Internal Combustion Engine

It is a device or machine that converts the chemical energy of a fuel into heat energy
by combustion of fuel and utilizes this heat energy to perform useful mechanical work.

Internal Combustion Engine: In which the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder.

Examples: Petrol Engine, Diesel Engine

Classification of IC Engine:

i) According to number of cylinders

a) Single cylinder engine b) Multi cylinder engine: 2, 3,4,6,8 cylinder

ii) According to type of fuel used

a) Petrol Engine b) Diesel Engine c) Gas Engine d) Bio-fuel Engine
iii) According to method of ignition
a) Spark Ignition (SI) engine b) Compression Ignition (CI) engine
iv) According to number of stroke
a) Two stroke engine b) Four stroke engine

v) According to cycle of combustion

a) Otto cycle engine b) Diesel cycle Engine c) Duel Combustion cycle engine

vi) According to arrangement of cylinders

a) Inline Engine b) V-type engine c) Opposed type engine d) Radial Engine

vii) According to method cooling

a) Air cooled engine b) Water cooled engine

viii) According to use

a) Stationary engine b) Automobile engine c) Marine engine d) Aircraft engine

Components of I C Engines:

Cylinder: It is the heart of an I C Engine, as the name indicates is a cylindrical shaped

component in which combustion of fuel takes place. The cylinder is usually made from gray
cast iron or steel alloys to withstand the high pressure and temperature generated inside the
cylinder due to combustion of fuel.
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Piston: The piston is a close fitting hollow cylindrical plunger reciprocating inside the engine
cylinder. The power developed by the combustion of the fuel is transmitted by the piston to the
crankshaft through the connecting rod.
Piston Rings: Towards the top of the piston, a few grooves are provided to accommodate the
piston rings.
The piston rings are two types: compression ring and oil ring
• Compression rings: These rings are press hard with the cylinder walls
maintaining a tight seal between the piston and the cylinder. This is required to
prevent the high-pressure gasses from escaping into the crankcase.
• Oil ring: The function of oil ring is to extract the excess lubricating oil from
the cylinder walls and send it back to the oil sump through the holes provided on the
piston.

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 Connecting Rod: It connects the piston and the crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.

Crank: The crank is a lever, with one of its ends connected to the lower end of the connecting
rod, while the other end connected to the crankshaft.

Crankshaft: The function of the crankshaft is to transform reciprocating motion into rotary
motion. The crankshaft transmits the power developed by the engine through the flywheel,
clutch, transmission and differential to drive (move) the vehicle. The crankshafts are made of
carbon steel.

Crankcase: The crankcase is the lower part of the cylinder block that encloses the crankshaft
and provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil.

Valves: The valves are the devices which controls the flow of the intake and the exhaust gases
to and from the engine cylinder. They are also called poppet valves. These valves are operated
by means of cams driven by the crankshaft through a timing gear or chain.

Flywheel: It is a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine to maintain uniform
rotation of the crankshaft

Four Stoke Petrol Engine (S I Engine) OR Otto cycle engine:

The charge used in the four-stroke petrol engine is a mixture of Air and Petrol, which is supplied
by carburetor in suitable proportion. The charge is ignited by the spark generated by a spark plug.
Four stroke petrol engines are commonly used in motor bikes, cars etc.

The four different strokes are:

i)Suction stroke ii) Compression stroke iii) Power or Expansion stroke iv) Exhaust stroke

1. Suction stroke: During suction stroke the inlet valve opens, and exhaust valve is in closed
condition. The piston starts moving from TDC to BDC, the volume above the piston
increases, results in decrease in pressure (vacuum), this decrease in pressure draws the
petrol and air mixture from the carburetor and delivered it to the cylinder, this process is
continuous till the pressure inside the cylinder becomes equal to atmosphere. The energy
required to perform this stroke is supplied by ‘cranking’ only during the first cycle at the time

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 of starting, while running, the flywheel supplies the mechanical energy. The suction stroke
is completed by rotating the crankshaft from 0o to 180o.
The line AB in the PV diagram represents suction stroke (volume of mixture filled in the
cylinder).
2. Compression stroke: During the compression stroke both inlet and exhaust valves are
closed and the piston travels from the BDC to TDC. The crankshaft revolves further by half
rotation, pressure increases, volume decreases, causing the compression of air and fuel
mixture.
This stroke is represented by a line BC on the (Pressure -Volume) P-V diagram.
At the end of this stroke a spark is produced by a sparkplug, resulting in the combustion of
the fuel and air & is represented by a line CD on P-V diagram.
3. Power stroke / Expansion stroke / Working stroke: In this stroke the piston travels from
TDC to BDC with both the valves remain closed & the crankshaft revolves half rotation. The
piston is forced due to the expansion of the burnt gases. The linear motion of the piston is
transmitted to the crankshaft through the connecting rod to produce Mechanical power. This
stroke is called as power stroke as the Mechanical power is produced during this stroke. It
is represented by the curve DE on a P-V diagram. As the piston moves further, the pressure
of the hot gases gradually decreases at constant volume as represented by the line EB in PV
diagram.

4. Exhaust stroke: During Exhaust stroke the exhaust valve opens with inlet valve closed and
the piston travels from BDC to TDC, the crankshaft revolves half rotation. As the piston

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moves upward the burnt gases are expelled out of the cylinder at atmospheric pressure. The
energy required to perform this stroke is supplied by the flywheel from the energy absorbed
by it during the previous stroke. This stroke is represented by a line BA on the (Pressure -
Volume) P-V diagram.

4-Stroke Diesel Engine (Or constant pressure cycle Or Compression Ignition engines):
Since the ignition in these engines is due to high compression of air, it is very commonly
known as Compression Ignition engines (C.I Engines). The four strokes that are performed
are, 1. Suction stroke 2. Compression stroke 3. Working stroke or Power stroke or Expansion
stroke & 4. Exhaust stroke

The following figure represent working principle of 4-stroke Diesel engine with Theoretical
Diesel-cycle.

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 1. Suction stroke: During suction stroke the inlet valve opens with outlet valve closed & the
piston travels from (Top Dead Center) TDC to (Bottom Dead Center) BDC & the crankshaft
revolves by half rotation, the volume above the piston increases, results in decrease in pressure
(vacuum), this decrease in pressure draws causing the suction of pure air. The energy required
to perform this stroke is supplied by ‘cranking’ only during the first cycle at the time of starting,
while running, the flywheel supplies the mechanical energy. This stroke is represented by a line
AB on the (Pressure -Volume) P-V diagram.
2. Compression stroke: During the compression stroke both inlet and exhaust valves are
closed and the piston travels from the BDC to TDC & the crankshaft revolves further by half
rotation, causing the compression of air. This stroke is represented by a line BC on the (Pressure
-Volume) P-V diagram. At the end of this stroke a metered quantity of fuel is injected through
the fuel injector, the high temperature of the air ignites the fuel as soon as it is injected. This is
called Auto-ignition or Self-ignition. This constant pressure expansion with simultaneous
combustion is represented by the line CD on PV diagram.
3. Power stroke / Expansion stroke / Working stroke: In this stroke both inlet and exhaust
valves remain closed & the crankshaft revolves half rotation. The burnt gases released by the
combustion of the fuel that is continuously injected into the cylinder, forces the piston from
TDC to BDC. This linear motion of the piston is transmitted to the crankshaft through the
connecting rod to produce Mechanical power. This stroke is called as power stroke as the
Mechanical power is produced during this stroke. It is represented by the curve DE on a P-V
diagram.

Now the exhaust valve opens and the pressure of the hot gases gradually decreases at constant
volume as represented by the line EB in PV diagram.

4. Exhaust stroke: During Exhaust stroke the exhaust valve remains open and inlet valve closed
and the piston travels from BDC to TDC, causing the exhaust of burnt gases from the cylinder &
the crankshaft revolves half rotation. This stroke is represented by a line BA on the (Pressure -
Volume) P-V diagram.

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Following are the applications of IC engine:

• IC engines are used in Road vehicles like scooters, motorcycles, cars, buses etc.
• It is also used in Aircraft.
• IC engine is commonly used in Motorboats.
• IC engine has great application in small machines, such as lawnmowers, chainsaws, and
portable engine-generators.
• IC engines are used in generators to produce electricity
• IC engines used in Diesel power plants

Important Questions:

1. Explain the Working of 4-Strokes Diesel Engine with P-V diagram.

2. Enumerate the Difference between Petrol engine and Diesel engine
3. What are the applications of IC engines?
4. Analyze the working of the 4 stroke Petrol engine with sketches. Plot the PV diagram.
5. List the differences between 4 stroke Petrol and diesel engine

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 INSIGHT INTO FUTURE MOBILITY TECHNOLOGY

A ‘EV’ is defined as a vehicle that can be powered by an electric motor that draws
electricity from a battery and is capable of being charged from an external source.
An EV includes both a vehicle that can only be powered by an electric motor that draws
electricity from a battery (all-electric vehicle) and a vehicle that can be powered by an electric
motor that draws electricity from a battery and by an internal combustion engine (plug-in
hybrid electric vehicle).
• EVs are vehicles that are either partially or fully powered on electric power.
• Electric vehicles have low running costs as they have less moving parts for maintenance
and also very environmentally friendly as they use little or no fossil fuels (petrol or diesel).

Components of Electric Vehicles:

1. Traction Battery Pack

• The function of the battery in an electric car is as an electrical energy storage system in
the form of direct-current electricity (DC).
• The type of battery used is a rechargeable battery that is arranged in such a way as to
form what is called a traction battery pack.
• The most widely used is the type of lithium-ion batteries.

2. DC/DC Converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction battery
pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and recharge the
auxiliary battery.
3. Power Electronics Controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered by
the traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the torque it
produces.

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 4. Charge Port: The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external power supply in
order to charge the traction battery pack.
5. Electric Traction Motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor drives the
vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the drive and
regeneration functions.
6. Onboard Charger: Takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port and
converts it to DC power for charging the traction battery.
7. Thermal System (Cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature range of
the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
8. Transmission (Electric): The transmission transfers mechanical power from the electric
traction motor to drive the wheels.
9. Power electronics controller: It controls the flow of electrical energy from battery to motor
and controls the speed.

Working Principle

Step I : Controller takes and regulates electrical energy from battery to inverter. converted
from the DC battery to AC for the electric motor.
Step II : The inverter converts DC current from battery to AC then sends electrical energy to
the motor.
Step III : The accelerator pedal sends a signal to the controller which adjusts the vehicle's
speed by changing the frequency of the AC power from the inverter to the motor. The motor
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (rotation).
Step IV : Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the transmission, so the wheels turn and then
the vehicle moves. Electric vehicles accelerate faster than the traditional fuel engines. So
they feel lighter to drive.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

Electric vehicles (EVs) offer several advantages compared to traditional internal

combustion engine (ICE) vehicles.

1. Zero Emissions: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, which means they do not release
harmful pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter, and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This significantly reduces air pollution and contributes
to combating climate change.
2. Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: EVs can be powered by electricity from renewable
sources like solar, wind, or hydroelectric power, which can further reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, making them more environmentally friendly.

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3. Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are inherently more efficient than internal combustion
engines. EVs convert a higher percentage of energy from the grid into usable power at the
wheels, resulting in reduced energy waste compared to ICE vehicles.
4. Lower Operating Costs: Electric vehicles have fewer moving parts and require less
maintenance than ICE vehicles. There are no oil changes, and brake wear is often reduced
due to regenerative braking, which converts kinetic energy back into electricity. Over the
vehicle's lifetime, this can lead to lower operating costs.
5. Quiet and Smooth Operation: EVs operate more quietly than traditional vehicles, which
helps reduce noise pollution. They also provide smoother acceleration due to the instant
torque provided by electric motors.
6. Energy Independence: EVs can be powered by locally generated electricity, reducing
dependence on imported fossil fuels and enhancing energy security.
7. Incentives and Rebates: Many governments offer incentives, tax credits, and rebates to
encourage the adoption of electric vehicles. These financial benefits can make EVs more
affordable for consumers.
8. Advancements in Battery Technology: The continuous development of battery
technology has led to improved energy density, longer range, and faster charging times for
EVs, addressing some of the initial limitations of early electric vehicles.
9. Health Benefits: By reducing tailpipe emissions, EVs contribute to improved air quality,
which has positive impacts on public health, reducing respiratory and cardiovascular
illnesses associated with air pollution.
10. Future Scalability and Grid Integration: As renewable energy sources become more
prevalent, EVs can play a vital role in energy storage and grid balancing. They can charge
when there's excess renewable energy and discharge power back to the grid when needed,
helping to create a more sustainable energy ecosystem.

DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

1. Limited Driving Range: Compared to traditional internal combustion engine (ICE)

vehicles, EVs often have a limited driving range on a single charge. Although this has been
improving with advancements in battery technology, some EVs may still not have the same
range as their gasoline-powered counterparts.
2. Charging Infrastructure: The availability of charging infrastructure can vary significantly
depending on the region. In some areas, charging stations may be scarce, which can cause
"range anxiety" for EV owners, making long-distance travel less
convenient.
3. Charging Time: Charging an EV takes longer than refueling a conventional car. Even with
fast-charging options, it can take considerable time to recharge the battery fully. This can be
a drawback for people with busy schedules or those who need to cover long distances
regularly.
4. Upfront Cost: Electric vehicles tend to have a higher upfront cost compared to traditional
ICE vehicles. Although this cost is gradually decreasing as battery technology advances, it
remains a barrier for some potential buyers.

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 5. Battery Life and Replacement Cost: EV batteries have a limited lifespan, and over time,
their capacity to hold a charge decreases. While advancements have been made to improve
battery longevity, eventual replacement can still be a significant expense.
6. Weight and Performance: The batteries used in EVs can be heavy, affecting the overall
weight and performance of the vehicle. While electric motors provide instant torque, some
EVs may have reduced acceleration or handling capabilities due to their weight distribution.
7. Dependency on Electricity Grid: Charging an EV relies on access to electricity. In regions
where the electricity grid is unreliable or experiences frequent power outages, charging an
EV could be challenging.
8. Environmental Impact of Battery Production: The manufacturing process of batteries
for EVs can have a significant environmental impact, including carbon emissions and
resource extraction. Proper recycling and disposal of batteries are also critical to mitigate
environmental concerns.
9. Limited Model Variety: While the availability of electric vehicle models is increasing, it
may still be challenging to find specific types of EVs, such as larger SUVs or trucks, which
might limit consumer choices.
10. Perceived Performance and Driving Range: Some consumers may still be hesitant to
switch to EVs due to concerns about perceived performance, range, and the overall driving
experience compared to traditional vehicles.

Hybrid vehicles

• It has both an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and an electric motor. In this type of
electric cars, ICE gets energy from fuel while the motor gets electricity from batteries. It
offers a mixture of battery and gasoline powers.

• A hybrid electric vehicle cannot be plugged in to charge the battery. Instead, the battery is
charged through regenerative braking and by the internal combustion engine.

• The extra power provided by the electric motor can potentially allow for a smaller engine.

• The battery can also power auxiliary loads and reduce engine idling when stopped. Together,
these features result in better fuel economy without sacrificing performance

Operation modes:

In a series hybrid system, the combustion engine drives an electric generator (usually a
three-phase alternator plus rectifier) instead of directly driving the wheels. The electric
motor is the only means of providing power to the wheels.
The generator both charges a battery and powers an electric motor that moves the vehicle.
When large amounts of power are required, the motor draws electricity from both the
batteries and the generator.

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Series hybrid configurations already exist a long time: diesel-electric locomotives, hydraulic
earth moving machines, diesel-electric power groups, loaders.

a) electric power only: Up to speeds of usually 40 km/h, the electric motor works with only
the energy of the batteries, which are not recharged by the ICE. This is the usual way of
operating around the city, as well as in reverse gear, since during reverse gear the speed is
limited.
b) ICE power only: At speeds superior to 40 km/h, only the heat engine operates. This is the
normal operating way at the road.
c) ICE + electric power: if more energy is needed (during acceleration or at high speed), the
electric motor starts working in parallel to the heat engine, achieving greater power
d) ICE + battery charging: if less power is required, excess of energy is used to charge the
batteries. Operating the engine at higher torque than necessary, it runs at a higher efficiency.

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 Components of Hybrid Vehicles:

1. Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the low-voltage auxiliary battery provides
electricity to start the car before the traction battery is engaged; it also powers vehicle
accessories.
2. DC/DC converter: This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction battery pack
to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and recharge the auxiliary
battery.
3. Electric generator: Generates electricity from the rotating wheels while braking, transferring that
energy back to the traction battery pack. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both
the drive and regeneration functions.
4. Electric traction motor: Using power from the traction battery pack, this motor drives the
vehicle's wheels. Some vehicles use motor generators that perform both the drive and
regeneration functions.
5. Exhaust system: The exhaust system channels the exhaust gases from the engine out through
the tailpipe. A three-way catalyst is designed to reduce engine-out emissions within the exhaust
system.
6. Fuel tank (gasoline): This tank stores gasoline on board the vehicle until it's needed by the
engine
7. Internal combustion engine (spark-ignited): In this configuration, fuel is injected into either the
intake manifold or the combustion chamber, where it is combined with air, and the air/fuel mixture
is ignited by the spark from a spark plug.
8. Power electronics controller: This unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered by the
traction battery, controlling the speed of the electric traction motor and the torque it produces.
9. Traction battery pack: Stores electricity for use by the electric traction motor
10. Thermal system (cooling): This system maintains a proper operating temperature range of the
engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
11. Transmission: The transmission transfers mechanical power from the engine and/or electric
traction motor to drive the wheels.

Advantages of Hybrid Vehicles:

• Environmentally Friendly
• Less Dependence on Fossil Fuels
• Regenerative Braking System
• Assistance From Electric Motor
• Smaller Engines

Disadvantages of Hybrid Vehicles:

• Less Power
• Can be Expensive
• Higher Maintenance Costs
• Battery Replacement is Pricey
• Battery Disposal and Recycling

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• Spur gears have teeth parallel to the axis of rotation and are used to transmit motion from one
shaft to another, parallel, shaft.

• Helical gears have teeth inclined to the axis of rotation. Helical gears are not as noisy, because
of the more gradual engagement of the teeth during meshing.

• Bevel gears have teeth formed on conical surfaces and are used mostly for transmitting motion
between intersecting shafts.

• Worms and worm gears, the worm resembles a screw. The direction of rotation of the worm
gear, also called the worm wheel, depends upon the direction of rotation of the worm and upon
whether the worm teeth are cut right-hand or left-hand.

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 Gear Trains

A gear train is a mechanical system formed by meshing two or more gears to transmit
rotational motion, torque, and power from a driver to a driven shaft. They are crucial for
changing rotational speed, direction, and torque magnitude, commonly found in automotive
transmissions, industrial machinery, and clocks.
• Simple Gear Train: Each shaft holds only one gear; intermediate gears (idlers)
change direction or bridge distances but do not affect the total gear ratio.
• Compound Gear Train: Involves multiple gears on a single shaft, allowing for higher
speed reduction or increase over several stages.

Simple Gear Train

Compound Gear Train

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Difference between Simple and Compound Gear Train

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 Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVT)

A Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) is an automatic transmission that uses a system

of two variable-diameter pulleys connected by a metal belt or chain, rather than fixed gears,
to provide an infinite range of gear ratios. By adjusting the pulley diameters, the transmission
smoothly transitions between ratios, allowing the engine to operate at its most efficient RPM
for any speed, which enhances fuel economy and delivers seamless acceleration.

Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVTs) are designed for superior fuel efficiency and
smooth driving, often utilizing a steel belt and pulley system to provide an infinite range of
gear ratios within a specific operating range.

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