Act are deemed registered,
and existing cultivated varieties get provisional registration for 3
years.
 Registration may be suspended or revoked if performance is poor or
safety concerns arise.
2. Farmers’ Rights Protected:
 Farmers retain the right to save, use, re-sow, exchange and
sell farm-saved seeds except under a brand name.
 They are exempt from penalties for selling their own farm seeds.
3. Strong Quality Regulation & Standards:
 Central Government will notify minimum standards for
germination, purity, traits, and seed health.
 Mandatory labelling + QR codes for traceability.
 Misbranded, spurious or sub-standard seeds prohibited.
4. Mandatory Registration Across the Seed Chain:
 Seed producers, seed processing units, dealers, distributors,
and plant nurseries must be registered with State Governments.
 A Central Accreditation System allows multi-state companies to
be “deemed registered”.
5. Certification & Testing Ecosystem Strengthened:
 Creation and recognition of Seed Certification Agencies (state or
accredited).
 Central & State Seed Testing Laboratories established with
defined standards.
 Seed Inspectors and Analysts get clear powers for sampling, search,
and seizure.
6. Liberalised but Regulated Seed Imports:
 Imports must comply with quarantine regulations and Indian
Minimum Seed Certification Standards.
 Unregistered varieties may be imported for research and
trials with approval.
7. Digital Seed Traceability (SATHI Portal):
 Mandatory onboarding of all producers, dealers, research bodies.
 Ensures end-to-end tracking, transparency, and minimisation of
fraud.
8. Graded Penalty System (Decriminalisation + Strict Action)
 Trivial offences: warnings + small penalties.
 Minor offences: penalties up to ₹2 lakh.
 Major offences: penalties up to ₹30 lakh, cancellation of
registration, and even imprisonment in extreme cases.
 Farmers are exempt from penalties for selling farm-saved seeds.
9. Price Regulation in Emergencies:
 Central Government may fix prices during scarcity, monopolistic
pricing, or profiteering situations.
PRECISION FARMING
Precision Farming is a modern approach to farming that uses advanced
sensors and analysis tools to boost crop yields and make better decisions.
It's a global practice aimed at increasing production, saving time and
effort in farming, and managing fertilizers and irrigation more efficiently.
OR
Precision Farming can be defined as a management approach that
collects, organizes, and evaluates temporal, spatial, and individual plant
and animal data.
Precision Farming in India
"The Mission of Digital Agriculture, 2021–2025" The effort seeks to
enhance the overall performance of the sector by using a variety of
technologies, including blockchain, artificial intelligence, and drone
technology.
AI-Powered Crop Yield Forecast Model
 In May 2018, NITI Aayog and IBM teamed up to create an AI-
powered agricultural production forecast algorithm to give farmers
real-time advice.
 To raise farmers' incomes, the partnership seeks to offer ideas on
how to improve crop production, raise soil yield, and manage
agricultural inputs. It involves the use of mobile applications, IT, and
comprehensive satellite weather advisory data, all aimed at
increasing crop productivity and reducing costs via improved farm
management.
AI-Enabled Agricultural Sensors
 With AI sensors, the Indian government is enabling small-holder
farmers to raise agricultural yields and put more control over prices,
a move that has been made in partnership with Microsoft.
 Drones can keep an eye on soil and crop health. The Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is working with six partner institutes
on a project called "SENSAGRI: Sensor-based Smart
Agriculture." Its goal is to create an indigenous prototype for a
drone-based system that uses remote sensors to monitor crop and
soil health. For large-scale applications, this technique may also be
coupled with satellite-based technologies.
Precision Farming Examples
The examples of precision farming are as follows:
 One example of precision farming is Variable Rate Irrigation
(VRI). With variable rate irrigation (VRI), farmers can modify the
water flow and pressure of each sprinkler or nozzle by the soil
moisture content, crop stage, and weather conditions. VRI can
increase agricultural productivity and quality while saving energy,
water, and fertilizer.
 Another example is using sensors, cameras, and drones, crop
sensing and spraying technology finds weeds, pests, and diseases in
crops and selectively applies the right chemicals to the affected
areas. This can lower the amount of chemicals used, increase
spraying effectiveness, and stop pollution and resistance.
Precision Farming Technologies
The following describes the technologies used in precision farming
technology:
1. The Global Positioning System
 Farm equipment placement in the field is identified by GPS. To apply
variable rate technology in the field of agricultural input
management, it offers a precise positioning system. The
development of an effective system for remote sensing-based
agriculture management is made possible by the Internet.
 Grid sampling is a way of dividing fields into smaller sections.
2. Variable-Rate Technology (VRT)
This type of technology comprises agricultural field equipment that can
accurately regulate the rate at which crop inputs, such as fertilizers,
irrigation, tillage, pest control, etc., are applied.
3. Yield Monitors
Yield monitors are crop yield measuring devices installed on harvesting
equipment. The yield data from the monitor is recorded and kept along
with the positioning data from the GPS device.
4. Remote Sensors
To view crops from above (from a satellite or low-flying aircraft or drone)
without coming into contact with them, record the image, and then
display it is known as remote sensing in the agricultural industry.
5. Proximate Sensors
As the tractor moves over the field, proximate sensors can be used to
assess crop characteristics and soil parameters like pH and nitrogen
concentration.
6. Hardware and Software for Computers
To evaluate the data collected by other precision farming technology
components and make it available in formats like maps, graphs, charts, or
reports, computer support is needed.
Components of Precision Farming
The components of precision farming are as follows:
1. Monitoring of Yield
Instantaneous yield monitors track many parameters like distance,
number of loads, and fields in as well as providing a crop yield based on
time or distance.
2. Mapping Yields
The yield monitor data is provided with spatial coordinates via GPS
receivers and yield monitors.
3. Fertilizer with Varying Rates
Fertilizer materials that are granular, liquid, or gaseous can be controlled
with variable rate controllers.
4. Mapping of Weeds
When combining, planting, spraying, or field scouting, a farmer can use a
keypad or buttons connected to a GPS receiver and datalogger to map
weeds.
5. Differential Spraying
Spot control can be used if the locations of the weeds are known thanks to
weed mapping.
6. Boundaries and Topography
Any field can have a very accurate topographic map created using high-
accuracy DGPS.
7. Systems of Guidance
Currently, a number of firms are manufacturing guidance systems that
can precisely position a moving vehicle within less than a foot by utilizing
high-precision digital GPS.
Objectives of Precision Farming
The objectives of precision farming can be describes as follows:
 Precision farming uses the precise application of inputs to maximize
average yields.
 It is the science of increasing crop yields through the use of
advanced sensors and analytical instruments.
  Precision farming makes use of a wide range of modern equipment
and technologies to track many factors and collect data about crop
development such as pH, soil moisture, etc..
 Targeted interventions' specificity contributes to increased yields by
improving input effectiveness.
Advantages of Precision Farming
The advantages of Precision Farming are as follows:
 Boost Agricultural Productivity: Accurate agricultural inputs
such as water and fertilizers that are identified scientifically by
analyzing data gathered by sensors, increase yield and agricultural
production.
 Reducing the Use of Chemicals in Crop Production: The
quantity of input is chosen according to the needs. Fertilizers are
only applied in areas lacking certain nutrients.
 Prevents Soil Degradation: By avoiding excessive chemical use,
unwanted chemicals are kept from leaking into the soil and harming
it.
 Effective Use of Water Resources: Water consumption is
decreased via targeted water distribution using methods like
fertigation. The act of directly delivering fertilizer to a crop by
irrigation is known as fertilization.
 Improvement of Farm Earnings: Farmers' economic conditions
get better, and farm earnings increase due to increased
productivity, less input use, and decreased waste.
 Post-Harvest: Farmers can get information on price, storage,
transportation, and logistics with the use of digital instruments.
Future Scope of Precision Farming
The future scope of precision farming is vast and promising, with potential
advancements and trends including:
 The use of big data analytics and artificial intelligence (AI) in
precision farming will become more prevalent, enabling farmers to
make more informed decisions based on large datasets.
 The development of more sophisticated sensors will allow for real-
time monitoring of soil conditions, crop health, and micro-climate
conditions.
 Drones and satellites will play a larger role in collecting aerial data
for crop monitoring, soil health assessment, and irrigation
management.
 Precision farming will enable better traceability of produce from
farm to fork, improving food safety and quality.
  The development of cost-effective precision farming solutions will
make these technologies accessible to small-scale farmers.

Precision farming issues include high costs, small landholdings, lack of

farmer awareness/skills, poor rural infrastructure (internet/power), data
management challenges, and data privacy concerns; the way forward
involves subsidies, tailored training, integrated data platforms, improved
infrastructure, affordable tech, and farmer-centric models for better
resource use and yields.
Issues with Precision Farming
 Economic Barriers: High upfront costs for equipment (drones,
sensors, GPS) are prohibitive for most small and marginal farmers.
 Farm Size & Fragmentation: Small, fragmented landholdings
(common in India) make large-scale machinery less viable and data
collection complex.
 Technical Gaps: Lack of farmer training, awareness, and technical
expertise to use complex tools and interpret data.
 Data Issues: Difficulty in collecting, managing, and creating
interoperable datasets (soil health, weather) due to a lack of
centralized repositories and standards.
 Infrastructure Deficiencies: Poor rural internet connectivity and
electricity hinder real-time data use.
 Data Security & Ownership: Concerns about data privacy,
security, and who owns farm data create reluctance to share.
The Way Forward
 Affordable & Accessible Tech: Developing low-cost, scalable
solutions and providing subsidies or credit access for technology
adoption.
 Education & Training: Comprehensive programs to build farmer
awareness and skills in using digital tools.
 Integrated Data Systems: Creating centralized, interoperable
data platforms with standardized formats for better analytics.
 Infrastructure Development: Improving rural internet and power
infrastructure.
 Policy & Support: Government support, public data (like GIS
maps), and promoting farmer collectives for shared resources.
 Farmer-Centric Design: Designing solutions that fit smallholders,
focusing on cost-benefit, and building trust around data privacy.
Indian government initiatives promote precision farming through
the Digital Agriculture Mission (DAM), creating a Digital Public
Infrastructure (DPI) with AgriStack for farmer data and AI-driven insights,
alongside schemes like the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF) for
tech financing, promoting drones, satellite monitoring, and
establishing Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs) for
technology adoption, focusing on resource efficiency, crop monitoring,
and smart farm management via tools like Kisan e-Mitra chatbot and
soil health cards.
Key Initiatives & Components:
 Digital Agriculture Mission (DAM): Aims to build DPI for
agriculture, including:
o AgriStack: Foundational databases (Farmer Registry, Crop
Sown Registry, Geo-referenced Maps) for data-driven
decisions.
o Kisan e-Mitra: An AI-powered chatbot for personalized
farmer advice.
o Krishi Decision Support System (DSS): Integrates remote
sensing data for soil mapping, drought monitoring, and yield
forecasts.
o Digital General Crop Estimation Survey (DGCES): Uses
digital tools for accurate production estimates.
 Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF): Provides financing for
post-harvest infrastructure, including smart and precision
agriculture technologies.
 Smart Precision Horticulture Programme: Under the MIDH
scheme, investing in horticulture for precision techniques and
farmer benefits.
 National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Focuses
on water-use efficiency and soil health.
 Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Promotes
micro-irrigation (Per Drop More Crop) for water efficiency.
 Soil Health Card Scheme: Guides fertilizer use based on soil
nutrient status.
 Sub-Mission on Agriculture Mechanization (SMAM):
Encourages modern farm machinery, including drones.
 Drones & IoT: Promotion of drones (e.g., under Namo Drone Didi)
and IoT for farm monitoring and spraying.
 Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs): Established
across India to develop and disseminate precision farming
technologies.
Technology & Data Focus:
 AI/ML: Used in pest surveillance, crop forecasting (FASAL project),
and personalized advisories.
 Satellite Technology: Supports crop monitoring and forecasting
through MNCFC.
 Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): A core component to create a
digital ecosystem for agriculture.

AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES :
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defined an Agro-climatic zone
(ACZ) as a land unit represented accurately or precisely in terms of major
climate and length of growing period, which is climatically suitable for
certain range of crops and cultivars. LGP (length of growing period) : It
refers to the number of days available for crop growth with suitable
conditions.
Classification :
Agro-climatic regions by the erstwhile Planning Commission
• In the 7th five-year plan(1985 to 1990), Planning Commission of India
delineated India into 15 "Agro-climatic zone" based on the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO).
• The main objective was to reduce the regional disparity, increase
agriculture productivity, and micro-level agriculture planning
Agro-climatic zones under National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) •
National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) was launched by ICAR for
initiating agricultural research in the agro-climatic zones of the country.
• The objective was to set up or upgrade a zonal research station in each
agro-climatic zone for generating location specific, need based research,
targeted for specific agro-ecological situations.
• In NARP, the country was divided into 127 agro-climatic zones.
agro-ecological regions by the National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use
Planning (NBSS & LUP)
• The National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP)
came up with 20 Agroecological zones based on the growing period.
• These twenty agro-ecological zones were sub- divided into 60 sub-
zones

Significance of Agro-Climatic Zones (ACZs)

 Scientific Resource Management: ACZs facilitate scientific
planning by grouping areas with similar conditions, ensuring
efficient use of water, fertilizer, and land.
  Tailored Recommendations: They move agriculture from blanket
approaches to context-specific strategies for crops, varieties, and
planting schedules.
 Climate Resilience: ACZs help assess how climate change might
affect yields, allowing farmers and planners to develop strategies for
future scenarios.
 Policy & Research Focus: They provide a framework for targeted
research (like India's NARP) and policy development, addressing
regional constraints.
How ACZs Help Farmers
 Crop Selection: Farmers can identify crops best suited to their
specific zone's climate and soil, maximizing potential yield (e.g.,
apples in cool Himalayan zones, rice in fertile plains).
 Increased Productivity: By aligning practices with local
conditions, farmers can significantly improve productivity and
economic performance.
 Resource Efficiency: Guidance on water and input management
leads to less waste and more sustainable farming.
 Risk Mitigation: Understanding zone-specific challenges helps in
adopting appropriate risk management strategies, crucial in rainfed
areas.
 Diversification: Promotes crop diversification to enhance food
security and economic stability.
 Technology Adoption: Enables the deployment of location-specific
technologies and best practices
Some Examples of Specific Zones and Their Dominant Cropping
Patterns
 Western Himalayan Region (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand):The cool climate with moderate rainfall
supports horticulture and temperate crops. Barley and maize are
staples suited for the hilly terrain.
o Dominant Crops: Apple, barley, wheat, maize.
 Indo-Gangetic Plains (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar): Fertile alluvial soil, abundant irrigation facilities, and
favorable monsoonal rainfall make this region ideal for high-yield
crop farming.
o The success of the Green Revolution further boosted rice and
wheat cultivation.
o Dominant Crops: Rice, wheat, sugarcane.
  Eastern Plateau and Hills (Jharkhand, Odisha,
Chhattisgarh): This zone has poor soil fertility, undulating terrain,
and heavy dependence on rainfed agriculture, making it ideal for
resilient crops like millets and oilseeds.
o Dominant Crops: Millets, pulses, rice, oilseeds.
 Western Dry Region (Rajasthan, Gujarat): Low rainfall, sandy
soils, and extreme arid conditions make drought-resistant crops like
bajra (pearl millet) and oilseeds suitable for cultivation.
o Dominant Crops: Bajra, pulses, oilseeds.
 Coastal and Deltaic Regions (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh): The humid tropical climate, fertile deltaic soils, and
proximity to water bodies favor water-intensive crops like rice and
cash crops such as coconut and spices.
o Dominant Crops: Rice, coconut, spices.
Conclusion
The alignment of agricultural practices with agro-climatic conditions
ensures optimal productivity, sustainability, and resilience to climate
change. Government schemes like the National Mission for
Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) leverage agro-climatic zones to
promote climate-resilient agriculture. A well-planned, zone-specific
approach to agriculture is crucial for achieving food security and
sustainable development in India.
FARM MECHANISATION:STATUS,CHALLENGES AND WAY FORWARD -
 arm Mechanization involves using machines like
harvesters and modern implements to improve productivity,
enhance efficiency, and reduce dependence on manual labour in
farming operations.
 Emerging Technologies in Farm Mechanization:
o Precision Agriculture: Precisions
Agriculture utilizes GPS, IoT, AI, drones, and data
analytics to optimize resource use (water, fertilizers,
pesticides) based on soil and climate conditions.
o Drones in Agriculture: Drones are used for crop
monitoring, pesticide spraying, and yield estimation.
India accounts for 22% of global drone imports.
 The Drone Didi Scheme aims to provide 15,000
drones to women SHGs for rental services, boosting
mechanization and rural employment.
o Autonomous Machinery: Driverless tractors and robotic
harvesters perform tasks like seeding, spraying, and
harvesting with minimal human input.
 o Agri Robotics and AI: Robots in agriculture have
enabled automation in sowing, irrigation, weeding, and
harvesting, reducing costs and increasing efficiency.
 Level of Farm Mechanization: In India the overall farm
mechanization level in India is around 47%. Punjab and Haryana
have 40-45% mechanization, while Northeastern states have
negligible adoption.
o Cereal crops like wheat and rice have approx 50-60%
mechanization, while horticulture remains less mechanized.
o Globally: Globally, developed nations have over 90%
mechanization, while underdeveloped regions, particularly
Africa and South Asia, still depend on manual labor. China
(60%) and Brazil (75%) lead among developing nations.
What are the Key Significance of Farm Mechanization?
 Input Savings: According to an ICAR report, farm
mechanization reduces input costs by saving 15–20% on seeds
and fertilizers while increasing cropping intensity by 5–20%.
 Higher Efficiency: It also improves labor efficiency and cuts
agricultural operation time by 15–20%, enhancing productivity
and sustainability in farming.
 Efficient Land Utilisation: Advanced tilling tools such as
rotavators and subsoilers break compacted soil, making hard land
arable similarly mechanised irrigation ensures efficient water use,
transforming dry or uneven terrain into productive farmland.
What is the Need for Farm Mechanization in India?
 Rising Food Demand: With India's population projected to
reach 1.6 billion by 2048 and global food demand set to rise by
60% by 2050 (FAO), limited land, water scarcity, monsoon
dependency, and low mechanization pose challenges to
sustainable agricultural growth.
 Less Efficient Agriculture: Agriculture supports 46.1% of
India’s population but contributes only 16% to GDP (Economic
Survey 2024-25), highlighting inefficiencies. Mechanization can
bridge this gap by boosting productivity, minimizing post-harvest
losses, and ensuring sustainability.
 Labor Shortages and Urbanization: As per the UN, over 50% of
India’s population will be urban by 2050, reducing farm labor
availability. Rising opportunities in other sectors and schemes
like MGNREGA further accelerate workforce
migration. Mechanization is essential to sustain agricultural
productivity.
  Irrigation Challenges: With only 53% of India’s arable land
under irrigation, rainfed agriculture remains vulnerable to
climate variability. Mechanization ensures timely sowing and
harvesting, enhancing efficiency and reducing crop losses in water-
stressed regions.
Global Trends in Farm Mechanisation
 Canada and the US: They have 95% mechanization, with large
capital investments in tractors, harvesters, and tillage equipment. In
the USA, a farmer now feeds 144 people, up from 26 in 1960.
Government support includes low-interest loans, direct
subsidies, and price supports.
What are the Challenges in Farm Mechanization in India?
 Small and Fragmented Land Holdings: With an average farm
size of 1.16 hectares in India (compared to 14 ha in the
EU and 170 ha in the US), mechanization remains economically
non-viable for small farmers.
o Lack of machinery for small, fragmented farms limits
mechanisation.
o Small farms (<2 ha) use power tillers; medium farms (2–10
ha) use 30–50 HP tractors and rotavators; large farms (>10
ha) adopt advanced tools like combine harvesters and laser
land levelers.
 Financial Constraints: Farm machineries
are expensive, and small farmers struggle to afford it due to
limited financial access. Although 90% of tractors are financed,
strict loan criteria and high costs make mechanization difficult.
 Poor Equipment Quality: Indian farmers have limited access to
advanced machinery, and much of the equipment available is
of substandard quality, leading to high operational costs and
inefficiency.
 Regional Disparities: Hill agriculture (20% of cultivated
land) and remote areas have low mechanization due to terrain
challenges, lack of suitable equipment, and weak policy support.
Government Initiatives to Promote Farm Mechanization
 Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM)
 Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF)
 Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs)
 National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture
(NICRA)
 Make in India & FDI in Agricultural Machinery
Way Forward
 Land Consolidation & Custom Hiring: Encourage land
consolidation for efficient mechanization and strengthen Custom
Hiring Centers (CHCs) to provide costly machinery like combine
harvesters and rice transplanters to small farmers.
 Technology & Financial Access: Ensure subsidies, low-
interest credit, and tax incentives for farm machinery adoption
while establishing farm machinery banks in low-mechanization
regions.
 R&D, Standardization & Training: Promote farmer-industry
collaboration, enforce quality standards & testing, and
conduct training programs for efficient machinery use and
maintenance.
 Inclusive Mechanization: Develop specialized machinery for
hilly, rainfed, and horticultural farming to extend mechanization
benefits across all regions.

CLIMATE ADAPTATION and MITIGATION :

Climate change is a global environmental problem which has been
receiving intense political attention both at domestic and international
levels. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as a change of climate which is
attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the
composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural
climate variability observed over comparable time periods. The major
characteristics of climate change include rise in average global
temperature, ice cap melting, changes in precipitation, and increase in
ocean temperature leading to sea level rise. The efforts needed to address
the climate change problem include mitigation of GHG emissions on one
hand, and building of adaptive capacities on the other in developing
countries to cope with the adverse impacts of climate change on various
sectors of the society and economy enabled and supported by technology
and finance.
Climate change may pose a threat to food security through erratic rainfall
patterns and decreasing crop yields, contributing to increased hunger and
malnutrition in India. Furthermore, adverse climate change impacts on
natural systems and resources, infrastructure, and labour productivity
may lead to reduced economic growth and increasing poverty.
The Government of India is committed to address challenges from climate
change with firm adherence to multilateralism keeping in mind the
national circumstances and based on equity and the principle of Common
but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC),
as enshrined in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) and its Paris Agreement.
India’s NDC has been prepared in alignment with its national
circumstances, guided by the principles of Common but Differentiated
Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC) and equity. India’s
NDC do not bind it to any sector specific mitigation obligation or action,
including in agriculture sector.
India’s climate actions are based on the overarching framework provided
by its National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). The NAPCC
identifies measures across many sectors including water, agriculture,
forest, energy, sustainability mobility and housing, waste management,
health,etc. that promotes our development objectives while also yielding
co-benefits for addressing climate change effectively. The missions under
NAPCC represents multi-pronged, long-term, and integrated strategies for
achieving key goals in the context of climate change. In addition, the
Government of India through its various programs and schemes has
outlined several steps to simultaneously advance India’s development and
climate change related objectives of adaptation and mitigation.
As a result of the above measures, between 2005 and 2020, India’s
emission intensity of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) reduced by 36% as
against the updated NDC target of 45% by 2030. During 2005 to 2021,
additional carbon sink of 2.29 billion tonnes of CO 2 equivalent has been
created against a target of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of carbon sink through
additional tree and forest cover by 2030. By February 2025, the share of
non-fossil sources in the installed electricity generation capacity was
47.37% against the updated target of 50% by 2030.
Implementing climate-resilient agricultural practices offers co-benefits like
improved food security, increased income, enhanced soil health, alternate
water management practices in rice, micro-irrigation, diversified farming
systems, agro forestry and improved nutrition but also presents trade-offs
like increased labor demands and potential costs. These climate resilient
agricultural practices are shared with the State Governments for
convergence with various schemes of line departments like Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, Agricultural
Technology Management Agency, National Food Security Mission,
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana,
Khet Talab Yojna and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development etc. for the spread of climate resilient practices at district
level. At village level, village climate risk management committees
(VCRMCs), custom hiring centres (CHCs), seed banks and fodder banks
help in upscaling and spread of resilient technologies in NICRA adopted
villages. Capacity building programs and technology demonstrations have
been conducted for farmers and other stakeholders in the domain of
climate resilient agriculture.
The Government of India recognizes adaptation is inevitable and
imperative for its development process and it has undertaken several
efforts to increasingly mainstream adaptation efforts while furthering
developmental requirements through a range of schemes/ projects/
programmes to improve adaptive capacities and reducing socioeconomic
vulnerabilities of the [Link] Disaster Management Act, 2005 provides
the framework for disaster risk reduction and response at national, state
and district levels with the aim to reduce vulnerability, prevention, and
mitigation of disasters and execute appropriate response, rehabilitation,
and reconstruction. The strategies include early warnings and
communications, construction and sustainable maintenance of multi-
purpose cyclone shelter, improved access and evacuation, enhanced
capacity, and capability of local communities to respond to disaster and
strengthening disaster risk mitigation capacity at central, state, and local
levels. The Disaster Response Forces and the funds have also been setup
at the national and sub-national level.
The National Mission for Sustainable Habitat (NMSH) is one of the nine
missions under the NAPCC. National Mission for Sustainable Habitat
(NMSH) aims at promoting low-carbon urban growth towards reducing
GHG emissions intensity for achieving India’s NDC and building resilience
of cities to climate change impacts and strengthening their capacities to
sustain climate related extreme events and disaster risks.

 Climate Adaptation: Climate adaptation refers to the process

of adjusting to the actual or expected climate and its effects.
It involves making changes to social, economic, and environmental
practices to minimize the damage caused by climate change.
o Examples of climate adaptation include building flood
defenses, developing drought-resistant crops,
improving water management systems, and
implementing early warning systems for natural disasters.
  Climate Mitigation: Climate mitigation involves efforts to reduce
or prevent the emission of greenhouse gases. Its goal is to
address the root causes of climate change by limiting the extent of
global warming.
o Examples of climate mitigation strategies include
adopting solar and wind energy, promoting energy-
efficient appliances, reforestation, and reducing reliance
on fossil fuels.

Why is Climate Adaptation Just as Crucial as Climate Mitigation?

 Inevitability of Near-term Impacts: The Earth has already
warmed by 1.1°C, and even immediate emission cuts can not
prevent certain climate impacts from unfolding in the coming
decades.
o Vulnerable communities urgently need adaptation strategies
to survive these severe changes.
o In 2023, record high temperatures raised poverty risks for 32
to 132 million people by 2030, with climate-related
losses totaling USD 260 billion in 2022.
 Economic Cost of Inaction: Delaying adaptation leads
to escalating costs in disaster response, infrastructure, and
economic stability, especially for developing nations.
o Conversely, a global investment of USD 1.8
trillion in climate adaptation measures such as early
warning systems, climate-resilient infrastructure, improved
agriculture, coastal mangrove protection, and resilient water
resources could generate USD 7.1 trillion in
returns through avoided costs and various social and
environmental benefits.
 Food and Water Security Crisis: Climate change is disrupting
agricultural patterns, water availability, and food
production, making adaptation in these areas critical for
global food security.
 o A recent study using IPCC's highest warming scenario projects
a 17% global decline in yields for major crops—coarse
grains, oil seeds, wheat, and rice, which will cover about 70%
of the global harvested area by 2050 compared to a stable
climate scenario.
 Urban Vulnerability: With over half the world’s population
residing in cities, urban areas face unique climate risks such as
urban flooding, heatwaves, necessitating immediate adaptation
for infrastructure, housing, and public services.
o Majority of urban expansion in developing countries is in
hazard-prone areas, with adaptation costs projected at USD
295 billion annually by 2050
 Ecosystem and Biodiversity Preservation: Mitigation alone
cannot protect ecosystems already stressed by climate change;
adaptation strategies are essential to preserve biodiversity and
maintain ecosystem services.
o IPBES Global Assessment estimated that 1 million animal
and plant species are threatened with extinction and
the World Economic Forum highlights that $44 trillion in
economic value depends on nature's services.
 Health System Resilience: Climate change introduces new health
challenges and worsens existing ones, requiring adaptation of
health systems and infrastructure.
o The WHO projects 250,000 additional yearly deaths by
the 2030s due to climate change impacts on diseases like
malaria and coastal flooding.
o Also, Climate impacts disproportionately harm
vulnerable populations, making adaptation essential for
social equity.
 World Migration Report 2024 states that climate
impacts will force 216 million people to move within
their countries by 2050.
How India is Progressing Towards Climate Adaptation?
 Policy Framework and Planning: India has established
comprehensive adaptation strategies through its National Action
Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) demonstrating a structured
approach to climate resilience.
o The framework includes eight national missions and has been
reinforced by the Long-Term Low Carbon Development
Strategy (LT-LEDS) submitted at COP27.
 o 30 adaptation projects have been approved at a total cost
of INR 8,470 million (Third Biennial Update Report to The
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)
o The government allocated ₹3,030 crore for climate action
in Budget 2024-25.
 Agricultural Adaptation: India is advancing climate-smart
agriculture through the National Innovations in Climate
Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) and Pradhan Mantri Krishi
Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), emphasizing drought-resistant crops
and efficient irrigation.
o More than 200 varieties tolerant to various stresses have
been demonstrated in 446 Climate Resilient Villages
(CRVs) at 151 vulnerable districts/clusters (as of 2021-22).
o The PM-KISAN scheme supports 11.3 crore farmers with a
focus on climate adaptation practices. (as of April-July 2022-23
cycle)
 Water Resource Management: The Jal Shakti Ministry's
initiatives, notably the Jal Jeevan Mission and Atal Bhujal
Yojana, are transforming water resource management and
adaptation strategies, emphasizing conservation and groundwater
recharge.
o As of October, 2024, Jal Jeevan Mission has successfully
provided tap water connections to 11.95 crore additional
rural households, bringing the total coverage to more than
15.19 crore households
 Urban Resilience: India's urban adaptation is facilitated through
missions like Smart Cities Mission and AMRUT 2.0, integrating
climate resilience into urban planning.
o As of July 2024, the 100 Cities have completed 7,188 projects
(90% of total projects) as a part of Smart Cities Mission.
 Coastal Adaptation: The National Coastal Mission
Scheme and state initiatives enhance coastal resilience through
mangrove restoration, sea wall construction, and early warning
systems.
o India has increased its mangrove cover by 364 sq
km over the past decade (Economic Survey 2022–2023),
with the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information
Services (INCOIS) providing early warnings to many coastal
villages.
 Renewable Energy and Adaptation: India's renewable energy
program, especially PM-KUSUM and PM Surya Ghar Yojana,
combines mitigation with adaptation benefits for vulnerable
communities.
 o As of October 2024, renewable energy-based electricity
generation capacity stands at 201.45 GW, accounting for
46.3 percent of the country's total installed capacity. This
marks a major shift in India’s energy landscape, reflecting the
country’s growing reliance on cleaner, non-fossil fuel-based
energy sources.
 Health Sector Adaptation: The National Action Plan for
Climate Change and Human Health is bolstering health
infrastructure to address climate-related impacts.
o As of 2023, India has established 1.6 lakh Health and
Wellness Centers under Ayushman Bharat. Further,
incorporation of principles of Green & Climate Resilient
Hospitals has been made under Indian Public Health
Standards (IPHS), 2022.
 Financial Mechanisms: India is innovating financial mechanisms
for adaptation via green bonds, climate budgeting, and
international collaborations.
o In FY 2022-23, the Government raised `16,000 crore
through Sovereign Green Bonds (SGrB).
o The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development (NABARD) is the National Implementing Entity
(NIE) for National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change
(NAFCC) and project funds are released to NABARD in
installments based on the performance of the projects and
NAFCC guidelines
What are the Major Challenges for India in Climate Adaptation?
 Financial Constraints: India faces a significant gap between
adaptation needs and available financial resources, with limited
domestic fiscal capacity and inadequate international support
hampering the implementation of crucial adaptation projects.
o The challenge is compounded by competing developmental
priorities and the high upfront costs of adaptation
infrastructure.
o India will need to spend an estimated 85.6 trillion rupees
($1.05 trillion) by 2030 to adapt its various industries to be
compliant with climate change norms.
 Data and Monitoring Challenges: India struggles with
inadequate climate data infrastructure, limited local-level
vulnerability assessments, and weak monitoring systems for
adaptation projects, affecting evidence-based planning and
implementation.
o More than 80% of India's population lives in districts highly
vulnerable to extreme hydro-met disasters. Also, only 0.86%
 of districts in India have a high adaptive capacity. (Council
on Energy, Environment and Water)
 Urbanization and Infrastructure
Pressure: Rapid urbanization is straining existing infrastructure
and creating new vulnerabilities, while adaptation needs in cities
grow exponentially.
o India's urban population is expected to reach 600 million by
2036. According to NIUA, 70% of urban infrastructure
needed by 2030 is yet to be built, requiring climate-
resilient planning.
 Agricultural Vulnerability: Small and marginal farmers,
comprising 86% of Indian farmers, face severe challenges in
adopting climate-resilient practices due to limited resources and
knowledge access.
o Climate variability could reduce agricultural productivity
by 10-40% by 2100.
 Water Stress Management: Managing water resources for
adaptation is increasingly challenging due to irregular monsoons,
groundwater depletion, and competing demands.
o NITI Aayog’s Composite Water Management
Index reports 600 million Indians face high to extreme water
stress.
o India’s northwestern region is predicted to
experience critically low groundwater availability by
2025, according to a new report by the United Nations.
 Coastal Vulnerability: India's 7,500 km coastline faces increasing
adaptation challenges from sea-level rise, cyclones, and coastal
erosion, affecting millions of coastal residents.
o One-third of India's coastline is vulnerable to erosion,
impacting coastal communities.
 Climate-Induced Migration: Managing climate-induced migration
and providing adaptation support to affected communities poses a
growing challenge.
o By 2050, India may experience significant migration, with
projections suggesting that up to 45 million people could
be displaced due to climate change.
What Measures can India Adopt to Accelerate Climate Adaptation?
 Enhanced Financial Mechanisms: To enhance financial support
for climate adaptation, it is essential to revamp the National
Climate Adaptation Fund, to be financed through a combination
of carbon taxes, cess, and contributions from Environmental,
Social, and Governance (ESG) initiatives.
 o This fund will provide targeted resources for adaptation
projects. In addition, state-level green bonds specifically
designed for adaptation initiatives will allow state
governments to raise necessary funds.
o Blended finance mechanisms should also be created,
combining public funds with private investment to increase
overall financial capacity.
o Furthermore, innovative financial products targeting
climate adaptation projects will attract investments,
and special purpose vehicles (SPVs) at the state level will
ensure efficient management and allocation of adaptation
funds.
 Localized Adaptation Planning: Localized adaptation
planning is crucial for effectively addressing climate impacts at the
community level.
o Each district should establish climate adaptation
cells staffed with technical experts to assess local
vulnerabilities and develop tailored solutions.
o By integrating traditional knowledge with scientific
data, these cells can create effective, location-specific
adaptation strategies.
 Technology-Driven Monitoring: Implementing a technology-
driven approach to climate monitoring can significantly enhance
preparedness and response capabilities.
o A national digital platform should be developed to integrate
real-time climate data, providing accessible information for
decision-makers and communities alike.
o The deployment of Internet of Things (IoT) sensors and
satellite monitoring systems will enable early warning for
climate-related events.
o Creating mobile applications for community-level monitoring
will further empower citizens to participate in data collection
and reporting.
 Agriculture and Water Resilience: Building resilience in
agriculture and water management is essential for adapting to
climate change.
o Scaling up climate-smart agriculture through incentive
mechanisms will encourage the adoption of sustainable
practices that enhance productivity while minimizing
environmental impacts.
o The promotion of drought-resistant crop varieties will
help farmers mitigate the effects of water
 scarcity, while the development of efficient irrigation systems
will optimize water use for agricultural purposes.
 Urban Climate Resilience: To ensure urban areas are prepared
for climate impacts, it is vital to implement climate-resilient
building codes that mandate standards for new constructions.
o Urban planning should incorporate sponge city concepts
that enhance water management capabilities, reducing
the risk of flooding.
o Initiatives to create urban forests and heat action plans
will help mitigate urban heat effects, while sustainable
transport systems will reduce emissions and improve air
quality.
 Coastal Adaptation: Coastal areas require integrated
management strategies to effectively respond to climate change
challenges.
o Implementing integrated coastal zone management will
ensure a balanced approach to development and
conservation.
o Developing climate-resilient port infrastructure will
safeguard these critical economic assets against climate
impacts.
o Furthermore, restoring and protecting mangrove
ecosystems will provide natural barriers against
erosion and flooding, while strengthening coastal early
warning systems will enhance community preparedness for
extreme weather events.
 Skill Development: Investing in skill development is essential for
enhancing climate adaptation capacities across various sectors.
o Dedicated climate adaptation skill programs will be
created to train individuals in effective adaptation practices.
o Establishing climate education centers will further enhance
public awareness and understanding of climate issues,
promoting a culture of adaptation.
 Private Sector Engagement: Engaging the private sector is
crucial for scaling up investments in climate adaptation initiatives.
o Developing tax incentives for adaptation
investments will encourage businesses to contribute to
resilience-building projects.
o Mandating climate risk disclosure will promote
transparency and encourage corporations to consider climate
impacts in their operations.
  Supporting climate-resilient business models will further
incentivize private sector involvement in adaptation
efforts.
 Research and Innovation: Fostering research and innovation is
vital for developing effective climate adaptation solutions.
o Establishing climate adaptation innovation hubs will serve
as centers for research and development of new strategies
and technologies.
o Creating research consortiums will facilitate collaboration
among academic institutions, government, and
industry to advance adaptation research.
 Inter-State Coordination Effective climate adaptation requires
coordinated efforts across states.
o Creating Regional Climate Adaptation Councils will
facilitate collaboration and communication between states on
shared challenges and solutions.
o Developing cross-state adaptation projects will allow for
the pooling of resources and expertise to address regional
climate impacts.
o Coordinating shared resource management will ensure
sustainable use of environmental assets, while
harmonizing adaptation policies across states will enhance the
overall effectiveness of resilience efforts.
 Mainstreaming Adaptation: Mainstreaming climate adaptation
into development planning is essential for long-term resilience.
o Integrating adaptation considerations into all levels of
development planning will ensure that climate impacts are
addressed proactively.
o Existing infrastructure should be assessed and upgraded to
climate-proof it against future risks.
o Finally, developing adaptation indicators will allow for
ongoing monitoring and evaluation of adaptation initiatives,
ensuring accountability and continuous improvement.
Conclusion:
India's proactive climate adaptation efforts are commendable, but
significant challenges remain. To accelerate progress, India must
enhance financial mechanisms, strengthen localized adaptation
planning, leverage technology, and prioritize agriculture, water,
urban, and coastal resilience. By effectively addressing these
challenges and implementing comprehensive adaptation strategies, India
can build a resilient future and lead by example for the Global
South.
With people becoming increasingly aware of climate change, the Indian
government has also shifted its focus to the climate crisis. At the 26th
session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26), India presented five
nectar elements (Panchamrit) as its climate action:
 Reach 500 GW of Non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
 Generate fifty percent of India’s energy requirements from
renewable energy by 2030.
 Reduce total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from
now to 2030.
 Reduce the carbon intensity of the economy by 45 percent by 2030,
over 2005 levels.
 Achieve the target of net zero emissions by 2070.

Government climate mitigation efforts focus on reducing greenhouse gas

(GHG) emissions through strategies like boosting renewable energy (solar,
wind), improving energy efficiency (buildings, transport), promoting
electric vehicles, protecting forests, implementing carbon pricing, and
fostering low-carbon development across sectors, all aiming to slow global
warming and meet international climate goals, such as India's targets for
2030 net-zero.
Key Areas of Government Action
 Energy Transition:
o Renewable Energy: Investing in solar (National Solar
Mission) and wind power, increasing non-fossil fuel capacity.
o Energy Efficiency: Implementing schemes like Perform,
Achieve and Trade (PAT) and promoting efficient building
codes (ECBC).
o Transportation: Supporting electric vehicles (FAME India, PM
E-DRIVE) and mass rapid transit systems, shifting to cleaner
fuels.
 Sectoral Strategies:
o Industry: Encouraging decoupling growth from emissions,
developing low-emission industries, and managing gas flaring.
 o Agriculture: Promoting climate-resilient crops, water
management, and sustainable practices (National Mission on
Agricultural Adaptation).
o Urban Planning: Creating sustainable habitats, promoting
green buildings, and improving waste management.
 Policy & Finance:
o National Plans: Developing long-term strategies (LT-LEDS)
and action plans (NAPCC) with state-level SAPCCs.
o Carbon Markets: Creating domestic carbon trading markets
(Energy Conservation Amendment Bill).
o International Cooperation: Aligning with global agreements
like the Paris Agreement and seeking climate finance.
 Forest & Ecosystems:
o Afforestation: Increasing forest and tree cover (Green India
Mission, CAMPA).
o Biodiversity: Protecting ecosystems through acts and local
committees (Biological Diversity Act).
Examples from India
 Targets: Achieve 50% renewable energy by 2030, reduce carbon
intensity by 45%, and reach net-zero by 2070.
 Initiatives: UJALA (LED bulbs), FAME (EVs), Jal Jeevan Mission
(water), and supporting climate tech startups.
 Challenges: Balancing growth with emission reduction, requiring
significant climate finance and technology transfer.
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE :
Climate-smart agriculture
Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach to help the people who
manage agricultural systems respond effectively to climate change. The
CSA approach pursues the triple objectives of sustainably increasing
productivity and incomes, adapting to climate change and reducing
greenhouse gas emissions where possible.
(fao definition)

Different elements of climate-smart agricultural systems include:

 Management of farms, crops, livestock, aquaculture and capture
fisheries to balance near-term food security and livelihoods needs
with priorities for adaptation and mitigation.
 Ecosystem and landscape management to conserve ecosystem
services that are important for food security, agricultural
development, adaptation and mitigation.
 Services for farmers and land managers to enable better
management of climate risks/impacts and mitigation actions.
 Changes in the wider food system including demand-side measures
and value chain interventions that enhance the benefits of CSA.
 Some examples of climate-smart agriculture practices are:
o Cultivating Climate-Resilient Crop Varieties: Growing
crops that are more resistant to temperature and precipitation
changes, pests, diseases, and salinity can help farmers cope
with the adverse effects of climate change on crop
production.
 For instance, drought-tolerant maize varieties have
been developed and disseminated in sub-Saharan
Africa, benefiting millions of smallholder farmers.
o Conservation Agriculture: No-till and reduced-tillage
cultivation, employing crop residues and cover crops to keep
the soil covered, and rotating crops to enhance soil fertility
and biodiversity are some of the practices that fall
under conservation agriculture.
 These practices can reduce soil erosion, improve
water retention, increase carbon sequestration,
and lower greenhouse gas emissions.
o Agroforestry: Integrating trees and shrubs with crops and
livestock can create more diverse and productive agricultural
systems that provide multiple benefits for farmers and the
environment.
 Agroforestry can enhance soil quality, conserve
water, diversify income sources, provide fuelwood
and fodder, and sequester carbon.
o Precision Irrigation: Drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and
collecting rainwater are all examples of effective climate-
smart agriculture strategies that can be used to maximize
water use efficiency and reduce negative impacts on the
environment.
 Precision irrigation can also be combined with sensors,
drones, and satellite imagery to monitor soil moisture
and crop water needs in real time.
o Variable Rate Fertilization: Applying the right amount of
fertilizer at the right time and place can optimize crop
 yields and minimize nutrient losses and greenhouse gas
emissions.
 Variable rate fertilization can be achieved by using
soil testing, remote sensing, and precision
agriculture technologies to tailor fertilizer application
to the specific needs of each crop and field.
What are the Benefits of Climate Smart Agriculture?
 Increased Agricultural Productivity: Production resources are
diminishing, and demand for agricultural products is
increasing; thus, there is a need for resource-efficient farming to
cope with climate variability.
o In India, crop yield decline owing to climate change (between
2010 and 2039) could be as high as 9%.
o CSA substantially contributes to climate adaptation,
mitigation, and food security.
 Studies from different climate-smart techniques used in
India show that they improve agricultural production,
make agriculture sustainable and reliable, and reduce
GHG emissions.
 One study from the northwest Indo-Gangetic Plain
for wheat production shows that site-specific no-
tillage is advantageous for fertilizer management
and can boost yield, nutrient usage efficiency, and
profitability while lowering GHG emissions.
o Furthermore, The importance of CSA lies in its ability to
increase agricultural output while maintaining ecological
stability.
o This correlation is not only a desired consequence but
rather essential for long-term food security and
sustainable resource usage in a warming planet.
 GHG Emission Reduction: The agricultural sector produces a
large amount of GHGs. The sector’s share in GHG’s emissions in
2018 was 17%. Therefore, CSA implementation is crucial for
lowering GHG emissions and protecting biodiversity.
o Furthermore, it aids in enhancing farmland carbon
storage.
o The Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming by
reducing GHG emissions is tied directly to the success of the
CSA.
o Agroforestry and carbon sequestration are two examples
of CSA measures that could help India meet its international
 obligations and contribute to the global fight against climate
change.
 Support for Small and Marginal Farmers: The majority of Indian
farmers are small or marginal. Therefore, CSA can play a
significant role in helping them increase their profits. The
intersection of climate vulnerability and agricultural importance
places India at a unique juncture where CSA adoption is not merely
desirable but essential.
 Biodiversity Conservation: CSA’s ecosystem-based approach
and different crop varieties help cropland and wild regions coexist
together. This collaborative effort helps to safeguard native
plant species, keep pollinator populations stable, and
mitigate the effects of habitat degradation.
 Reduced impact of Climate Change: CSA promotes crop
diversification, increases water efficiency, and integrates drought-
resistant crop types, all of which help lessen the disruptive effects of
climate change.
o By reducing exposure to climate-related dangers and shocks,
CSA increases resilience in the face of longer-term stressors
like shorter seasons and erratic weather patterns.
What are the Challenges before Climate Smart Agriculture in India?
 Lack of Awareness and Knowledge: This is a common challenge
in the adoption of new agricultural practices. Farmers and extension
workers may not be aware of the benefits of CSA or how to
implement these practices effectively.
 Limited Access to Finance, Insurance, and Markets: Financing
is crucial for farmers to invest in new technologies and practices
associated with CSA. Lack of access to finance, insurance, and
markets can hinder the adoption of CSA.
 Inadequate Infrastructure and Institutional Support: The
success of CSA relies on supportive infrastructure and institutions.
This includes irrigation systems, storage facilities, and organizations
that can provide assistance and guidance.
 High Costs and Risks: The initial costs associated with adopting
new technologies and practices can be a significant barrier for
farmers. Additionally, the perceived risks may discourage adoption.
 Policy and Regulatory Barriers: Policies that do not support or
incentivize CSA can be a major hindrance. Regulatory barriers might
also slow down the scaling up of CSA practices.
What Measures should be taken for Better Adoption of Climate Smart
Agriculture?
  Capacity Building and Awareness: Enhancing the capacity and
awareness of farmers and extension workers on the principles and
practices of CSA through training, demonstration, farmer-to-farmer
exchange and mass media.
 Financial and Technical Support: Providing financial and
technical support to farmers for adopting CSA technologies and
innovations, such as subsidies, credit, insurance, market linkages
and digital platforms.
 Policy and Institutional Strengthening: Strengthening the
policy and institutional framework for promoting and scaling up CSA,
such as integrating CSA into national and state action plans on
climate change, creating a dedicated CSA fund and establishing a
CSA coordination committee.
 Encourage the Marginalised Groups to
Participate: Encouraging the participation and empowerment of
women and marginalized groups in CSA planning and
implementation, such as ensuring their representation in CSA
committees, providing them with equal access to resources and
opportunities and addressing their specific needs and preferences.
 Foster Innovation and Collaboration: Fostering innovation and
collaboration among different actors and sectors for developing and
disseminating context-specific and demand-driven CSA solutions,
such as involving farmers in participatory research, creating public-
private partnerships and facilitating multi-stakeholder platforms.
Initiatives for Climate Smart Agriculture
 The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change , National
Innovation on Climate Resilient Agriculture, Soil Health
Mission, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
Yojana, Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana, Biotech-KISAN,
and Climate Smart Village are a few examples of government
initiatives in India focusing on CSA.
 Various public and private sector entities such as farmer-producer
organisations and NGOs are also working towards the adoption of
CSA.
o The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change,
Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is a global
partnership of research organizations that aims to address the
interlinked challenges of food security, poverty, and climate
change.
o The World Bank Group, which provides loans, grants, and
technical assistance to support CSA projects and programs in
developing countries.
o The Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture
(GACSA), which is a voluntary platform that brings together
 governments, civil society, farmers, research institutions, and
private sector to facilitate knowledge sharing, policy dialogue,
and investment in CSA.
o The Climate-Smart Agriculture Youth Network (CSAYN),
which is a group of young people from different countries who
are promoting CSA awareness and action among youth and
other stakeholders.
Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) has the potential to assure food security,
empower farmers, and protect our delicate ecosystems by merging
innovation, resilience, and sustainability. In the face of a changing
climate, the path of CSA stands out as a source of inspiration and
transformation for a world working to ensure a sustainable future.

PHM in horticulture
Quantum of post-harvest loss in India
 India ranks second in global agriculture production, but its
share in global agricultural exports is only 2.4%, placing
it eighth globally.
 Approx 74 million tonnes of food is lost in India each year,
accounting for 22% of the foodgrain output or 10% of the total
foodgrain and horticulture production for the 2022-23 period (ICAR).
 The biggest loss is from perishable commodities, which include
livestock produce such as eggs, fish and meat (22%), fruits (19%)
and vegetables (18%).
 There are no national-level surveys on food waste in India.
Reasons
 Lack of proper storage facilities, cooling systems, and transportation
network and infrastructure
 Inappropriate or insufficient packaging leading to physical damage
and exposure to pests
 Limited access to markets resulting in delayed sales and the
inability to sell produce at optimal ripeness
  Inadequate knowledge and management capacity of supply chain
actors
 Poor Handling Practices
 Inadequate pest control during storage, resulting in infestations &
losses due to insects & pathogens.
nitiatives taken to address post-harvest loss
 Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY-RAFTAAR)
 Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)
 Integrated Scheme for Agricultural Marketing (AGMARKNET)
 National Agriculture Market (e-NAM)
 Project CHAMAN
 Truck-on-train service: It carries loaded trucks on railway
wagons. Efforts are being made to expand this service following
successful trial runs involving commodities such as milk and cattle
feed.
 Parcel special trains: It was started by the Railways during the
COVID-19 pandemic to transport perishables and seeds between
market and producers.
 Kisan Rail: It was initiated to connect perishables (inclusive of milk,
meat and fish) production surplus regions to consumption regions
more efficiently.
Way forward :
Way forward
 Shifting focus from increasing food production to safeguarding the
produced food.
 Warehousing receipts from certified warehouses can serve as
collateral for funding from banks, aiding farmers in meeting post-
harvest expenses.
 Promoting food processing industry to minimize wastage and
post-harvest losses.
 Strengthening e-NAM and upgrading rural haats to Gramin
Agricultural Markets to enhance market connectivity.
 Investment in specialised wagons for temperature-controlled
transport and establishment of rail-side facilities for safe cargo
handling. It would enhance food safety, minimize spoilage and
contamination risks, thereby supporting both domestic and export
markets.
  Adopting a systems-based approach, cutting across modes of
transport and geographies.
 Encouraging private sector participation to enhance
operational efficiency and strengthen the rail infrastructure through
public-private partnerships.
 Prioritising the Railways over roadways promises efficient
transportation as Railways generate up to 80% less CO2 for freight
traffic than roadways (97% of fruits and vegetables are transported
by road).

Post-harvest issues in horticulture stem from poor handling, inadequate

infrastructure (storage, cooling, transport), improper packaging, and lack
of market access, leading to significant losses from physical damage
(bruising, cuts), physiological deterioration (respiration, moisture loss),
and microbial spoilage (fungi, bacteria) due to issues like incorrect
temperature, humidity, and hygiene during the entire journey from field to
consumer, impacting quality, shelf life, and farmer income.
Key Issues in Horticulture Post-Harvest Management:
 Mechanical Damage: Bruising, cuts, and crushing from rough
harvesting, handling, and transport, damaging tissues and inviting
microbes.
 Physiological Losses: High respiration and transpiration rates in
perishable produce cause rapid aging, color changes, flavor loss,
and moisture loss (shriveling).
 Microbial Spoilage: Fungal and bacterial infections thrive in warm,
humid conditions, causing rots and mold growth, especially with
moisture reabsorption during storage.
 Inadequate Infrastructure: Lack of cold storage, proper
processing units, and efficient transport networks (like refrigerated
vehicles or Kisan Rail).
 Poor Handling & Practices: Harvesting at the wrong maturity,
inconsistent techniques, poor hygiene, and inadequate pest control.
 Improper Packaging: Using unsuitable materials that don't protect
against damage, moisture loss, or allow proper ventilation.
 Market & Supply Chain Issues : Limited market access, price
volatility, and inefficient distribution causing delays and spoilage
before sale.
 Environmental Factors: Weather conditions during harvest and
storage, affecting drying and moisture control.
Consequences:
  High Losses: 20-40% or more of fresh produce can be lost between
harvest and consumption.
 Reduced Quality & Value: Lower market prices, less consumer
appeal, and nutritional degradation.
 Economic Impact: Decreased farm income and wasted resources
(labor, water, land).
 Environmental Impact: Decomposing food waste increases
greenhouse gases
Major post-harvest management practices in horticulture focus on
preserving quality and reducing losses from harvest to consumption,
including Harvesting Techniques (timing, maturity), Field
Handling (cleaning, trimming, curing), Sorting &
Grading, Packaging (MAP, materials), Temperature
Management (cold chain, pre-cooling), Storage (CAS, humidity
control), Transportation, and Value Addition (processing, quality
control) to extend shelf life and increase income.
Key Practices:
 Harvesting: Picking at optimal maturity, time of day, and using
gentle techniques to avoid damage.
 Field Handling & Curing: Immediate field cooling, careful
handling, curing (drying/hardening) for crops like onions/garlic, and
initial cleaning.
 Sorting & Grading: Separating produce by size, color, quality, and
removing defects to meet market standards.
 Washing/Cleaning: Removing dirt, often with disinfectants, to
improve appearance and hygiene.
 Packaging: Using appropriate materials (crates, films) and
technologies like Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) to control
gases, slow spoilage, and protect produce.
 Temperature Management:
o Pre-cooling: Rapidly removing field heat before
storage/transport.
o Cold Chain: Maintaining consistent low temperatures during
storage and transport (refrigerated vehicles).
 Storage:
o Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS): Adjusting oxygen,
CO2, temperature, and humidity to slow ripening.
o Proper Storage Conditions: Clean, well-ventilated, pest-
free environments.
  Transportation: Using appropriate vehicles
(refrigerated/ventilated) and efficient logistics to minimize transit
time and damage.
 Value Addition: Processing produce (drying, juicing, freezing) or
adding treatments (waxing) to create new products and markets.
Goals:
 Reduce physical and physiological losses.
 Maintain appearance, texture, flavor, and nutritional value.
 Extend shelf life and availability.
 Increase farmer income
To improve post-harvest management of horticultural crops in India, focus
on infrastructure (cold chains, packhouses), technology (IoT,
digital tools), better handling practices (sorting, grading, gentle
harvesting), skill development (training), and value
addition/processing (natural preservatives, new products),
supported by government schemes to reduce losses, extend shelf life, and
increase farmer income. Developing equitable cold storage, adopting
smart packaging (MAP), and improving traceability via blockchain are key
areas for growth.
Key Strategies for Improvement
1. Infrastructure & Cold Chain:
 Expand Cold Storage: Increase capacity beyond potatoes
(currently 75%) and improve equitable distribution across
states.
 Develop Packhouses: Establish integrated packhouses with
sorting, grading, and ripening chambers near production
areas.
 Pre-cooling: Implement methods like forced-air or hydro-
cooling to rapidly remove field heat from produce.
2. Technology & Digital Solutions:
 IoT & Sensors: Use IoT for real-time monitoring of
temperature/humidity in storage and transit (cold chain).
 Data Analytics: Employ predictive analytics for optimal
harvest timing and market decisions.
 Blockchain: Enhance end-to-end traceability for quality
assurance, especially for exports.
3. Improved Handling & Practices:
 Gentle Harvesting: Use appropriate tools (clippers) and
harvest directly into transport containers to minimize damage.
  Sorting & Grading: Implement strict sorting by size, quality,
and ripeness for premium pricing.
 Proper Packaging: Use appropriate packaging (MAP,
hermetic bags) to extend shelf life and protect produce.
 Hygiene: Maintain sanitation of tools, containers, and storage
areas to prevent microbial contamination.
4. Value Addition & Processing:
 Natural Preservatives: Use alternatives to chemicals, like
salt/turmeric for lemons, or sucrose for flowers.
 Product Diversification: Develop functional foods,
nutraceuticals, and processed products to create new
markets.
5. Policy & Training:
 Government Schemes: Leverage programs like the Post-
Harvest Infrastructure Development Scheme.
 Skill Development: Train farmers and rural youth in modern
techniques, packaging, and entrepreneurship.
 FPOs: Strengthen Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) for
shared post-harvest support and logistics.

VALUE ADDITION AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT

` Value addition in horticulture and plantation crops
involves enhancing primary produce
through processing, packaging, branding, and quality improvements
(grading, cleaning) to command higher prices and reduce post-harvest
losses, while effective Supply Chain Management (SCM) integrates these
steps from farm to consumer, focusing on efficient logistics, cold chains,
information flow, and coordination to meet stringent market demands and
ensure farmer profitability. Together, they transform perishable goods into
stable, profitable products, boosting farmer income, reducing waste, and
improving food security.
Value Addition Techniques
 Primary Level: Cleaning, sorting, grading, and basic packaging to
improve appearance and shelf life.
 Secondary Level: Basic processing like drying, pulping, juice
extraction, or making jams/jellies.
  Tertiary Level: Advanced processing (chips, ready-to-eat meals),
branding, and marketing to create premium products.
 Examples: Turning pomegranates into juice or jam; adding value to
potatoes by making chips.
Supply Chain Management (SCM) Components
 Infrastructure: Investing in cold storage, controlled atmosphere
(CA) storage, and processing units.
 Logistics: Efficient transport, warehousing, and handling to
minimize damage and spoilage.
 Information Flow: Using technology for real-time tracking and
coordination between farmers, processors, and retailers.
 Coordination: Proactive management of goods, services, finances,
and information from source to end-user.
Benefits of Integration
 Reduced Losses: Minimizes massive post-harvest losses,
especially for fruits and vegetables.
 Increased Farmer Income: Higher prices for processed/packaged
goods mean better returns for growers.
 Market Stability: Reduces impact of seasonality and market
volatility, ensuring year-round availability.
 Rural Development: Creates new opportunities (hortipreneurs)
and rural employment.
 Global Competitiveness: Positions products for competitive
domestic and international markets.

Dryland agriculture
India’s unique geographical location results in diverse climatic conditions,
leading to distinct farming systems and cropping patterns in various agro-
climatic zones across the country. One of these practices is dryland
farming, which has gained importance due to global warming and climate
change. Dryland farming has become a prominent approach to ensure
sustainable food security, especially with a growing population and
mounting pressure on natural resources.
What are the characteristics and challenges of dryland farming in India?
Dryland farming involves cultivating crops without or with very limited
irrigation, relying primarily on natural rainfall.
Rainfall: These regions experience low, erratic and unevenly distributed
rainfall, ranging from 375 mm to 1125 mm, making them less productive
and economically fragile.
The distribution of rainfall during the crop period is often uneven. Crops
may receive excessive rain when it is not needed and insufficient rain
when they require it the most.
Late arrival of the monsoon delays crop sowing, resulting in poor yields. In
contrast, if monsoon rains recede early, the crops face drought-like
conditions during critical growth stages, leading to reduced crop yields.
Soils: Dryland areas typically have poor and degraded soils with low
water retention capabilities and various nutrient deficiencies such as
nitrogen and phosphorus deficiencies.
The weak soil structure and depleting groundwater tables make these
areas more susceptible to drought and drought-like conditions.
Temperature: Huge variations in temperature affect crop growth and
yields and deteriorate quality of produce in most cases.
Landholdings: Landholdings are generally small (less than two
hectares), fragmented, and scattered, which makes farming less
remunerative and difficult.
What is the difference between dry farming, dryland farming and rainfed
farming?
Dry farming: Dry farming is practiced in areas where the annual rainfall
is less than 750 mm and the crop growing season is less than 200 days. It
is generally practiced in arid regions of the country.
Dryland farming: Cultivation receiving rainfall in the range of 750 mm to
1150 mm is known as `dryland farming’. Crops in semi-arid regions of the
country are included under this category.
Rainfed farming: Rainfed farming is practiced without irrigation in areas
receiving rainfall in the range of around 1150 mm. Most of its cultivation
area fails in the humid and sub-humid regions of the country.
In these regions, irrigation facilities are absent, and even protective
or life-saving irrigation is not feasible.
What is the contribution of dryland Farming?
Major dry farming crops include millets, oilseeds, pulses, maize,
cereals, and cotton.
Almost 80 per cent of Sorghum (Jowar) and Maize, 90 per cent of
Pearl millet (Bajra), 75 per cent of oilseeds, and approximately 95
per cent of pulses are obtained from dryland agriculture.
Contributions to wheat and rice production are also important, because 33
per cent of wheat and 66 per cent of rice are still rainfed.
Drylands also contribute more than 70 per cent cotton to textile
industries.
Despite struggling with issues of scanty resources, environmental stress,
and low productivity, dryland agriculture is producing nearly 44 per cent
of the total food grains in the country.
What are the areas under dryland farming?
Out of the 141 million hectares of estimated net sown area in the country,
close to 80 million hectares is under dryland farming. As per
estimates, nearly 40 per cent of the net sown area in India will
remain rainfed even after realizing the full potential of irrigation.
Dryland agriculture area in India includes the following:
1. Northwestern Rajasthan
2. The plateau region of central India
3. The alluvial plains of Ganga¬Yamuna river basin
4. The central highlands of Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh
5. The rain shadow regions of Western Ghats in Maharashtra
6. The Deccan Plateau of Andhra Pradesh
7. The Tamil Nadu highlands
A recent report of the National Rainfed Area Authority (2020)
identified and categorised 670 districts on an all-India basis as very high
rainfed, high rainfed, medium rainfed and low rainfed.
It was found that 11 states have a high share of rainfed areas. These
states are Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar
Pradesh.
What are the strategies for development of dryland farming?
Selecting an appropriate cropping system tailored to the area is a
crucial strategy, which becomes more profitable with effective
management of sowing time.
Employing proper tillage, fertilizer management, weed control, and
implementing plant protection measures also play essential roles in
boosting productivity.
The use of drought-tolerant crop varieties is another important
technique, as these varieties can endure prolonged periods of drought
more effectively than other types.
Soil condition can be Improved planting cover crops (planted to cover
the soil, not for harvesting). They can reduce erosion, improve soil health,
enhance water availability, and help control pests and diseases. Cover
crops also increase resilience to drought conditions and erratic rainfall.
Mulching is a common dryland technique to conserve moisture in the soil
by preventing evaporation.
What are the government initiatives for dryland farming?
In the 1950s, the Government realised the significance of dryland
agriculture and decided to improve stability and productivity of drylands
through research and development (R&D) efforts. Various R&D
centres at different dryland locations started work for developing
appropriate soil and water conservation practices.
In 1970, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) initiated the All
India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture
(AICRPDA) in Hyderabad, establishing 23 collaborating centers across
the nation. It marked the start of location specific adaptive research in
dryland agriculture.
In 1985, ICAR established Central Research Institute for Dryland
Agriculture (CRIDA) at Hyderabad to further strengthen basic and
adaptive research. CRIDA has successfully developed a large number of
technologies in rainwater management, watershed development, soil
health management, cropping systems, etc.
The ICAR launched a flagship network project called the National
Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), primarily to
develop and promote climate-resilient technologies in agriculture with a
special focus on rainfed regions.
The NICRA project has developed several climate-resilient technologies
which include climate resilient varieties of different crops, resilient
intercropping systems, crop diversification with alternate crops, agro-
forestry systems, in-situ moisture conservation, farm pond, integrated
framing systems, etc.
The Government is also implementing a scheme on rainfed area
development under the National Mission for Sustainable
Agriculture. The scheme focuses on integrated farming systems for
enhancing productivity and minimising risks associated with climatic
variability.
Schemes such as Per Drop More Crop, Soil Health
Card and Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana are also contributing to
the improvement of dryland agriculture.
What should be the future course of action?
There is a vast scope to increase the productivity of dryland
agriculture from the current average of 1.2 tonnes per hectare to 2.0
tonnes per hectare. This potential can be achieved by inclusion of new
technologies, diversification of crops, adoption of drought-tolerant
varieties, and implementation of moisture retention techniques.
CRIDA has developed ‘The Vision 2050’, which outlines the future
scenario. As per the vision, cutting edge technologies such as remote
sensing and GIS applications should be exploited for natural resource
characterisation and land-use planning.
Nanotechnology based products and processes should also be
developed for application in dryland agriculture.
Location-specific research and its efficient delivery should be guiding
principles to bring sustainability to the dryland agriculture system. The
primary focus may be laid on rainwater harvesting and soil health
management.
Integrated farming modules for different production environments
must be attempted on a priority basis for the risk-proofing of small and
marginal farmers.
Small farm mechanisation needs early attention and addressal due to
an acute shortage of labour for agricultural operations.
To enhance productivity and profitability in dryland areas, the
promotion of solar power and other renewable energy sources, along
with the adoption of precision agriculture, is essential.
Conclusion
Despite numerous constraints, dryland farming can be successful by
considering local climate and soil conditions, selecting appropriate crops,
and utilizing suitable technologies. By adopting an integrated farming
model, dryland farmers have the potential to cultivate multiple crops
within a single season, incorporating horticultural or livestock elements for
added benefits.
AGRI MARKETING
Agricultural marketing involves all services linking farm produce to
consumers (transport, storage, grading, distribution) to ensure fair prices,
with India using systems like village sales, haats (weekly markets),
regulated mandis (wholesale markets under APMC Acts), and modern
methods like e-NAM, cooperative marketing, and direct/contract farming,
balancing traditional channels with reforms.
What is Agricultural Marketing?
It's the entire process from farm to consumer, including:
 Assembling: Gathering produce from farmers.
 Storage: Warehousing to prevent spoilage.
 Processing: Adding value (e.g., milling, packaging).
 Grading & Packaging: Standardizing quality.
 Transportation: Moving goods efficiently.
 Distribution: Getting products to retailers and consumers.
Types of Agri Marketing in India
India has a mix of traditional and modern systems:
1. Village Sales: Farmers sell directly to local moneylenders or
traders at low prices, common due to lack of organized markets.
2. Village Markets (Haats): Weekly or periodic markets where
farmers sell surplus produce.
3. Mandis (Regulated Markets): Established under state APMC Acts,
these are wholesale markets in towns with authorized traders and
agents, aiming for fair prices.
4. Cooperative Marketing: Farmers pool resources and market
produce collectively to gain better bargaining power.
5. e-NAM (National Agriculture Market): An online portal linking
APMC markets to create a unified national market for agricultural
commodities.
 6. Direct Marketing: Farmers sell directly to consumers or large
buyers (processors, retailers) bypassing intermediaries.
7. Contract Farming: Agreements where farmers grow specific crops
for buyers under pre-agreed terms.
8. Processing & Value Addition: Selling processed goods instead of
raw produce, often through cooperatives or private ventures.

Features of Agricultural Marketing

1. Procurement: Buying agricultural produce from farmers after they are
harvested.
2. Grading and Standardisation: Ensures quality control and uniformity in
agricultural products.
3. Market Information: Dissemination of market prices and trends to
farmers via various media channels.
4. Storage: Availability of warehouses and cold storage to prevent post-
harvest losses.
5. Transportation: Efficient transportation to ensure timely delivery of
produce to markets.
6. Processing Facilities: Value addition through processing units for
products like grains, fruits, and vegetables.
7. Distribution: Distribution of primary agricultural produce or processed
products to be supplied to end- consumer in a more streamlined manner.
Types of Agricultural Markets
1. Unregulated Markets: Located in villages where farmers sell their
produce directly to local traders. It includes village haats and all. There
are more than 22,000 rural periodical markets or rural haats in India.
2. Regulated Markets: Established to eliminate malpractices, ensure fair
trade, and provide infrastructure like weighing, grading, and storage
facilities. It can be secondary markets or terminal markets. In most of the
states, these markets are regulated by Agricultural Produce Market
Committees (APMCs) or mandies. There are more than 7300 regulated
markets in India.
a) Secondary Markets: Situated in larger towns, these markets are often
regulated and involve transactions between traders.
b) Terminal Markets: Located in major urban centers where goods are sold
to wholesalers and processors.
3. Cooperative Marketing: Farmers organise themselves into cooperatives
to market their produce collectively, which helps in better price realization
and reducing the role of middlemen.
Significance
1. Income stability: Provides farmers with better income stability by
offering fair prices and reducing price fluctuations.
2. Reduction of middlemen: Reduces the exploitation by intermediaries or
arhatiyas, ensuring that farmers get a higher share of the consumer price.
3. Market access: Enhances access to national and international markets,
boosting the potential for exports.
4. Quality improvement: Through grading and standardization, the overall
quality of agricultural produce is improved.
5. Economic growth: Contributes to the overall economic development by
improving the efficiency of agricultural supply chains.
Challenges
1. Inadequate infrastructure: Lack of proper storage, grading, and
processing facilities leading to significant post-harvest losses. Fear of
rotting of huge amount of produce triggers distress early sale by farmers
without waiting for right prices in the market.
2. Market access: Limited access to markets, particularly for small and
marginal farmers. This is also caused by the fact that small and marginal
farmers have lower marketable surpluses as compared to large farmers.
Thus, it reduces the bargaining power of these farmers.
3. Price volatility: Fluctuating market prices can result in unstable incomes
for farmers. Moreover, longer post-harvest supply chain creates even
higher price volatility as the supply chain is manipulated by middlemen.
4. Information asymmetry: Lack of timely and accurate market
information hinders farmers from making informed decisions. Moreover, it
also gives divergent signals about future crop production.
5. Exploitation: Presence of too many middlemen reduces the share of
profits going to the farmers. They artificially create cycle of supply glut
and stock-out situation to distort market prices.
6. Regulatory issues: Complex regulations and lack of uniformity across
states hinder smooth functioning of agricultural markets. Since,
agriculture is a State Subject, it creates disputes and jurisdictional issues
which ultimately harms the agricultural supply chain and the farmers.
Government Initiatives
1. National Agricultural Market (e-NAM)

  Launched on April 14, 2016, to create a unified national
market for agricultural commodities.
 e-NAM has integrated 1361 mandis and is providing services
to 18 million farmers with a trading volume of Rs 3 trillion till
2023-24.
 Objectives: Increase transparency, reduce transaction costs,
and improve price discovery.
2. Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana


 A comprehensive scheme for creating modern infrastructure

with efficient supply chain management from farm gate to
retail outlets.
 Includes projects like Mega Food Parks, Integrated Cold Chain,
and Value Addition Infrastructure.
3. Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF)


 Operational from 2020 to 2032-33, provides a financing

facility for post-harvest management infrastructure and
community farm assets.
 Includes benefits like 3% interest subvention and credit
guarantee support.
4. Grading and Standardisation


 Implementation of AGMARK standards to ensure the quality of

agricultural products.
 Establishment of Central Quality Control Laboratory and other
regional laboratories for quality testing.
5. Rural Storage Scheme


 Creation of godowns and cold storage facilities to reduce post-

harvest losses.
 Ensures better preservation and timely disposal of produce to
prevent distress sales.
 Launch of world’s largest decentralised foodgrain storage
programme which will be managed at PACS level.
6. Price Support Schemes

  Government purchases certain commodities at minimum
support prices (MSP) to protect farmers against price
fluctuations.
 Managed by agencies like Food Corporation of India (FCI) and
state agencies.
7. Market Information Network (AGMARKNET)


 Provides real-time market data to farmers through a network

of over 2,700 markets.
 Disseminates information on market prices, arrivals, and
trends via various channels including All-India Radio and
digital platforms