Senior Secondary Physics

Module 1

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Malawi College of Distance Education

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Blantyre 3.

Tel: (265) 01 870 206

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Website: [Link]

© 2020, Malawi College of Distance Education

ISBN:

All rights reserved. Unauthorised duplication or production of any kind

contravenes applicable laws.

Acknowledgements

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The Malawi College of Distance Education wishes to thank the following and
others for taking part in the development of Junior Secondary Physics Module 2.

Manzo Kachiwala - Luchenza Secondary School

David Musasa - Soche Hill Secondary School

Gift Mikuwa - Bangwe Day Secondary School

Albert Mulomba -

Japhet Simbi - Bangwe Day Secondary School

Cedrick Fellani - Malawi College of Distance Education

Frank Kasegwe - Ndirande Community Day secondary School

Course development team:

Henry Gwede - Acting Deputy Director

Eliezer Mwanahata - Physics Tutor

Bennet P. Mkandawire - Editor

Noria Nchingula - Editor

Steve Chagunda - Graphics Designer

- Typist

Proof reader

Typesetter

CONTENTS

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Unit 1: Thermal expansion
Unit 2: Newton’s laws of motion
Unit 3: Frictional force
Unit 4: Terminal velocity
Unit 5: Hooke’s law
Unit 6: Uniform circular motion
Unit 7: Moments of forces
Unit 8: Magnetism and electromagnetism
Unit 9: Introduction to digital electronics
Unit 10: Electromagnetic waves
Unit 11: Light and lenses
Unit 12: Isotopes
Unit 13: Radioactivity

Plan of the module

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Senior Secondary Physics module two is the second module of the senior
Secondary Physics syllabus. It has twelve units. While studying for this course, it is
recommended to refer to other relevant physics books because the materials are by
no means exhaustive.

In this module the topics covered are:

 Thermal expansion
 Newton’s laws of motion
 Frictional force
 Terminal velocity
 Hooke’s law
 Uniform circular motion
 Moments of forces
 Magnetism and electromagnetism
 Introduction to digital electronics
 Electromagnetic waves
 Light and lenses
 Isotopes
 Radioactivity

Purpose and design of the materials

The materials are developed for Distance learners and those who are studying at
an open secondary school (OSS). These materials are self-explanatory, simple to
understand and suitable for self-study. All those who intend to sit for MSCE
Physics with Malawi Examinations board (MANEB) and have insufficient time to
meet the classroom teacher will find these materials friendly. However,
conventional learners find the materials useful because they are user-friendly,
simple and easy to follow.

Organisation of the materials

The organisation of the materials is as follows:
a) Introduction
An introduction gives you an overview of the content that you will find in the
unit. It links the unit to the previous unit. The introduction has a rationale. The
rationale tells you why it is important to study that particular unit.
b) Success criteria
You will find learning objectives at the beginning of each unit. These learning
objectives describe what learners will be able to achieve at the end of each unit.

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 c) Unit development
This is the main body of the unit. It comprises the actual content of the unit and
is based on the learning objectives. The number of learning objectives
determines the number of the sections in a unit.

d) The summary
In unit summary, you get a brief description of what you have covered in the
unit. It helps you check if you have understood and remembered the materials
you have learnt.
e) Unit exercise
The unit exercise consists of more demanding activities to check whether you
have fully understood the content in the unit and you can apply the knowledge.
f) Unit answers
The unit answers contain expected answers or guidelines to questions asked in
the unit exercise.
g) Glossary
The glossary contains technical words and terms with their meanings as used in
the unit.
h) Bibliography and further reading
Bibliography and further reading contains all references (sources of
information) consulted to write a unit.

Learner support
The college has learner support sections in the Northern, Central and Southern
regions of Malawi, where learners can find academic, administrative and social
support. If you are a registered learner of the Malawi College of Distance
Education, we expect you to write or phone the college for clarification on topics
you do not understand. Use the addresses provided at the back of the title page.
You can also visit MCDE offices in Blantyre or regional offices in Mzuzu and
Lilongwe for any support services.

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 Unit 1

Thermal expansion
1. Introduction

In unit 1 of module 1, you learnt about kinetic theory of matter. In this unit, you
will learn about thermal expansion of matter. You will define temperature; you
will describe particle behaviour during thermal expansion of solids, liquids and
gases. This unit will help you understand how expansion affects our daily lives
and you will apply this knowledge in water distribution.

2. Success criteria

By the end of this unit you must be able to:

a) define temperature
b) describe thermal expansion in solids, liquids and gases
c) describe thermal expansion in terms of particle behaviour
d) describe the unusual expansion of water and its effects
e) explain the effects and applications of thermal expansion.

3. Definition of temperature

Temperature is the degree of hotness of a body. Temperature is a measure of the

average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance. When the kinetic energy
(energy of movement) of particles is low, temperature is also low and when the
kinetic energy of particles is high, temperature is also high.

What do you think is the difference between heat and temperature? Heat is a form
of energy which is transferred from a hot body to a cold body. The SI unit of heat
energy is a joule (J). Temperature as already defined, is the degree of hotness of a
body, measured in kelvin (K) or degrees Celsius (°C).

Activity 1

a) define temperature
b) describe the concept of temperature
c) differentiate heat from temperature

Write your answers in space provided below.

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Suggested answers to activity 1

a) temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of a body.

b) Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of particles of a substance.
The higher the kinetic energy of particles the higher the temperature of
substance, the lower the kinetic energy of the particles the lower the
temperature of the substance.
c) Heat is a form of energy, measured in joules (J) while temperature is a
measure of hotness or coldness of a body expressed in Kelvin (K) or degrees
Celsius (°C).

4. Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

Objects expand due to movement of their particles as a result of gaining kinetic

energy upon being heated.

Solids have the lowest expansion rate. Why do you think solids have low
expansion rate? To demonstrate thermal expansion in solids a set up apparatus as
shown in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Thermal expansion in solids

What do you think will happen to the cast iron rod when the steel bar is heated or
cooled?

When the steel bar is heated, the cast iron rod breaks with a loud sound. This is so
because the steel bar expands pushing the cast iron rod against the outer frame of
the bar breaker. Hence breaking of the rod. Similarly, when the steel bar is cooled,

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it contracts and pulls the cast iron rod against the inner frame of the bar which
then breaks.

Liquids just like solids, expand when heated and contract when cooled. But liquids
have higher expansion rate than solids. This is due to weaker intermolecular forces
present in liquids.

To demonstrate thermal expansion in liquids, put liquid in a test tube and close the
test tube with a cork fitted with a capillary tube. Then put the test tube in a hot
water bath for 3 minutes. Observe the change in the level of liquid inside the
capillary tube before and after putting test tube in water bath. Your set up should
look as in figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: expansion of liquids

Observation

After dipping the test tube in the hot water bath, the level of liquid inside the
capillary tube rise. This is due to expansion of the liquids upon being heated.

Like solids and liquids, gases also expand when heated and contract when cooled.
However, gases expand more than solids and liquids. This is due to the presence
of very weak intermolecular forces.

To demonstrate expansion in gases, a balloon is tied on to the mouth of a

volumetric flask containing air. The flask is the heated using a hot water bath as
shown in figure 1.3.

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Figure 1.3: Expansion of air

Observation

When the volumetric flask containing air is placed in a hot water bath, the balloon
inflates. This is due to expansion of gas in the volumetric flask. Suggest materials
that you can use at home to come up with a set-up like the one in fig 1.3.

Activity 2

Explain expansion of solids, liquids and gases. Use the space below.

Suggested answers to activity 2

Solids, liquids and gases expand when heated. This is so because molecules in
these substances start moving far from each other as they gain kinetic energy.
Gases expand more than liquids and solids. Liquids expand more than solids.
Solids have the lowest expansion rate.

5. The behaviour of particles during expansion

During expansion of substances (solids, liquids and gases), the particles in the
substances move apart as a result of them gaining kinetic energy upon being
heated. Also it is due to weakening of the intermolecular forces. Refer to figure 1.4.
below.

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Figure 1.4: Expansion in solids

Activity 3

Describe expansion in terms of particle behaviour. Write your answer in the space
below.

Suggested answer to activity 3

During expansion molecules in a substance move far from each other due to the
weakening of the intermolecular forces.

6. The unusual expansion of water and its effects

Solids, gases and most liquids expand steadily when heated. But unlike other
liquids, water contracts (its volume decreases) when heated from 0 °C to 4°C and
expands just like other liquids when temperature goes beyond 4°C. From 4°C to
0°C, water expands. This unusual behaviour of water expanding when cooled
from 4°C to 0°C instead of contracting, is called anomalous expansion of water.

To investigate the expansion of water in frozen state, you should do the following:

Put up water in a transparent plastic bottle (leave some space to allow for
expansion). Note the level of the water. Then put the bottle in a refrigerator until
the water in the bottle solidifies (freezes). What do you think will happen to the
level of water in the bottle? Write your answer in space below.

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Suggested observation

You will observe that the level of water in the bottle will increase after the water
freezes. This indicates that water expands when frozen.

The unusual expansion of water can be shown on a graph of volume against

temperature of water, as in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: A graph of volume against temperature of water

Activity 4

From the graph you have seen in figure 1.5, describe/explain the behaviour of
water at different temperatures. Write your answer I the space below.

Suggested answer to activity 4

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As the temperature increases from 0°C to 4°C, water contracts (volume decreases)
and expands as temperature rises from 4°C upwards.

Note that the other way of expressing this is that water expands from 4°C and
below and from 4°C and above.

Effects of unusual expansion of water

a) Bursting of water pipes

When water flowing through a pipe cools from 4°C to 0°C it expands as is
freezes. This may cause bursting of the pipe that carries the water.

b) Weathering of rocks
When water in the cracks of a rock cools to 0°C, it expands causing the rock
to break into pieces.

c) Survival of aquatic organisms in frozen lakes and ponds

When temperature of the atmosphere drops to 0°C and below, water in the
lake or pond freezes and expands.

The density of frozen water is lower than that of liquid water. So the frozen
water (less dense water) rises to the surface while the water in liquid form
(denser water), sinks to the bottom of the water body. Aquatic animals and
plants survive in the liquid water below the ice.
The anomalous behaviour of water helps to keep frozen water on top of
liquid water in so doing animals and plants living below survive.

7. Effects and application of thermal expansion

You can use knowledge of thermal expansion and its effects in different ways. Use
activity 5 to identify effects and application of thermal expansion.

Activity 5

a) List 5 areas where thermal expansion is applied. Write your answers in

the space below.

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a) Separating stuck tumblers
When two tumblers are stuck together, they can easily be separated by
putting them upright in warm water and pouring old water in the inner
tumbler. The outer tumbler expands more than the inner tumbler and they
are easily separated as shown in figure 1.6 below.

Figure 1.6: Separating stuck tumblers

b) Gaps in the railway lines

Gaps are left in railway line to allow for expansion. What do you think
would happen if the railway line was continuous? The rails would bend
due to expansion of the metal and this could cause derailment of a train (i.e.
a train moving out of the rails.

c) Tooth filling
Dental cavities (i.e. holes in the teeth) can be re-filled. The material used to
refill the holes must be of the same expansion rate as the tooth itself. This
ensures uniform expansion and contraction of filler used and the tooth.

d) Removing tightly screwed bottle covers

Tightly screwed bottle top can be removed by placing the bottle in cold
water and pouring host water on the bottle top. This causes the bottle top to
expand as the bottle contracts making it easier to open the bottle top.

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 e) Gaps or rollers in bridges
Gaps are left at the ends of steel and concrete bridges to allow for expansion
of the material used to contract the bridge. If no gaps were left, the bridge
would curve downwards due to expansion on a hot day and would
eventually collapse as heavy vehicles pass. Rollers are also placed at the
ends of these bridges to allow for free expansion without damaging the
structure.

f) Gaps in fences
Gaps are left in brick fence to allow for expansion in hot weather. Without
these gaps, the fence would crack due to expansion and contraction as seen
in figure 1.7 below.

Figure 1.7

g) Shrink fitting riveting

Shrink fitting involves a metal tube into a narrow hole of another metal.
Under similar temperature condition, this is impossible. However, to make
the tubes fit into each other, the tube into which the other has to fit is heated
so that it expands. While it is still hot, the other tube is fitted. On cooling,
the two tubes fit lightly as the previously heated tube contracts. Similarly,
shrink fitting can be done by cooling the metal to be fitted into another
metal, so that it contracts. Then the contracted metal is fitted into the hole of
the other metal. Attaining normal temperature, the previously cooled metal
expands and fits tightly into the hole of the other metal.

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 Riveting involves joining two metal plates together using a piece of metal
called rivet that is fitted I the hole made in the two metal plates that are
place on top of the other. Shrink fitting is also applied in riveting. Hot rivets
are put in the rivet hole and their ends are hammered with still hot. As the
rivets cool, the metal plates hold firmly as a result as a result of force of
contraction of the metal plates.

8. Summary

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Solids have the lowest
expansion rate, liquids have higher expansion rate than solids while gases have
the highest expansion rate.

Substances expand when heated because their particles move apart since they gain
kinetic energy.

Water expands from 4°C downwards and from 4°C upwards. This is unusual
because it was supposed to be contracting from 4°C to 0 °C just like the rest of the
substances in liquid, gas or solid state. Effects of unusual expansion of water
include; bursting of water pipes during cold weather and breaking of rocks during
cold weather due to water expanding inside them.

9. Exercise

1. Define temperature.
2. Describe thermal expansion in solids, liquids and gases.
3. Explain expansion in terms of behaviour of particles.
4. Describe the unusual expansion of water.
5. State two effects of unusual expansion of water.
6. State two effects of thermal expansion.
7. Give three applications of thermal expansion.

10. Answers

1. Temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of a body.

2. Gases expand more than liquids and solids. Liquids expand more than
solids.

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 3. During expansion, particles in a substance move apart due to the
weakening of the intermolecular forces as a result of heat energy supplied.
4. Water expands from 4°C to 0 °C and from 4°C upwards.
5. The unusual expansion of water causes water pipes to burst in cold weather
and causes rocks to weather.
6. Effects of thermal expansion are that it causes railway line to bend and it
causes cracks in brick walls if no gaps are left.
7. Application of thermal expansion include: separating stuck tumblers,
removing tightly screwed bottle covers and filling cavities in the tooth.

11. Glossary

Temperature : degree of hotness or coldness of a body

Expansion : an increase in size of an object

Contraction : a decrease in size of an object

Shrink fitting : fitting a relatively large metal tube into a smaller hole
of another metal tube by contracting (cooling) the larger
tube.

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 UNIT 2
Newton’s laws of motion.

1. Introduction
In unit 1, you learnt about thermal expansion. In this unit you will learn about
Newton’s laws of motion. You will describe Newton’s laws of motion; carry out
experiments on inertia and linear momentum. You will apply these laws in real life
to make predictions about motion or get a clearer picture during collision of
objects.

2. Success criteria

By the end of this unit you must be able to:

a) describe Newton’s laws of motion

b) describe simple experimentations to illustrate inertia
c) describe the law of conservation of linear momentum

3. Newton’s laws of motion

Have you ever heard the name Isaac Newton? He was an English mathematician
and physicist, who is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists of
all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution. Isaac Newton developed the
principles of modern physics, including the laws of motion. Do you know any of
these laws of motion? The following activity will help you learn Newton’s laws of
motion.

Activity 1

In this activity you will be required to perform some tasks demonstrating the three
laws of motion

i. Put a ball on a flat surface and make it remain standing still for 3 minutes.
Then hit the ball to allow it move, observe what happens to the moving ball
after 3 minutes.
ii. Take two stones of different sizes. Throw them with the same force.
Observe how far each of them goes.

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iii. Think of you sitting comfortably on a chair. What do you think is happening
to the force you are exerting on the chair? And why is the chair not
collapsing?

Suggested answers to activity 1

You may have observed the following:

i. Your observation in the first task might be similar to the illustration in figure
2.1

Figure 2.1: demonstrating Newton’s first law of motion

The first law of motion says that an object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an
object in motion tends to stay in motion, with the same direction and speed.
Motion or lack of motion cannot change without any unbalanced force acting
on an object. If nothing is happening to a standing still ball, the ball will never
go anywhere. If the object starts moving in a specific direction, unless
something happen to it, it will always go in that direction forever.

ii. Your second task is a demonstration of Newton’s second law. The second
law shows that if you exert the same force on two objects of different mass,
you will get different accelerations (changes in motion). The effect
(acceleration) on the smaller mass will be greater (more noticeable). If for
example you applied a 10 Newton force on both stones, its effect on a smaller
ball would be much greater than that same force acting on a bigger stone. The

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 difference in how far each stone goes is entirely due to the difference in their
masses.

The second law states that the acceleration of an object produced by a total
applied force is directly related to the magnitude of the force, in the direction
as the force. Figure 2.2 illustrates Newton’s second law of motion.

Figure 2.2: Newton’s second law

From figure 2.2, you may have noticed that acceleration is directly
proportional to force and inversely proportional to mass, if you make
F
acceleration subject of the formula (a = ).
m

iii. Your third task is a demonstration of Newton’s third law of motion. As you
sit on the chair your body exerts a force downward and that the chair exerts
an equal force upward that is why the chair will not collapse.

The third law states that; for every action (force) there is an equal and
opposite reaction (force).

Deriving the equation, F = ma

In activity 1, you have discussed Newton’s second law of motion and that the
equation for the second law is F=ma. In this section you are going to follow certain
steps in deriving this formula.

Activity 2

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You can also state the Newton’s second law of motion in the following way. The
rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the force causing it and takes
place in the direction of force. If

Write your answer in the space provided

Suggested answer to activity 2

You might have followed the following steps to get your answer.

Discussing the applications of the laws of motion

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 Now that you are able to state all the Newton’s laws of motion, in what situations
do you think you can apply these laws? In activity 3, you will discuss the
applications of the laws of motion.

Activity 3.

Consider the following situations and explain whether they are obeying Newton’s
laws of motion or not? Write your answer in the space provided

i. A Footballer kicking a ball with great force so that it moves faster to pass the
goalkeeper
ii. A runner pushing backwards on the ground and the ground pushes forward
on the runner
iii. You are in sitting in a moving car, and the car stops suddenly, you lurch
forward in an attempt to continue moving.

Suggested answers to activity 3

You may have come up with the following answers

i. The footballer is obeying Newton’s second law of motion. By kicking the ball
with greater force he wants the ball to accelerate faster just as the second law
which says that; force is directly proportional to mass and acceleration.
ii. The action of a runner is an effect of action-reaction forces. This is the third
law of motion. As the runner is pushing the ground the ground is pushing
back making him / her to run.
iii. When your body keeps on moving forward while the car has suddenly
stopped then you are obeying the first law of motion. Your body wants to
remain in state of motion.

4. Simple experimentation to illustrate inertia

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You have done some activities on laws of motion and you understand how they
work. In this section you are going to conduct an experiment on inertial. Follow the
procedure in activity 4.

Activity 4.

Demonstrating inertia using Penny on a Card Experiment

Materials

 a small plastic cup,

 a playing card

 A coin.

Procedure:

 Put a playing card on top of the plastic cup

 Put a coin on top of the card

 With a sharp flick, hit the card out from under the coin! Or pull it really
quickly toward you.

 The coin will drop into the cup.

 Remove the cup and try it with your finger

 Write your observation in the space provided

Suggested answer to activity 4

Your observation to the experiment can be similar to the following explanation.

Explanation:

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The coin has inertia, meaning it really wants to stay in one place. If you move the
card slowly, it isn’t fast enough to overcome that force. If you flick it quickly, the
coin stays in one place and then drops into the cup. An object at rest will remain at
rest. If you use your finger the coin will behave the same way.

5. Conservation of linear momentum

Imagine there are two rocks rolling down a hill at the same speed and you want to
stop them. One rock is 10kg and the other one is 50kg. Which one will you find it
easy to stop? Obviously you will have problems with a 50kg rock, why? Is it only
because of mass? No, the best reason is momentum. A 50kg rock has a bigger
momentum than a 10kg rock. Now what is momentum? Activity 5 will help you
understand momentum.

Activity 5

In this activity, read the given text and use it to perform the following tasks.

Momentum is a physics term; it refers to the quantity of motion that an object has.
If an object is in motion then it has momentum. Momentum can be defined as "mass
in motion." All objects have mass; so if an object is moving, then it has momentum,
it has its mass in motion.

i. An object in motion has momentum.’ If this object has mass, what other
quantity is missing for you to determine its momentum?
ii. Suggest a formula for momentum and change in momentum.
iii. If each of the rolling rocks in the introduction has a velocity of 30m/s what
is the momentum of each rock?
iv. If the rocks stop rolling, will they still have momentum? Why?

Write your answers in the space provided

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Suggested answers to activity 5

You might have suggested the following answers

iv. If the rocks stop moving they will not have momentum. This is because they
will have zero velocity.

Momentum is a measurement of mass in motion. Any object that is moving

has momentum. In physics, momentum of an object is equal to the mass times the
velocity.

Discussing the law of conservation of linear momentum

What is to conserve? Do you remember the law of conservation of energy from your
junior secondary school physics? Just as you can remember this law, linear
momentum is also conserved especially for colliding objects in motion. What does
the law of conservation of momentum say? Activity 6 will help you establish the
law of conservation of momentum.

Activity 6

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Study figure 2.3 and use it to establish the law of conservation of linear momentum Commented [MM1]: To be redone

Figure 2.3: conservation of linear momentum

i. From the equations in figure 2.3, describe an impulse

ii. In form of an equation, relate the impulse with momentum using Newton’s
second law of motion
iii. express in form of an equation the forces acting on the two balls when they
just collide basing on Newton’s third law of motion
iv. From the equation above show that the balls experience the same impulse
after collision.
v. Substitute impulse with momentum. What do you get?
vi. State the law of conservation of momentum with reference to the equation in
v above.
vii. Solve the following problem; two balls were moving towards each other, a
1kg ball moving to the right at 2m/s and a 4kg ball moving to the left at 3m/s.
what is their final velocity if they stick together.

Suggested answers
Your analysis of the diagram might have given you the following answers.

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 i. Impulse is the product of force and time

impulse = F ∗ t

impulse = change in momentu

ii. F1 = −F2. When the balls collide, the force acting on them is equal in
magnitude but in opposite direction. This is according to Newton’s third
law of motion

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6. Summary

There are three laws of motion. The first law is the law of inertia; it says that a body
will remain in its state of motion unless an external force acts on it. The second law
says the acceleration of a fixed mass of a body is directly proportional the applied
force. The third law is an action- reaction pair of force; it states that for every action,
there is equal but opposite reaction. You have also learnt that every moving object
has momentum. Momentum is the measure of mass in motion. From momentum
you have learnt that when moving objects collide they conserve momentum. The
law of conservation of momentum states that; for colliding objects, their final
momentum is equal to their initial momentum.

7. Exercise

i. Nthanda is riding a bicycle until she hits a block, upon hitting the block, the
bicycle stops immediately but she continues moving forward and falls 2
meters ahead. Explain this scenario in terms of laws of motion
ii. A police officer fires a gun, the gun exerts a forward force on the bullet, but
why does the gun recoil backwards?
iii. What is the acceleration of a 20000kg truck if a force of 5000N is applied?
iv. What is the momentum of a 15kg metal ball rolling at 4m/s
v. The metal ball in question (iv) hits another ball of mass 7kg moving at 3m/s
in the same direction, what will be the final velocity if the two metal balls
move together along the track.

8. Answers

i. The scenario in question ‘i’ is simply obeying the law of inertia. The bicycle
stops but Nthanda’s body wants to remain in its state of motion hence
continues moving forward.
ii. The gun recoils backwards because it is obeying Newton third law of motion.
As the gun pushes the bullet forward, the bullet pushes the gun with an equal
force but in opposite direction hence the gun recoils backwards

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9. Glossary

Inertia: resistance to change the state of motion

Acceleration; the rate of change of velocity

Impulse; a measurement of the applied force by time.

Momentum; a measurement of mass in motion.

Lurch; an abrupt, unsteady, uncontrolled movement

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 UNIT 3

Frictional force
1. Introduction
In unit 15, you learnt about Newton’s laws of motion. In this unit you will learn
about frictional force. You will describe and apply frictional forces. This unit
will help you understand how friction acts to affect motion.

2. Success criteria
By the end of this unit you must be able to describe applications of frictional
force.

3. Applications of frictional force

In form 1, you learnt that frictional force is the force that opposes the motion of
an object due to the contact of the object with other bodies.

Activity 1
Mention any three applications of frictional force.

Suggested answers to activity 1

At junior level physics, you mentioned some of the following applications of
frictional force;
 It gives shoes and tyres a grip on the ground which helps in movement.
 It makes nail and wood to work.
 Writing on the paper, cardboard etc utilises friction.
 Most braking systems in cars and bicycles use frictional force.
 Friction causes enough heat to be generated for a match to light.

Coefficient of friction (horizontal planes only)

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Activity 2
Investigating if frictional force is directly proportional to the weight of an
object.

a. Push an empty box on a smooth floor and then let go. Observe what
happens to the box. Write your observation in the space provided.

b. Put some books (or any objects that have some weight) inside the box and
push it again then let go. Compare your observation with results from
activity 2. Write you response in the space provided.

Suggested answers to activity 2

In activity 2.a, you might have observed that the box moved 1 or 2 meters and
then stopped. The force that stopped the box is called frictional force. It is a
force that opposes any motion.

In activity 2.b, you must have observed that the box moved a distance smaller
than when it was empty. The frictional force has acted again to stop the box.
This time the frictional force is larger. This shows that fractional force increases
as the weight of the object increases. Therefore frictional force is directly
proportional to the weight of the object.

What do you think is the relationship between weight of an object and normal
force? Use the diagram below to figure out the relationship between weight of
an object and the normal force.

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 Figure 3.1: An object resting on the floor

In figure 1 above, W is weight of the object and N is the normal force exerted
by the floor on the box.

Try to put a book on the table or the floor. Observe what happens to the book.
Why is it that the book does not fall?
In junior physics you learnt about balanced forces. That is the reason why the
book you put on the table does not fall because forces acting on it are balanced.
In figure 1 above, W and N are balanced forces.

This shows that the normal force exerted by the floor on the object is equal to
the weight of the object. Hence frictional force is also proportional to the
normal force, (F α N).
F = µN where µ is called coefficient of friction

Note that coefficient of friction has no unit since it is a ratio of forces (friction
force and normal force).

Activity 3
A force of 400 N opposes the motion of a 100 Kg bag of maize as it is being
dragged on the ground. Calculate the coefficient of friction. Provide your
answer in the space provided.

34
 Suggested answer to activity 3

4. Summary
In this unit you have learnt that frictional force has many applications such as
brakes in cars and bicycles use pads that make use of friction force, nails are
able to hold a piece of wood or in a wall because of friction and frictional force
helps us to write with ease on the paper.

You have also learnt that as the weight of an object increase, friction force also
increases. This is the reason why it is very easy to push or pull lighter objects
on the ground than heavier objects.

5. Exercise
1. Define frictional force.
2. Define the term coefficient of friction.
3. Give any two disadvantages of frictional force
4. A force of 2500N limits the motion of an ox-cart of 400 kg on the horizontal
road. Calculate the coefficient of friction of the surface in contact.
5. Explain what would happen if the ration of frictional force to normal force
is greater than 1

6. Answers
1. Frictional force is the force that opposes motion.
2. Coefficient of friction is the ratio of frictional force to normal force.
3. i. it causes wear and tear.
iii. It retards motion.

4. If the coefficient of friction is greater than 1, it shows that the frictional force
is greater than the normal force, hence the object cannot move.
35
7. Glossary
a) Directly proportional: it means when one value increases, the other value
also increase. Similarly when one value decreases, the other value
decreases.
b) Normal force: It is the force that the surface pushes back up on an object
and is perpendicular to the surface.
c) Weight: it is the pull of the earth and it is measured in Newtons.

36
 UNIT 4

Terminal velocity
1. Introduction

In unit 3, you learnt about Newton’s laws of motion. In this unit you will learn
about terminal velocity. You will explain terminal velocity. This unit will help you
understand why objects may never increase speed beyond a certain limit.

2. Success criteria

By the end of this unit, you must be able to explain terminal velocity.

3. What is terminal velocity?

You have seen soldiers being dropped from a plane and landing with parachutes
on the ground without hurting themselves. However, if you accidentally fall from
any height, you would fracture your bones. How do you think this happen? This
happens because falling objects have different terminal velocities. A person falling
with a parachute will achieve lower terminal velocity compared to a person falling
without a parachute.

Activity 1

Looking at the description above, what do you think is the definition of terminal
velocity? Write your answer in the space below.

Suggested answer to activity 1

Compare your answer with the following

The terminal velocity of an object is the steady or constant downward speed

achieved by a falling object. The weight of a falling object will determine the

37
magnitude with which it will accelerate. The speed of a moving object stops
increasing or decreasing when upward forces equal downward forces. At that
point, its acceleration is zero and resultant force is zero. The object will keep falling
at a constant speed.

Take note that many objects falling through air will land before they reach their
terminal velocity. They will keep accelerating because the air resistance and
frictional force is so insignificant compared to their force of acceleration. For
example, a human body, a rock will overcome the air resistance and reach the
ground while still accelerating.

Activity 2

Look at figure 4.1 below. It shows graphs representing the speed of objects falling
from the sky in time. Below are statements explaining the pictures but they are not
in any order.

Figure 4.1 graphs of velocity of falling objects

a. The object did not achieve terminal velocity. It continued to accelerate till it
reached the ground
b. The object accelerated for some time then slowly achieved terminal velocity
c. The object accelerated for a short while then reached terminal velocity few
moments later.

Match the graphs 1, 2 and 3 and the descriptions a, b and c. Write your answer in
the space below.

38
Suggested answers to activity 2

Compare your answers with the following

1= a. The body accelerates continuously. For example a body falling in air

2= b. The body accelerates for some time before reaching terminal velocity. For
example a heavy stone falling in water.

3= c. The body only accelerates for a short time then achieve terminal velocity. A
lighter body falling in water.

4. Factors that affect the terminal velocity of an object.

What do you think are some of the factors that affect the terminal velocity of an
object? You are going to discuss factors that affect terminal velocity of an object
below.

a. Weight

What effect do you think an object’s weight has on its terminal velocity?

Activity 3

Aim: To examine how the weight of an object affects its terminal velocity as it falls
through air and water.

Materials: A4 size papers, A4 size book, plastic wrapper, stopwatch, a secure desk,
bench or chair you can stand on to increase your height and 2 transparent water
containers.

Procedure

39
Stand on the bench, chair or desk and hold the paper in one hand and the book in
the other at the same angle. Without exerting any force, release the paper and book
at the same time. Note the time the two land on the ground and observe their
speed.

Repeat the experiment by placing the paper and the book in the same position on
the surface of water after sealing the two in a plastic wrapper without twisting the
shape. Keep the paper and the book in horizontal position.

Write your observations in the space below as to what object reaches the ground or
floor first.

Suggested observation to activity 3

Compare your observation with the following

You should have observed that in both cases, the book landed first. This is because
the book has more weight compared to the paper. This gives the book higher
magnitude for acceleration and push against the drag force and it travels faster. An
A4 size paper will reach its terminal velocity faster than the book due to the
magnitude of acceleration. Therefore, the book will travel faster due to the
magnitude of acceleration that makes it to travel at a higher terminal velocity than
the paper. In the other case, the paper will just float on top of the water. This is
because its weight is not enough to overcome the resistive forces in water.

In water, you will notice that the book will achieve terminal velocity faster because
the resistance is larger than in air. This is because water has greater upthrust force
than air. At first, the book will accelerate until it reaches a certain point where it
will move at a constant speed to the bottom of the container.

We can therefore conclude that the weight of an object determines the magnitude
of acceleration and will also determine whether an object achieves terminal

40
velocity or not. If the object ever achieves terminal velocity, the value will depend
on how far it accelerated before fluid resistance pulled it to a constant velocity.

b. the surface area of the object

You have learnt that the stream lined and pencil shaped design helps a plane
travel faster by avoiding large air resistance. We will now examine if the shape of
the object has an effect on the terminal velocity of the falling object.

Activity 4

Aim: To examine how the surface area of an object affects its terminal velocity as it
falls through air and water.

Materials: A4 size papers and plastic wrapper, a secure, desk, bench or chair you
can stand on to increase your height, 2 transparent water containers and a stapler
or glue.

Procedure

Make two stacks of 8 papers by sticking them together using staple wires or glue.
Seal one stack tightly with a plastic wrapper. Fold the other stack into a ball then
seal it tightly with a plastic wrapper. Stand on the bench, chair or desk and hold
the stacks one in each hand. Without exerting any force, release the stacks at the
same time. Check the time the two land on the ground and observe their speed.

Repeat the experiment by placing equally size rocks at the centre of each stack to
increase their weight equally and placing them in water at the same time after
sealing the two in a plastic wrapper. Keep them in horizontal position.

Write your observations in the space below as to what object reaches the ground or
floor first.

41
Suggested observations to activity 4

Compare your observations with the following

In the air, the folded stack will land first.

In water, the folded stack will land first. In the other case, the stack of papers may
fail to sink or may land later. Do you remember why? This is because the large
surface area will face more resistance from the water than the folded paper ball
which has a smaller surface area but the same weight.

Parachutes are therefore made with a measured surface area that enables them to
travel at safe speed. A parachute is made light but strong. On the other hand, a
person who dives out of a plane will soon start to accelerate due to gravitational
pull until they reach their terminal velocity. But because of their weight and small
surface area, they will mostly accelerate fast and reach the ground before
achieving terminal velocity.

c. Medium

We will now examine the effect of the medium in which an object falls on its
terminal velocity. If the surface area and weight are equal, does the difference in
the medium the object falls in affect its terminal velocity?

Activity 5

Study the diagrams 1, 2 and 3 below.

42
Can you tell which diagram represents:

a. an object falling in the air,

b. an object falling in a liquid,
c. An object falling in a vacuum?

Write your answers in the space below.

Suggested answers to Activity 5

Compare your answers with the following

When the same object is used:

1 = vacuum

2 = air

3 = liquid

An object will achieve terminal velocity faster in a liquid than in the air. Liquids
have higher resistive forces than air. In a vacuum, there are no molecules.
Therefore, there is no resistive forces. Gravity makes objects to fall at the same rate.
Therefore medium has an effect on the terminal velocity of an object.

If a person drops a rock and a feather in a vacuum, they will fall at the same time
because there is nothing to offer resistance.

43
Understanding these basic facts will help you to be able to answer the question of
why some objects fall faster than others.

5. Summary
In this unit, you have learnt that terminal velocity is the constant maximum
downward velocity of a falling object. It is a point where the upward forces
equal the downward forces. You have also learnt that different objects attain
terminal velocity at different times in different mediums. Factors that affect
terminal velocity of an object are weight, surface area and the medium in which
the object is falling.

6. Exercise
1. Define Terminal velocity.
2. The following factors affect the terminal velocity of falling objects except
a. Shape
b. elasticity
c. size
d. weight
3. State the forces which act on a falling object in:
a. Air
b. liquid
4. Giving a reason for your answer, state what you would expect to see if
feather and a brick are dropped at the same time from the same height in
terms of the time they hit the ground if
a. they were dropped in the air
b. in a vacuum

7. Answers
1. Terminal velocity refers to the constant maximum downward speed
reached by a falling object under gravity.
2. b. Elasticity
3. a. Air resistance (upward force) and Weight of the object (downward force)
b. Upthrust and Fluid friction (upward forces) and weight of the object
(downward force)
4. a. the brick will land faster than the feather due to air resistance which
slows the feather more than the brick

44
 b. they would fall at the same rate, and hit the ground at the same time
because there is no air resistance

8. Glossary

Vacuum: a space in which air has been removed.

Velocity: displacement per unit time

UNIT 5
Hooke’s law

1. Introduction
In unit 17, you learnt about terminal velocity. In this unit you will learn about the
Hooke’s law. You will explain the effects of forces, verify and apply Hooke’s law
in solving problems; you will also explain the significance of limit of
proportionality. This unit will help you understand how forces affect the shape of
elastic objects and you shall use this knowledge
to preserve the elasticity of various materials.

2. Success criteria

45
By the end of this unit you must be able to:
a) explain the effects of force
b) verify Hooke’s law experimentally
c) apply Hooke’s law in solving related problems
d) explain the significance of the term limit of proportionality for an elastics solid

3. Effects of force

From your junior secondary school physics you learnt about force, that force is a
push or a pull exerted by an object on another. Forces can be balanced or
unbalanced. Unbalanced forces bring about several effects. Do you recall the
effects of force? Use activity 1 to explain effects of force on various objects.

Activity 1

Study and analyse the figure below and use it to answer the following questions

46
Figure 5.1 effects of force.

i. Explain what is happening to the ball the block, spring, metal rod and
empty tin
ii. What are other effects of force
iii. Identify an elastic material in figure 18.1. Give a reason for your answer.
iv. Write your answer in the space provided

Suggested answers to activity 1

You may have observed the following

i. The ball has changed shape, two people are exerting force on a block so that
it moves, the person is stretching a spring, the metal rod is bending, and the
empty tin has changed shape after hammering it.
ii. You can compare other effects of force with the ones in figure 18.2

47
 Figure 5.2 effects of forces

iii. From the objects in 18.2 a spring is an elastic material. This is because when
you stretch a spring and release it, it will return back to its original shape.

4. Verifying Hooke’s law experimentally

In activity 1 you identified a spring as an elastic material, you observed that when
you apply a force to a spring it stretches. What do you think will happen if you
increase the amount of force exerted on the spring? The spring obeys Hooke’s law.
What is the Hooke’s law? Use activity 2 to describe and verify Hooke’s law.

Activity 2

In this activity you need the following

Materials

 A spring
 Masses of 50g,100g,150g,200g
 30cm ruler
 Graph paper

Procedure

48
  Attach a spring to a fixed position
 Mark the lower position of the spring on the ruler
 Attach a 50g mass on the spring and measure the extension of the spring on
the ruler
 Find extension by subtracting the initial reading from final reading
 Repeat the above steps with a 100g, 150g and 200g mass.
 Record your results in the table below
Extension
(cm)
Loan (N)

 Convert the mass into Newton

 Plot and interpret the graph of extension (cm) against load (N).

Results and observations

 Write your observations in the space provided.

Conclusion

 From your observation, state relationship between force and extension

 State Hooke’s law.

Suggested answer to activity 2

From the above activity you may have observed the following:

i. When the mass increases, the extension also increases

ii. When you removed the mass from the spring, the spring returns to its
original position.
iii. After plotting the graph, you noticed that you produce a straight line
passing through the origin

49
iv. Your observation on the extension of the spring and shape of your graph
should look like figure 5.3
Commented [MM2]: To be redone

Figure 5.3 extension of the spring and the graph of extension against load.

You can observe from the figure that an increase in force within the limit of
elastic limit also increase extension, that is why the graph is a straight line
up to point X. Point E marks a change in the springs behaviour. When you
remove the force at this point the spring will return to its original position,
you call this elastic limit. If you go beyond E, you stretch the spring
permanently even if you remove the spring.

Conclusion
v. From the activity, you can conclude that extension is directly proportional
to the force applied.
vi. Hooke’s law states that; the extension of a material is directly proportion to
the force applied provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded.

Where k is the spring constant, F is force and e is extension. The spring constant is
the stiffness of the spring. The stiffer the spring the larger the value of k.

50
5. Solving problems involving Hooke’s law

Constructing and calibrating a spring balance

Do you remember a spring balance and its functions? Yes, you use a spring
balance to measure force. But how do you relate a spring balance with Hooke’s
law? And how can you use Hooke’s law to build and calibrate a spring balance?
Activity 3 will help you establish one of the uses of Hooke’s law.

Activity 3

Use the following instructions to perform the given tasks.

i. Draw and label a spring balance weighing a mango.

ii. Imagine you have been given a spring to build a simple homemade spring
balance. How are you going to achieve this in relation to Hooke’s law?
iii. Write your answer in the space provided.
iv. Solve the following problem: A spring is stretched 10 mm (0.01 m) by a
weight of
2.0 N. Calculate: a) the force constant k, and b) the weight W of an object
that causes an extension of 80 mm (0.08 m)

Suggested answers to activity 3

Compare your answers with following.

i. A spring balance

51
 Figure 5.4 a spring balance

ii. To build your own spring balance a spring balance, you may need
 Small masses of 100g, 200g,300g 400g and 500g
 A transparent plastic bottle which you will cut at both ends
 Marker

Procedure

 Convert the masse into Newton using the relationship between mass
and weight 1kg=10N
 Cut the bottle open at both ends
 Insert the spring inside the bottle and attach the upper part of the spring
to a fixed bar.
 Mark the original position of the spring as 0 before you attach any load.
 Start attaching one load after another.
 Measure the extension and mark the new position of the spring on the
bottle according to the load you have attached.

Results

 After you have converted the masses into Newton your answers could be:

Mass/grams 100g 200g 3000g 400g 500g

Force/ 1N 2N 3N 4N 5N
Newton

 Your homemade spring balance may look like figure 5.5

52
 Figure 5.5 homemade spring balance

iii. Here is how you could solve the problem.

b. W =stretching force F
W=k ×x
W=200 N/m ×0.08 m
F=16 N

Figure 5.5 homemade spring balance.

Extending springs in parallel and in series

How do you arrange things in parallel or series? If you are having two springs to
arrange in both parallel and series, how would you arrange them? Do you think
changing the arrangement of springs will affect their extension? Activity 4 will
help you answer these questions.

Activity 4

i. Draw two springs arranged both in parallel and series

ii. Which of the two arrangements will produce a great extension. Give a
reason.
iii. Write your answers in space provided.

53
Suggested answers to activity 4

Your answers could be similar to the following

i. The arrangement of the springs could be like figure 18.6.

Figure 5.6 A) springs in series arrangement B) springs in parallel

arrangement

ii. Series will produce a greater extension than B. This is because in series
arrangement, springs behave like one long spring with a smaller spring
constant, while in parallel the springs behave like one short spring with a
bigger combined spring constant. Therefore, extension in series doubles
while in parallel reduces by half.

6. The significance of limit of proportionality

What happens when you overstretch a spring? In figure 18.3 you have observed
that going beyond point E, the spring will extend permanently. Use activity 5 to
learn what happens when you do not observe limit of proportionality.

54
Activity 5

Perform the following tasks

i. Take a small spring and stretch it with a little force and observe what
happens.
ii. Stretch the same spring again but with greater force than before. What
happens to the spring?
iii. Sketch a graph to explain the behaviour of the spring.

Write your answer in the space provided.

Suggested answers.

From your observation, you noticed that

i. When you apply small force, the spring extends and returns to its original
shape.

55
 ii. When you apply a greater force, it stretched permanently and did not come
back to its original shape. This means that you exceeded its limit of
proportionality; hence the material extends permanently and you deform it.
Figure 18.7 is a graph showing the stages an elastic material goes through
when it stretches beyond its elastic limit.

Figure 5.7 graph of an elastic material going beyond elastic limit.

7. Summary

In this unit you have learnt that there are several effects of force, which include
changing the shape of an object, accelerate an object in motion among many other
effects. You have also learnt that when you apply force to a spring it stretches. The
spring stretches because it is elastic. An elastic material is the one which obeys the
Hooke’s law. Hooke’s law says that force is directly proportional to the extension
of an elastic material within its limit of elasticity. You can verify Hooke’s Law by
plotting a graph of load against extension and the graph will be a straight line
starting from the origin. You have also learnt that you can arrange the springs either
in parallel or series. When you arrange the springs in series you reduce the spring
constant hence extension increases while when you arrange the springs in parallel,
you increase the spring constant hence extension reduces. When you apply a much
greater force to an elastic material you exceed its limit of proportionality therefore
the material reaches a point of plastic deformation.

56
8. Exercise

i. State four effects of force

ii. State the Hooke’s law
iii. Explain the bahaviourbehaviour of material which obeys the Hooke’s law
iv. Explain the effect of parallel arrangement of springs
v. Why is it important to observe the limit of proportionality of an elastic
material?
vi. What is the force constant of a spring which is stretched
a 2 mm by a force of 4 N,
b 4 cm by a mass of 200 g?

9. Answers

i. Force can:
a) Deform an object
b) Stop a body in motion
c) Accelerate a moving object
d) Make a stationary object move.
ii. The extension of a material is directly proportion to the force applied
provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded.
iii. It stretched in proportion to the force applied.
iv. Parallel arrangement increases the overall spring constant of the springs
hence reduces the extension
v. Because when you apply a much greater force, the material exceeds its limit
of proportionality which lead to plastic deformation eventually fractures.

10. Glossary

Elastic. To increase in size in proportion to the applied force

Extension: an increase in size

Deform; to change in shape permanently.

57
Limit of proportionality; the maximum point at which an elastic material obeys
Hooke’s law.

Hooke’s law: The extension of a material is directly proportion to the force applied
provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded.

58
 UNIT 6

Uniform circular motion

1. Introduction
In unit 5, you learnt about Hooke’s Law. In this unit, you will learn about
uniform circular motion. You will differentiate angular displacement and
angular velocity, illustrate centripetal force and apply uniform circular
motion in real life situations. This unit will help you understand what
happens to objects as they revolve around other objects.

2. Success criteria
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
a) differentiate angular displacement and angular velocity
b) describing simple experimentations to illustrate centripetal force
c) apply principles of uniform circular motion

3. Angular displacement and angular velocity

Consider a student holding a ball tied to a string and rotating it over his
head as you see in the figure 19.1. This figure illustrates the motion of an
object (in this case the ball) in a circular motion.

Figure 6.1 Student rotating a ball along a circular path

What do you think circular motion is? Uniform circular motion refers to the
motion of an object moving at a constant speed in a circular path. You can
describe the motion of an object in a circular path in terms of angular
displacement and angular velocity.

59
Angular displacement
You have learnt about displacement before. Do you think displacement and
angular displacement are the same?
Angular displacement is the angle an object makes as it moves from one
point to another in a circular path. The units of angular displacement are
the degrees (˚) or radians (rad). You can see this in figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Angular displacement (𝜃)

You can relate the angular displacement (θ), the radius(r) and the arc (s) by
the equation:

Angular velocity

What do you think is angular velocity? Angular velocity is the rate of

change in angular displacement of an object moving in a circular path. The
units for angular velocity are the degrees per second (˚/s) or the radians per
second. The conversion between radians and degrees is stated below as
follows:

60
 When an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, though the
size of the speed remains constant (is not changing), its direction changes
continuously. Thus the linear motion of the object (tangential linear
velocity) changes continuously. As such, this change in velocity causes an
acceleration which is in the direction of the resultant force. Figure 6.3
illustrates the tangential linear velocity (the velocity of the object at any
given point in the circular path)

Figure 6.3 Tangential linear Velocity (V) of an object

Now consider the motion of an object moving in a circular path in figure 19.4.

61
 Figure 6.4 Motion of an object in a circular path

This object has moved from point A to point B covering a distance (s), an angular
displacement of θ within radius r. This object has angular velocity (ω) and the
tangential linear velocity (V).

Therefore, tangential velocity (𝑣) = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜔) × 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠(𝑟)

The above derived equation summaries the relationship between tangential linear
velocity and angular velocity. Note that increasing the tangential linear velocity
increases the angular velocity. The units for tangential velocity are the metres per
second𝑚/𝑠.

Activity 1

1. Define circular motion.

2. Give an example of a situation which demonstrates circular motion.
3. Define the following:
a) Angular displacement
b) Angular velocity
4. Differentiate angular displacement and angular velocity.
5. Describe the relationship between tangential linear velocity and angular
velocity.
Write your answers in the space provided.

62
Suggested answers to activity 1

Compare your answers with the following

1. Uniform circular motion refers to the motion of an object moving at a

constant speed in a circular path.
2. Motion of a bicycle wheel
3. a) Angular displacement is the angle an object makes as it moves from
one point to another in a circular path.
b) Angular velocity is the rate of change in angular displacement of an
object moving in a circular path.
4. Angular displacement is the angle an object sweeps as it moves from
one point to another while angular velocity is the swept angle per unit
time. Angular displacement is measured in degrees or radians while
angular velocity is measured in m/s.
5. Tangential linear velocity refers to the direction the object would take if
released from the centre hence it gives the speed of the object at any
given point within the circumference while angular velocity gives the
speed of the object along the circular path.

4. Simple experiments on centripetal force

What do you think is centripetal force? Centripetal force is the force
which acts on an object moving in a circular path directed towards the
centre. When a body moves round a curved path, a force acts on the
body pulling towards the centre of the curvature. This is the force that
you feel when in a car which is going round a curved path. The activity
below will help you understand the circular motion.

Activity 2

Suggested materials

Small stone, a string of at least 1.5m

Procedure

63
Tie the stone to the string tightly. Hold the other end of the string and swing it in a
circular path above your head. Observe and record what happens as the stone
moves in a circular motion. Repeat the last step and then release the string and
observe what happens. Record your observation.

Suggested observations to activity 2

You might have observed that

When you swing the string in a circular path, there is a force which holds and
keeps the stone moving in a circular path. This force is felt by the hand holding the
string. You may refer to this force as the centripetal force. The stone has both
angular velocity and tangential linear velocity. When you release the string, you
will observe that the stone continued to move in a straight line, leaving the circular
path. This is because the force to keep the stone moving in a circular path was no
longer available hence the stone took a straight path from the point of release,
tangent to original circular path.

5. Applying principles of uniform circular motion

Do you think you can apply the principles of uniform circular motion in real life?
You use the concepts you discussed in the previous sections to solve problems
involving uniform circular motion. You will solve these problems and describe
some of the applications of uniform circular motion in everyday life in the next
activity.

Activity 3

1. Describe any four applications of circular motion observed in everyday life.

2. John ties a ball to a string of length 2m and rotates it above the head such
that it moves in a circular motion along an arc of length 3m for 6 seconds.
calculate the
a) Angular displacement of the ball

64
 b) Angular velocity of the ball
3. Find the tangential velocity of a bicycle whose wheel has an angular
velocity of 10𝜋 per second and a radius of 10 m.

Suggested answers to activity 3

1. Some of the applications of uniform circular motion include:

a) A car going round a roundabout
For a car moving round a roundabout to keep moving in a circular
motion, it needs the centripetal force which is provided by the friction
between the tyres and the surface. The tighter the turn, the more the
force.
b) A turning plane
A turning plane banks towards the radius of curvature. The tighter the
turn, the more the banking.
c) Banking of the tracks
To avoid sliding at curves, railway tracks and roads are made slanted at
an angle towards the radius of the bend. This process is called banking
of the tracks.
d) A cyclist moving through a curved path
When a cyclist is moving along a curved path, he or she leans inwards
because of the centripetal force to be able to go through the curved path.

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 6. Unit Summary

In this unit, you have defined uniform circular motion as the motion of an object
moving at a constant speed in a circular path. Angular displacement is the angle
an object makes as it moves from one point to another in a circular path. Angular
velocity is the rate of change in angular displacement of an object moving in a
circular path. Centripetal force is the force which acts on an object moving in a
circular path directed towards the centre. You have also conducted simple
experiments to illustrate centripetal force. You have also learnt that principles of
uniform circular motion are applied in different ways in our daily lives including
banking of tracks and cyclists when going along a curved road and a turning
plane.

7. Exercise
1) State the SI unit of angular velocity and angular displacement.
2) Explain how centripetal force keeps objects moving in a circular path.
3) A car rounding a bend travels in an arc of a circle.

66
 a. What provides the centripetal force?
b. Is a larger or a smaller centripetal force required if:
i. The car travels faster?
ii. The bend is less curved?
iii. The car has more passengers?
8. Answers
1. Angular velocity – rad/s; angular displacement – degrees or radians
2. It acts towards the centre of the circular path hence keeping the object
moving within the radius, along the circumference of the path.
3. a) friction between the tyres and the road
b)
i. larger
ii. smaller
iii. larger

9. Glossary

Circular motion: motion of an object in a circular path

Angular displacement: an angle swept by an object moving in a circular path.

Angular velocity: speed of an object moving in a circular path

Centripetal force: force towards the centre which keeps an object moving in a
circular path.

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 Unit 7

Moments of forces
1. Introduction

In unit 6, you learnt about uniform circular motion. In this unit you will learn
about moments of forces. You will describe moments of a force and apply its
principles in everyday life. This unit will help you understand why the magnitude
of force you need to apply on a turning object changes when you change the
distance from the pivot.

2. Success criteria
By the end of this unit you must be able to
a) describe moments of a force
b) Apply principles of moments in everyday life.
3. Moments of a force.

You can define force as an interaction that causes an affected object to be pushed
or pulled in a certain direction. Force has several effects. One of the effects of force
is the turning effect. You call this turning effect a moment of force. Activity 1 will
help you understand the turning effect of force.

activity1
Consider the two scenarios in figure 7.1. Use the figure to answer the following
questions.
Write your answer in the space provided.

68
 Figure 7.1

6. Which person will find it difficult to tighten the nut?

7. How can you make the turning effect on nut greater?

Suggested answers to activity 1

i. You may have found out that it is difficult to tighten a nut using fingers
than using a spanner. The spanner produces a larger turning effect than
fingers.
ii. The turning effect can be made greater either by increasing the force or
using a longer spanner.

Calculating moment of a force.

Moment of a force or torque depends on the force applied and the
perpendicular distance from the pivot (turning point). You can calculate
moment of force using the formula below

Moment of a force about a point = force × perpendicular distance from a

point
Ʈ = F× ┘d

You can describe Moments as clockwise or anticlockwise depending on

their direction. You can also call the moment of force as a torque. The unit
for moment of force is newton metre (Nm). Use this information to do the
following activity.

Activity 2

69
Calculate the moment of force acting on a steel bar in figure 7. 2. Write your
answer in the space provided.

Figure 7.2

1.

Suggested answers to activity 2

You may have followed the following steps
5. Moment of a force about a point = force × perpendicular distance
from a point
= 4N×3m
= 12Nm clockwise
6. Moment of a force about a point = force × perpendicular distance
from a point

= 3N×2m
= 6Nm
You may have discovered that from question ii, the bar is 3m but the
perpendicular distance from the pivot is 2m.

Principle of moments
What happens for different masses to balance in a see saw? To balance these
masses, principle of moments will be at play. The principle of moments
states that for a system at equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moment about
any point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about a point.
Figure 7.3 below shows a system at equilibrium.

70
 Figure 7.3. The system at equilibrium
Diagram adapted from Stephen duple, complete physics.
Page 50.

You can also express principles of moments in this form:

The sum of clockwise moments = the sum of anticlockwise moments.

Use the information from figure 7.3 to carry out activity 3.

Activity 3.
i. Mary who weighs 500N is standing on a plank supported by two
trestles. Calculate the upward force X and Y if the system is in
equilibrium. Refer to figure 7.4 below.
ii. What are the conditions for equilibrium?

Figure 7.4 adapted from complete physics page 51

Write your answer in the space provided.

Suggested answers to the activity 3.

i. Since the system is in equilibrium,

Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
500N ×2m = Y × 5m
1000Nm = 5Ym
Y = 200N

To find X

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 X + Y = 500N
X + 200N = 500N
X = 300N
ii. The conditions for equilibrium are:
d) The sum of the forces in one direction must equal the sum of
the forces in the opposite direction
e) The principle of moment must apply

4. Application of moments of force

Moments of force are common in our everyday life. Think of any
circumstance where you used moments of force. Figure 7.5 shows examples
of applications of moments in everyday life. Study the diagrams and use
them to do activity 4.

Figure 7.5 see saw and crow hammer lifting a nail

Activity 4
Describe how each of the systems above uses principles of moments
Write your answer in the space provided.

Suggested answers to activity 4

You may find out that

i. For a see saw to balance, you have to either change the forces applied
on both ends or change the distance between a force and
perpendicular distance from the pivot.

72
 ii.
When using a crow hammer to lift nail, you will notice that you will
exert different magnitude of forces when you hold the hammer at
different positions.
5. Determining centre of mass in lamina and uniform rods.

All objects have a balance point; this is regardless of whether they are regular or
irregular. You can find the centre of mass of regular and irregular objects by using
a suspension method Use activity 5 to determine centre of some objects.

Activity 5.

Materials

 A cardboard- an irregularly shaped lamina

 Nail
 String
 Mass

Procedure

 Cut a piece of cardboard paper into an irregular shape.

 make holes at its corners
 pin the cardboard to the nail so that it swings
 Attach a string to the nail running down the cardboard. This is called the
plumb line
 suspend a mass to the string
 draw a vertical line against the string
 repeat the procedure using other corners
 Write your observation about the line drawn. Write your answer in the space
provided.
Figure 7.6 an irregular cardboard suspended. Stephen duple page 52.

Suggested answer activity 5

73
 You may have observed that the lines you have drawn on the cardboard
intersect at one point. You call this point of intersection centre of gravity
or centre of mass. All objects experience a resultant gravitational force
at the centre of mass.
All regular objects have their centres of gravity at the middle from their
ends.
When you suspend an object through its centre of gravity, it balances
because the clockwise moment equals the anticlockwise moment.

6. Summary
Moment of a force is a turning effect of force. It is also called torque.
This turning effect depends on size of force and the distance from the
pivot. You can calculate the moment of force by multiplying force and
the perpendicular distance from the pivot. The principle of moments
states that a system is in equilibrium when clockwise moment equals
anticlockwise moment. There are several examples of systems that use
principles of Moments in everyday life, these include using a crow
hammer, a wheelbarrow, a spanner as well as a bottle opener. All
regular and irregular objects have a centre of gravity. If you suspend an
object through it’s of gravity, it balances.

7. Exercise
i. What is moment of a force
ii. What makes a system to balance
iii. A 10N force 2m from the pivot balances with a force Y which is
3m from the fulcrum. Find the magnitude of force Y
iv. Why is it easier to open a bottle using a longer opener?
v. Why does a ruler balance if you hold it by the centre?
vi. Figure 7.7 shows Chris trying to balance a plank with stones.

Illustration diagram adapted from complete physics page 51

a) Calculate the moment of the 4N force about O
b) Calculate the moment of the 6N force about O.
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 c) Will the plank balance? If not which way will it tip?
d) What extra force is needed at point P to balance the plank?
8. Suggested answers
8. Moment of a force is the turning effect of force about the point of
axis
9.
You balance a system if in two ways;
 If the sum of the forces in one direction are equal to the
sum of the forces in the opposite direction and
 If the system obeys the principle of moments
10. Clockwise moment= anticlockwise moment
10N×2m = 3×Y
20Nm = 3Y
Y = 6.7N
11. Because when you use a longer opener you will produce a greater
turning effect, this is because you exert the force far from the
pivot
12. Because the centre of the ruler acts as its centre of gravity.
Therefore, if you hold it by the centre, the sum of its clockwise
and anticlockwise moment will be equal to zero.
13. a) moment of 4N force = 4N × 4m
= 16Nm
b) Moment of 6N force = 6N × 2m
= 12Nm
c) The plank will not balance, it will tip towards the clockwise
moment.
d) To find extra force at P. You use principle of moments
Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise
moments
4N × 4m = P × 2m + 6N × 2m
16Nm = 2P + 12Nm
16Nm – 12Nm = 2P
4Nm = 2P
P = 2N

75
9. Glossary
Torque. The force that causes the turning effect. It is the same as
moment of a force

Centre of gravity: The point where all objects experience

resultant gravitational force. When you hold an object by its
centre of gravity it balances.

Equilibrium; this is when forces balance

Turning effect. This is the ability to cause a rotation of a body

about a point.

76
 UNIT 8

Magnetism and electromagnetism

1. Introduction

In unit 7 you learnt about moments of forces, in this unit you will learn about
magnetism and electromagnetism. You can recall that in your Junior Secondary
Physics course you learnt about magnets. You studied their properties, uses and care.
In this unit, you will learn magnetisation, demagnetisation and electromagnetism.
You will also appreciate the uses of magnets in practical situations. This unit will
help you to understand the importance of magnetism and electromagnetism and
use the ideas to solve problems in our everyday lives.

2. Success criteria
By the end of this unit you must be able to:
a) describe magnetisation and demagnetisation
b) describe electromagnetism
c) explain uses of magnets

3. Magnetisation and demagnetisation

Magnetisation and demagnetisation of steel or iron metal

You have learnt that a magnet attracts magnetic materials such as steel and iron.
You have also learnt that a magnet produces a magnetic field. In this section, you
will now learn how to magnetise and demagnetize steel or iron metal.

a. Magnetization

Magnetisation simply means making a magnetic material to be a magnet.

Activity 1

Suggest the different ways of magnetizing magnetic materials? Write your answer
in the space below.

77
Suggested answer to Activity 1

There are three main ways of magnetizing magnetic materials. These are;
induction, stroking and electrical method.

I) by induction
In this method, you make a magnet by simply bringing a magnetic object near a
magnet. Study figure 8.1. The magnet attracts the nail. The nail develops the
opposite pole to that of the magnet. In this case, you have made a magnet out of a
nail by simply bringing it closer to an original magnet. The nail can now attract
other magnetic objects.

You can attach other nails below figure 21.1 below.

Figure 8.1: Magnetising a magnetic substance by induction

ii) By stroking
In this method, you stroke a steel bar with a permanent magnet. You move the
magnet over the metal in one direction only. By doing so, you lift the magnet away
78
from the metal and again move it over the metal. You repeat the process several
times. This process turns steel into a magnet. There are two types of stroking.
These are:

Single stroking

In single stroking, you use one magnet as in figure 8.2.

Figure 8. 2: Single stroking

Note that this stroking produces a pole on a magnetic material which is opposite
to that of stroking pole.

Double stroking

In this type, you move two magnets over the metal bar, starting from the middle.
The opposite poles of the two magnets face each other and you move them in the
opposite direction as in figure 8.3. After stroking, you test the metal if it can attract
other magnetic materials.

79
 Figure [Link] stroking

iii) by electrical method

Activity 2

Suggest how you can magnetize a magnetic material using the electrical method.
Write your suggestion in the space below.

Suggested answers to activity 2

In this method, you insert iron or steel metal in a coil of wire. You call this coil a
solenoid. You then connect it in a circuit. When an electric current passes through
the coiled wire, the metal becomes a magnet. You then bring a nail under this
magnet and find out if it can attract the nail. Your set up of the experiment is as in
figure 8.4.

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 Figure [Link] a magnetic substance by electrical method

b. Demagnetization
Activity 3

i. Describe demagnetization
ii. What are the ways of demagnetizing a magnetized magnetic materials?
Write your answer in the space below.

Suggested answer to Activity 3

i. Demagnetization is the process of removing magnetism of a ferromagnetic

material

81
 ii. Have some pieces of magnets from old radios or elsewhere drop them
down repeatedly. What happens when you test them? Can they still attract
magnetic materials? You may have found out that the pieces of magnets
can no longer attract magnetic materials. Then you say that it has lost its
magnetism or you have demagnetized it.
The other methods of demagnetizing a magnet include:


Hammering

Withdrawing it slowly from the solenoid in which alternating current is
flowing
 Heating it and
 Switching off the current.
All these methods make the material to lose its magnetism.

4. Electromagnetism
You have learnt that you can magnetize a metal by putting it in a solenoid through
which electric current flows. You call the magnetism due to an electric current
flowing in a wire electromagnetism.

Electromagnets
You have learnt earlier in this section that an electromagnet is a coil of wire around
a metal bar. You call the coil a solenoid and the metal bar inside the coil a core.
Electromagnets work on the principle that current creates a magnetic field around
a conductor when it flows through it. You have also learnt the application of
electromagnetism in a solenoid. Do you remember these applications? Well, the
electric bell, a relay and telephone are just a few examples. But how can you make
the electromagnet to be a strong magnet for use?

Activity 4
Suggest any three ways of increasing the strength of the magnetism around a
solenoid? Write your answer in the space provided below.

82
Suggested answers to activity 4
The strength of the magnetism around a solenoid can be increased by

 increasing the number of coils or turns in the solenoid,

 increasing the amount of current flowing through the coils and
 Using soft iron core.
 Decreasing the distance between the poles.
Remember that an electromagnet has magnetism only if an electric current flows in
it.

There are different shapes of electromagnets. Study the electromagnet in figure 8.4

Figure 8.4. An electromagnet

Effects of current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

You have learnt that a current carrying conductor has a magnetic effect. What do you will
happen if this current carrying conductor passes through a magnetic field? Use activity 5
to establish the effect of current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.

Activity 5
You need the following:

Materials

83
Strong U-shaped magnet or, you can use two strong bars of magnet. A conductor
and a cell,

Procedure

Lay your bars of magnet such that the North Pole faces the South Pole. Make a
circuit and let one conducting wire pass between the poles of magnet as in figure
8.5.

Figure 8.5: Current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

What happens to the conducting wire in the field as current flows? Of course you
should observe the movement on the wire. In which direction does the wire move
and what causes this movement? Write your answer in the space provided below.

Suggested answers to activity 5

Compare your answer with the following:

84
 The wire will move upwards. A force causes the movement. The interaction of
two magnetic fields produces the force. That is, the interaction of the field due to
bar magnets and the field due to the magnetism around the conductor. You can
show the lines of force in the wire as in figure 8.6.

Figure 8.6. Magnetic lines of force

The horizontal lines from North to South poles represent the field lines of the
magnet. They also show their direction which is to the right. The field lines due to
the wire are circular. The two fields will be interacting with each other. The
resultant field you obtain by combining both fields will be like the one in figure
8.7.

Figure 8.7 Resultant field due to interaction between two fields

You can see that there are more lines below the conductor than above it. If you
take the lines to be like stretched elastic, those below will straighten out. In so
doing, they will exert an upward force on the wire. You can find the direction of
85
the conducting wire using Fleming’s left hand rule. You can also call this rule
motor rule. To illustrate the Fleming’s left hand rule, hold the thumb and first two
fingers of the left hand at right angles to each other. The first finger should point to
the direction of the field. The second finger points in the direction of the current.
Finally, the thumb points in the direction of movement of the wire. Study figure
8.8.

Figure 8.8 Fleming’s left hand rule

There are several applications of a force which acts on a conductor in a magnetic

field. In which areas can you apply this fact? You might have suggested
applications in an electric motor, moving coil in meters and loud speakers. Study
the diagram of electric motor in figure 8.9.

86
 Figure 8.9An electric motor

When you switch on the current in the figure 21.9, current will flow through the
rectangular coil. If you apply Fleming’s left hand rule, the part ‘ab’ of the coil will
experience an upward force. Furthermore, the part cd of the coil will experience a
downward force. The coil will be able to rotate from ab to cd and from cd to ab.
The loose contacts between the brushes and commutators will make the coil to
rotate easily.

Activity 6
What two things must be available for the electric motor to move? Write your
answer in the space provided below.

Suggested answers to activity 6

You may have suggested that a magnetic field and an electric current must be
available first for a motor to move. You call the magnetic field and electric current
inputs. You call the movement of the motor an output.

Now reverse the direction of the cell and observe in which direction the coil
moves. You may have observed that the coil moves in the opposite direction. You
may also observe that interchanging the poles of the magnet will also change the
direction of movement of the coil.

7. Flux or field patterns of magnetic fields

When you put an iron pin close to a magnet, the magnet attracts the pin. You can
do this activity. Take a magnet and bring a pin near it as in figure 8.10.

87
 Figure 8.10: A pin close to a magnet

What happens to the pin? You notice that the magnet attracts the pin.

Activity 7

What happens when you increase the distance between the magnet and the pin?
Try to do this experiment by putting the pin very far away from the magnet. Write
down your observation in the space provided below.

Suggested answers to activity 7

You may have observed that the magnet does not attract the pin when you
increase the distance between the pin and the magnet.

Every magnet has a zone around it in which you can feel the force it exerts. You
call this zone a magnetic field. A magnet cannot attract or repel a magnetic
material outside this magnetic field.

88
Can you see the magnetic field? If you look at a magnet there is nothing else that
you see around it. This means a magnetic field is invisible. It has invisible lines of
force running from North Pole to South Pole of a magnet, as in figure 8.11.

Figure 8.11. Magnetic lines of force

The arrows pointing to the south indicate the direction of the lines of force which
start from north pointing to the south. You should also expect the wire carrying
electric current to have a magnetic field around it. If you consider the dot in figure
21.11, the cross - section of the wire, lines around it would be the lines of force.

To determine the direction of lines of force around the wire carrying current, you
use a screw. You fix a screw and take the direction of the screw to be the direction
of current. The direction of rotation of the screw represents lines of force around
the conducting wire. You call this cork screw rule or Maxwell right hand screw
rule. Study figure 8.12.

89
 Figure 8.12. Direction of lines of force

Magnetic field due to a solenoid

You can determine the field of a solenoid by gripping the solenoid using the right
hand grip rule. Study the diagram in figure 8.13, where the thumb points in the
North Pole. The direction of your fingers is the direction of the electric current
field. You call this the Right hand grip rule.

Figure 8.13 Direction of magnetic field round a solenoid

Activity 8
In figure 8.13, what happens if the current reverses direction? Write your answer
in the space provided below.

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Suggested answers to activity 8
When you reverse the direction of the current, the poles also reserve direction.

5. Uses of magnets
Electromagnetism has several uses. The following are some of them:

i. Electric bell
This uses an electromagnet. An electromagnet is simply a coil of wire wound
around a bar of iron metal. You make current pass through the coil of wire for it to
magnetise it. Study figure 8.14 of an electric bell.

Figure 8.14: An electric bell

When you switch on the bell, electric current starts flowing through the
electromagnet and the electromagnet pulls the hammer across. As the hammer
moves, it strikes the gong.

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Activity 9
What pulls the hammer to strike the gong? Write your answer in the space
provided below.

Suggested answers to activity 9

Compare your answer with the following:

The electromagnet pulls the hammer causing it to strike the gong.

The movement of the hammer towards the electromagnet breaks the circuit. What
do you think will happen when the circuit breaks? This demagnetizes the
electromagnet and the hammer goes back to its contact. The process will go on and
on until you switch off the current.

ii. A magnetic lifter

A magnetic lifter uses an electromagnet to lift scrap metals out of garbage. Only
magnetic materials are see figure 8.15.

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 Figure 21.15. A magnetic lifter lifting scraps of iron and steel

iii. Relays
A relay is a switch which uses an electromagnet. It is useful if you want one circuit
to control another. It has two or more completely separate circuits. The input
circuit (terminals 1 and 2) supplies a small amount of current to the electromagnet.
This causes the electromagnet to attract one end of a soft – iron armature. The
positioning of soft – iron armature makes its other end to act as a lever. This lever
opens or closes contacts in the output circuit by pushing a spring metal strip. The
arrangement of the spring strip and contacts is that they are normally open or
normally closed. This allows several sets of contacts to be in operation using the
same armature lever. Study figure 21.16.

Figure 21.16: A relay

iv. Telephone receivers

Telephone receivers also use electromagnets. The electromagnet is in the earpiece.
It helps sound to reach the earpiece in form of current surges. This magnetizes the
electromagnet. As a result, it pulls on a diaphragm in the earpiece. The diaphragm
vibrates and makes sound that you hear. Figure 8.17shows diagram of the
telephone.

93
 Figure 8.16A telephone

6. Summary
You can magnetize steel or iron by induction, stroking and using the electrical
method. An electromagnet is a combination of an iron core and a solenoid.
Electromagnets lose magnetism when current stops flowing. There is force acting
on a conductor carrying current through a magnetic field. This force produces
movement and has several applications. One of them is in the electric motor. There
a number of ways of using magnets in our everyday life, these include electric bell,
telephone receivers and relay switches.

7. Exercise
1. Mention one method of magnetizing steel or iron metal.

2. State two uses of electromagnets.

3. Explain the meaning of Fleming’s left hand rule.

4. Why does a current carrying conductor moves when placed in a magnetic field

94
5. Explain any approach you can take to stop the motion of the conductor in a
magnetic field

8. Answers
1. By electrical method or induction or stroking.

2. You can use electromagnets in an electric bell and telephone receiver.

3. The thumb shows the direction of movement of coil. The first finger shows the
direction of the magnetic field. The second finger indicates direction of the current.

4. The conductor moves because of the interaction between two magnetic fields
which creates a force acting on the wire.

5. One way is by simply opening the switch, by doing this current stops flowing in
the conductor hence there will only one magnetic field there by no interaction.

9. Glossary
Magnetization the process of making a magnet out of a metal

Demagnetization the process of removing magnetism from a ferromagnetic

material

Electromagnet a temporally magnet that is made out of current carrying

conductor. It is a combination of an iron core and a solenoid

Solenoid a coil of wire in which you insert an iron metal to produce an

electromagnet

95
 UNIT 9

Introduction to digital electronics

1. Introduction
In unit 8, you learnt about magnetism and electromagnetism. In this unit you
will be introduced to digital electronics. You will discuss semiconductors,
electronic components, analogue and digital circuits and logic gates. This unit
will help you understand how electronic appliances work and it will also help
you construct electronic switches.

2. Success criteria
By the end of this unit you must be able to:
a) discuss semiconductors
b) discuss electronic components and their uses
c) describe analogue and digital circuits
d) describe the operations of basic logic gates

3. Semiconductors
Components that are common in electronic systems e.g. radios, television and
computers use semiconductor materials. Semiconductor materials are different
from conductors and insulators.

Metals as conductors do conduct electricity while wood as an insulator does

not conduct electricity. Semiconductors conduct electricity only under certain
conditions. For example when the temperature of a semiconductor is increased
its conductivity also increases (i.e. it conducts)
Activity 1
a) State one difference between conductors and insulators
b) In terms of electricity conduction explain how semiconductors are different
from conductors?
c) State any two appliances that use semiconductors
Write your answers in the space provided below

96
 Suggested Answers to activity 1
a) Conductors conduct electricity while insulators do not conduct electricity
b) Semiconductors conduct electricity only under certain conditions while
conductors do not depend on any condition.
c) Computers and radios

Band Theory
Band theory is a concept that explains why some materials conduct electricity
while other materials do not conduct. It explains why semiconductors conduct
electricity only under some conditions.
Electric current deals with the movement of charges. The charges are found in
special energy levels. The band theory says to conduct electricity the electrons
need to move to higher energy level. For this to happen the electrons must be
given energy that is equal in amount to the energy difference between the
levels. The electrons must move from the valence band (low energy level) to
conduction band (high energy level).

Figure 9.1: Conduction band and Valence band

Activity 2
a) In your own words ,define the term band theory
b) Describe conductors, insulator and semiconductors in terms of band theory
Write your answer in the space provided below

97
Suggested Answer
a) The band theory is the model that explain that electrons belong to energy
levels (bands), namely conduction band, forbidden gap and valence band.
Conduction of electricity takes place only when electrons are found in the
conduction band.
b) In a good conductor, electrons move easily from the valence band to the
conduction band when subjected to p.d voltage. In the insulator, the
electrons cannot move from the valence band to the conduction band. In a
semiconductor, electrons move from the valence band to the conduction
band only under certain conditions. Read the text below for further
explanation about insulators, conductors and semiconductors.

Insulators
An insulator is a material that cannot conduct electric current when it is
connected to p.d voltage across its ends. It requires more energy for the
electrons to manage jumping across the energy gap, E.g. (also called forbidden
gap). Although the conduction band of an insulator is vacant, thermal energy is
not sufficient for the electrons to jump from the valence band to conduction
band. This accounts for very high electrical resistance for insulators.

Conductors
In conductors like metals the highest energy level of valence band, falls near
middle of an energy conduction band. The conduction band is narrow and
overlaps with the valence band. There are plenty of vacant levels nearby so that
electrons can easily move into the conduction band. It should be noted that not
all electrons available in the valence band move into the conduction band. Only
those electrons whose energy is close to energy in the conduction band will
move freely.

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Semiconductors
Semiconductors are material whose conductivity lies between a conductor and
an insulator. In semiconductors the bonding is similar to that of insulators. The
only difference is that in semiconductors, the energy gap, is small and can
change with changes in thermal energy. When is raised temperature, the
electrons gain enough kinetic energy and jump into the conduction band. The
common semiconductors include silicon, gallium arsenide, germanium, indium
antimonide and lead sulphide. Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the useful
semiconductors because their metalloid character is most prevalent at room
temperature.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

We have learnt that the conductivity of semiconductor materials lies between
that of good conductors and poor conductors. Semiconductors are divided into
intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors.

Activity 3.
Carry out a small research in other physics text books and describe intrinsic
and extrinsic semiconductor

Write your answer in the space below

Suggested answers
You may have come up with the following findings

Intrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor is the semiconductor that occurs naturally. It does not
need artificial materials to improve its conductivity. Its conductivity naturally
depends on thermal agitation. Silicon is naturally a semiconductor so it is an
intrinsic semiconductor.

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Extrinsic Semiconductor
Extrinsic Semiconductor is the semiconductor whose conductivity is improved
by addition of another material (impurity) into its structure. You call the
process of adding a controlled amount of an impurity into a semiconductor
lattice doping. For example if one (1) atom of an impurity is added for every
ten million atoms of Silicon, the type of semiconductor made is extrinsic.

N-type and P-type Semiconductors

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors. They are n-type
semiconductors and p-type semiconductors. The N stands for negative, it
means conductivity depends on electrons while P stands for Positive it means
conductivity depends on positive holes. Use activity 4 to understand more
about N-type and P-type.

Activity 4
Using your knowledge on doping semiconductors describe how N-type and P-
type semiconductor are formed.
Write your answer the space provided

Suggested answers
Compare your answer with the following suggestion

N-type semiconductors
N-type semiconductors are made by doping a natural semiconductor with
atoms which have five electrons in their outer most shell. The n-type means
negative type. Negative type means that their conductivity depends on
negative charges (electrons). For example when atoms of phosphorus are
introduced into the structure of Silicon, the semiconductor made is n-type.
Apart from phosphorus, you can also use arsenic or antimony. These atoms are
called donor atoms. When you introduce these atoms into the structure of
silicon, they share only four electrons (4 out of 5 valence electrons) with

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surrounding silicon atoms to form bonds. This keeps the remaining 1 donor
electron loose and conduct electricity.

P-type Semiconductors
P-type semiconductors are made by doping silicon with atoms with 3 electrons
in their outer most shell. P-type means positive type. Their conductivity
depends on positive holes. When you dope these atoms into silicon they do not
give an electron to the covalent bond. They bring a shortfall or a vacancy (a
positive hole) into the silicon structure. Electrons can be moved from the
surrounding silicon atoms to fill that vacancy with small energy. The moment
an electron move to fill the hole, you create another hole where it has come
from in the lattice. The elements which you can doped into silicon to make p-
type semiconductors are aluminium, boron, gallium or indium.

The Operation of P-N junction

The p-n junction is the boundary between p-type material and n-type material.
You make it by ‘joining’ p-type silicon and n-type silicon. This p-n junction in a
circuit forms a diode. A diode acts as a rectifier (allows current to flow in one
direction). When you join a p-type silicon to n-type silicon electrons from n-
type region move across the junction to fill some of the ‘holes’ in the p-type
region. This flow of electrons leaves a net positive charge on the n-type region
and a net negative charge on p-type region. These changes take place both
sides and very close to the p-n junction in a region known as depletion layer.
The depletion layer is very narrow region and behaves almost like pure silicon.
Any charges trying to cross the boundary will be repelled by charges in the
layer. Negative charges from the n-type silicon will be repelled by negative
charges in the layer. Positive charges from the p-type silicon will be repelled by
positive charges in the region. The charges are prevented from crossing the p-n
junction. The prevention of charges to cross the junction is called the barrier
potential.

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 Figure 9.2: p-n junction diode showing depletion layer
Activity 5
Using your knowledge of the p-n junction, suggest the ways in which you can operate the p-n
junction.

Write your answer in the space below.

Suggested answers
Compare your answer with the following suggestion:

There are two ways you can use to connect a p-n junction diode in a circuit.
You can operate it in reverse or in forward mode.

Forward biased p-n junction

The p-n junction is forward bias if the external applied voltage is connected to
the p-n junction in such a way that the positive of the cell is connected to the p-
type region and the negative of the cell is connected to the n-type region.

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 Figure 9.3: A p-n junction in forward biased mode

In the forward bias mode the barrier potential (prevention of charges to cross
the junction) reduces in so doing allowing the charges to flow cross the
junction. The negative charge carriers move from the n-type region to p-type
region and the positive charge carriers move from the p-type region to n-type
region across the depletion layer hence current flows.

Reverse biased p-n junction

The p-n junction is to reverse bias if the external applied voltage connects to the
p-n junction so that the positive of the cell is connects to the n-type region and
the negative of the cell to the p-type region.

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 Figure 9.4: A p-n junction connected in a reverse biased mode

In the reverse biased mode the barrier potential is increased hence making it
more difficult for the majority charge carriers from the p-type and n-type
silicon to cross the depletion layer so no current flows.

4. Electronic components and their uses

The electronic components are the ones made of semiconductor materials. The
n-type and p-type combine in different ways to come up with different
components. The field of electronics depends on the applications of the
behaviour of these components. Figure 9.5 show symbols of electronic
components.

Figure 9.12: Symbols of electronic components

Activity 6
What are the functions of the following electronic components: diode,
transistor, light emitting diode (LED), capacitor, thermistor, logic gates, light
dependent resistor.
Write your answer in the space below

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 Suggested answers
Compare your answers with the following:

Uses of different electronic components

(a) Diodes: it is a rectifiers
(b) Transistors: works as a switch and amplify signals
(c) Light emitting diodes (LEDS): works as an indicators and also work as
digital displays like in calculators.
(d) Capacitors: They store charge which is used when it discharges. Works in
tuning circuits and smoothing of surging rectified voltage. They also pass
electricity from circuit to another.
(e) Thermistor: Changes its resistance significantly with temperature
(f) Logic gates: Used as digital thermometers in cars to measure oil and coolant
temperature, ovens, refrigerators, and anything that needs cooling and
heating control.
(g) Inductors: Used as filters for analogue circuits, signal processing,
contactless or inductive sensors, as transformers, as motors, energy storage.
(h) Photovoltaic cell: Converts light energy into electricity. Commonly
assembled into what is known as solar panel.
(i) Light dependent diode(LDR): Used as light operated switch

5. Analogue and digital circuits

Electronics as a branch of physics deals with the application of behaviour of
electronic components. Electronics can either be digital or analogue. Digital
electronics deals with counting or getting exact values or amounts. Analogue
electronics deals with measuring approximate values or amounts.

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 Figure 9.13: Examples of analogue and digital instruments

Electronic circuits can be analogue circuits or digital circuits.

In analogue circuits the information takes the form of voltages and electric
currents which varies smoothly and continuously as the information it is
representing. In digital circuits the information in the form of voltage and
electric currents has limited number of values and can change only suddenly
from one value to another.

Analogue circuits just like any other electronic circuits, have input, processor
and output plus power supply to active components in the processor.

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 Digital signal
Digital circuit is a circuit where the signal must be one of two discrete levels.
The signal must be one (1) or zero (0). A digital signal is found in digital circuit
and has two values 1 and 0.
Activity 7
a) What are the advantages of digital signals
b) You use a diode for rectification. There is full wave and half wave rectification. Describe
these processes.
c) Describe in detail the operation of transistors and LDR
Write your answers in the space below

Suggested answers
Compare your answers with the following
a) Advantages of digital signals
 Digital data can easily be compressed hence transmitted efficiently
 Help in transmission of large volumes of voice, data, and image
information.
 Digital signals are secure. There is minimal loss of data.
 Digital data transmission is cheaper compared to analogue data.

b) Rectification
Rectification is the changing of alternating current (ac) to direct current (dc.).
When a diode is connected to an alternating current the diode is forward
biased at one point and reverse biased at another point and so on because the
electric current is changing direction repeatedly. When in forward biased mode
the diode allows current to pass but when it is in reverse biased mode current
does not pass. This changes the input, alternating current, to output direct
current.

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 Figure 9.6: Half-wave rectification by a diode

The lower half of the output wave form is showing zero voltage during reverse
bias. This shows that there is no current hence the name half-wave rectification.

Full-wave rectification
Full-wave rectification is achieved by arranging the diodes so that they form a
bridge rectifier. Abridge rectifier has four diodes such that at one point a pair
of diodes is forward biased and at another point that same pair of diodes
become reverse biased.

Figure 97: Full wave rectification by a bridge rectifier

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 When positive is at X, diodes D2 and D4 become forward biased and
conventional current pass through them, while D1 and D3 are reverse biased.
When positive is Y, diodes D1 and D3 become forward biased while D2 and D4
become reverse biased. If you follow the direction of current in these two cases
you take note that current is flowing through a resistor in one direction
showing that the wave form is always positive. This is a full wave rectification
since current is always passing. However, there is still a point where the
electric current is zero. This is solved by using a capacitor which stores energy.
The stored energy is used when the voltage has reduced to zero. This is called
smoothing.
6. Logic gates
Logic gates are different combinations of switches which produce the many
different functions that digital electronic circuits can perform. The logic gates
are important when it comes to making electronic decision in a device.

Logic gates normally use tiny transistors as switches. There are four main
forms of logic gates namely: AND gate, OR gate, NOR gate and NOT gate.

Activity 8
Explain in detail how these different types of logic gates operate.
Write your answer in the space below

Suggested answers

Your answers might be similar to the following suggested explanation.

(a) AND gate

To understand the operation of an AND gate, let’s consider a circuit with
two switches in series and a bulb as shown in figure 9.9.

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 Figure 9.9: AND gate circuit

From the figure, you can note there are two possibilities i.e. light or no light
(on and off). In digital electronics 1 stands for on and 0 stands for off. On
the other hand as far as the two switches are concerned there can be several
possibilities in terms of their states. The state of the switches can be open (0)
or closed (1). The state of the switches (input) determines the state of the
bulb (output).These possibilities can be summarised in form of a table
known as truth table as follows:

inputs Output

A B L

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

From the truth table you can note that only when the switches A and B are
both closed it’s when the bulb is on. You call this circuit an AND gate.

(b) OR gate

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 To understand the operation of an OR gate, let’s consider a circuit with two
switches in parallel as shown in figure [Link] state of the switches will
determine the state of the bulb. There are inputs A and B, and output L.
This means that switch A can be open (0) or closed (1) and bulb L can be on
(1) or off (0). All possibilities can be summarised in a truth table.

Figure 9.23: OR gate circuit

inputs Outputs

A B L

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

From the truth table, we note that the output circuit represented by the
lamp L will be on when either A or B is on or both are on. That is why the
circuit is called OR gate.

(c) NOR gate

In a NOR gate there are two inputs A and B, and there is an output. For an
output to be on (1) neither A nor B should be on (1).The truth table for the
NOR gate gives all the possibilities as to whether the output will be 1 or 0.

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 inputs outputs

A B L

0 0 1

1 0 0

0 1 0

1 1 0

(d) NOT gate

In a NOT gate circuit there is one input circuit A and one output circuit L.
In this circuit the output circuit L is on (1) if input A is off (0).The truth table
for the NOT gate gives a summary.

inputs Output
s

A L

0 1

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 1 0

(e) NAND gate

This gate gives output 1 if not both inputs A and B are [Link] outputs are a
reverse for all combinations of AND gate.

inputs Outputs

A B L

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

The switches used in the circuits for the gates above represent transistors
which are connected in such a way that the operation of one transistor
affects other transistors.

7. Summary

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 Different materials can be put into groups of conductors, semiconductors and
insulators basing on their ability to conduct electric current. Conductors like
metals have many free electrons, semiconductors have electrons which are
loose in their structures hence they conduct current only under certain
conditions. Insulators do not have free and mobile electrons hence cannot
conduct electric current.

Semiconductors are in two groups. Intrinsic semiconductors are natural

semiconductors like silicon and germanium. They are pure semiconductors.
Extrinsic semiconductors are man-made. They are made by introducing small
and controlled amounts of impurities. The process of introducing impurities
into a structure of pure semiconductor is called doping. Extrinsic
semiconductors can either be p-type or n-type depending on whether the
introduced impurity has 4 electrons or 5 electrons in the outer most shell of
their atoms.

8. Exercise
Answer the following questions
1. Explain the following terms
(a) Semiconductors
(b) Extrinsic semiconductors
2. Distinguish between semiconductors and conductors using band theory
3. Draw circuit diagram and use it to distinguish between forward and reverse
biased p-n junction.
4. State any one difference between analogue and digital circuit
5. Below is a truth table of a NAND gate. Complete the table by filling in
missing values
Inputs outputs

A B L

1 - 1

- 1 1

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 0 0 -

9. Suggested answers
1. (a).Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity fall between that of
metals and insulators
(b).Extrinsic semiconductors are the semiconductors that are made by
doping.
2. Conductors like metals have their highest energy level of valence band
overlapping with conduction band. Semiconductors have an energy gap
between valence band and conduction band

3.

4. In a digital circuit the signal has one of the two discrete levels while in
analogue circuit the signal level changes continuously.
5.

Inputs Outputs

A B L

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 1 0 1

0 1 1

0 0 1

10. Glossary
Electronics: the branch of physics that deals with the emission and effects of
electrons and with use of electronic devices
Semiconductors: substances as germanium or silicon whose electrical
conductivity is between that of metals and insulator
Insulator: materials that do not conduct electricity
Conductor: a substance that readily conducts electricity
Valence electrons: electrons in the outer shell of an atom which can combine
with other atoms.
Intrinsic semiconductor: natural semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductor: semiconductor made by doping process.

11. Bibliography and further reading

Duncan T.(2014)Cambridge IGCE physics 3rd [Link] education and
Hatchet [Link]
Jackson Stanley Sambira,(Arise with physics,2016)students’ Book4
Lameck Kaonga (Excell &Succeed, 2016) senior secondary physics students’
Book 4
Duncan T, (1994) A danced physics Fourth edition
Gilbert Rowel and Sydney Herbert (1995) physics (Cambridge low price
edition)

116
 UNIT 10
Electromagnetic waves

1. Introduction
In unit 9, you learnt about digital electronics. In this unit you will learn about
electromagnetic waves. You will describe an electromagnetic spectrum and
properties of an electromagnetic wave, detect and apply electromagnetic waves;
you will also apply a wave equation to solve problems about electromagnetic
waves. This unit will help you solve real life situations that involve different
electromagnetic waves.

117
2. Success criteria
By the end of this unit you must be able to:
a) describe the electromagnetic spectrum
b) explain the properties of electromagnetic waves
c) describe the methods of detecting electromagnetic waves
d) describe the applications of electromagnetic waves
e) apply wave equations in solving problems concerning electromagnetic waves

3. The electromagnetic spectrum

Analyse the term electromagnetic. You can recall from unit 21 that the word
electromagnet suggests the presence of electric and magnetic properties. Now
what is an electromagnetic spectrum? Study figure 10.1 in activity 1 to help you
describe an electromagnetic spectrum.

Activity 1

Study figure 10.1 and use it to describe an electromagnetic spectrum.

Figure 10.1: Electromagnetic spectrum

i. State any familiar features which you can observe from the figure above
ii. Use these feature to describe an electromagnetic spectrum and an
electromagnetic wave.

118
iii. Study figure 10.1 and 10.2 to summarize the sources of electromagnetic
waves

Figure 10.2: an electromagnetic spectrum indicating sources.

iv. Write your answer in the space provided.

Suggested answers

You might have come up with the following answers.

i. Most of the familiar features are; wavelength, wave propagation,

radiations; x-ray, gamma
ii. An electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum)
of electromagnetic radiations and their respective wavelengths and photon
energies.

As you have observed from figure 10.1, the electromagnetic spectrum

covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from below
one hertz to above 1025 hertz. You can see that there are different bands, in
each band there are waves with their names, beginning at the low

119
 frequency (long wavelength) end of the spectrum are: radio
waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma
rays at the high-frequency (short wavelength) end.

iii. Information From figure 10.1 and 10.2 gives the following summary in table
10.1

Table 10.1 sources of electromagnetic waves with their frequencies and wavelength.

4. Properties of electromagnetic waves

You may recall from unit 12, that a wave is a disturbance that travels through a
medium or a vacuum, transmitting energy from one location to another location
without transporting matter. Do you remember properties of waves? Do you think
these properties are in anyway similar to properties of electromagnetic waves?

Activity 2

120
 Using your knowledge of waves from unit 12 of module 1 and electromagnetic
waves from activity 1. Suggest properties of an electromagnetic wave.

Write your answer in the space provided.

Suggested answers

Suggested answers

You might have come up with the following properties

1. They are transverse in nature.

2. They consist of oscillating electric (E) and magnetic (B) field vectors at right angles
to each other and at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave.
3. They can travel through a vacuum.
4. They travel at the speed of light in vacuum, c=3×108m/s
5. They may be produced by oscillating electric charges or from transition of
electrons between different energy levels in an atom.
6. They obey the wave equation c=fλ
7. They may be arranged in an electromagnetic spectrum in terms of increasing
frequency and include radio waves, TV waves, microwaves, infra-red, visible light
(including the 7 spectral colours), UV, X-rays and gamma rays.

5. Methods of detecting electromagnetic waves

As you have observed in table 10.1 different electromagnetic waves have different
sources. Similarly, you can detect these waves using different devices. How do
you think you are able to listen to the radio or watch TV? It means your radio or
TV is able to receive certain waves. Your radio or TV has a detector. You can detect
all electromagnetic waves using different methods. Use activity 3 to establish
different methods of detecting electromagnetic waves.

Activity 3.

121
Study the sources of each electromagnetic wave and identify a method of detecting
each one of them

Write your answers in the space provided.

Suggested answers

From your analysis you might have suggested the following detectors.

Table 10.2 shows examples of different detectors for different electromagnetic

waves.

Table 10.2. Electromagnetic waves detectors.

You have noticed that you can detect electromagnetic waves using specific
devices.

6. Applications of electromagnetic waves

122
Do you think electromagnetic waves are important in your everyday life? After
studying most of these waves you have noticed that they are common and they
play an important role in your life. What are some of the applications of
electromagnetic waves? Use activity 4 to brainstorm to explore applications of
electromagnetic waves.

Activity 4

Consider the following experiences and relate them with electromagnetic wave.

i. Listening to a radio.
ii. A doctor diagnosing and detecting an injured tissue in a human body
iii. A doctor treating a cancer patient
iv. Operating a TV using a remote control.
v. Warming food in a microwave
write your answers in the space provided

Suggested answers

You might have related the experiences with the following electromagnetic waves

i. Listening to a radio needs radio waves,

ii. doctors need x-ray to examine tissues inside the body,
iii. gamma rays are used to kill cancer tissues,
iv. a remote control operates using infrared waves and
v. You use microwaves to warm food.
vi. You can summarize applications of electromagnetic waves as follows;

Radio Waves (communications)

 TVand FM radio (short wavelength)

 Direct
line of sight with transmitter (do not diffract)
 Medium wavelength – travel further because they reflect from layers in the
atmosphere

123
Satellite signals (Microwaves)

 Frequency of microwaves pass easily through atmosphere and clouds

Cooking (Microwaves)

 Microwaves are absorbed by water molecules.

 These water molecules become heated > heat food
 Dangers: microwaves are absorbed by living tissue Internal heating will
damage or kill cells

Infrared Radiation (remote controls, toasters)

 Any object that radiates heat radiates Infrared Radiation

 Infrared Radiation is absorbed by all materials and causes heating
 It is used for night vision and security cameras as Infrared Radiation is
visible in daytime or night-time
 Police use it to catch criminals, army use it to detect enemy
 Dangers: damage to cells (burns)

Ultraviolet

 Dangers:
o Over-exposure to UVA and B damages surface cells and eyes
and can cause cancer.
 There is a problem with current sunscreens which
protect against skin burning from high UVB but give
inadequate protection against free radical damage
caused by UVA.
 Dark skins are not necessarily safer from harm.
 Benefits:
o Sanitary and therapeutic properties have a marked effect on
architecture, engineering and public health and have done so
throughout history.
o UVC is germicidal, destroying bacteria, viruses and moulds in
the air, in water and on surfaces.
o UV synthesises vitamin D in skin, controls the endocrine system
and is a painkiller.
o Used in state of the art air-handling units, personal air purifiers
and swimming pool technology.

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 o Used to detect forged bank notes: they fluoresce in UV light; real
bank notes don’t. Used to identify items outside visible
spectrum areas, known as 'black lighting'.

X-rays

 X-rays detectbone breaks

 X-rays pass throughflesh but not dense material like bones
 Dangers: X-rays damage cells and cause cancers. Radiographer precautions
include wearing lead aprons and standing behind a lead screen to
minimize exposure

Gamma Rays

 Gamma Rays cause and treat cancers

 Inhigh doses, gamma can kill normal cells and cause cancers
 Gamma can be used to kill mutated cells though too.

7. Solving electromagnetic wave problems using the wave equation

You are now able to compare a mechanical wave and electromagnetic waves. You
may notice that all these forms of waves have wavelength, frequency as well as
speed. This means that you can also solve problems in electromagnetic waves
using the wave equation. Do you remember the wave equation? All
electromagnetic waves take the speed of light which is 3*108 m/s. Use the wave
equation to solve the following problems in activity 5.

Activity 5

Solve the following problems.

i. What is the wavelength of a radio wave if Kuwala FM radio station which

broadcasts at a frequency of 620KHz
ii. Find the frequency of particular electromagnetic wave with a wavelength of
6.52*10-6 m
Write your answer in the space provided.

125
Suggested answers

Compare your answers with following

8. Summary

In this unit you have learnt that an electromagnetic wave is any disturbance in the
electric and magnetic fields that propagates or a disturbance that has both electric
and magnetic fields and transmits energy as it propagates.
All electromagnetic waves propagate at the speed of light in a vacuum. The
electromagnetic waves are: microwave, radio waves, infrared, x-ray, gamma rays,
ultraviolet and visible light. You can identify these waves on a spectrum which
displays the range of frequencies and wavelength of each electromagnetic wave.
You have learnt that you can detect different electromagnetic waves using
different devices, for example a TV aerial detects radio waves. Electromagnetic
waves are useful in our everyday life. You are able to watch television, warm food,
undergo medical treatment among others using electromagnetic waves. You can
use the wave equation to solve problems involving electromagnetic waves.

9. Exercise

i. Describe an electromagnetic wave

ii. Differentiate a mechanical wave from an electromagnetic wave
iii. Explain any two properties of electromagnetic waves
iv. Explain how Mosquitoes use electromagnetic waves to detect where the
person is
v. Explain why visible light are important in your everyday life

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10. Answers

i. An electromagnetic wave is any disturbance in the electric and magnetic

fields that propagates.
ii. Electromagnetic waves are waves that have no medium to travel
whereas mechanical waves need a medium for its transmission.
iii. a) They are transverse in nature and b) they may be produced by
oscillating electric charges or from transition of electrons between
different energy levels in an atom.
iv. Human bodies release infrared radiations and mosquitoes are able to detect
infrared radiations .therefore mosquitoes follow infrared radiation to detect
a person.
v. Visible light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum our eyes can
detect. Therefore we are able to use lamps, flames, sunlight ad moon to see
objects for our daily operations.

11. Glossary

EM; electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic Spectrum; the range of frequencies (the spectrum)

of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon
energies.

UV: ultra-violet radiation. This is a type of electromagnetic wave from the sun.

Ionizing: convert (an atom, molecule, or substance) into an ion or ions, typically
by removing one or more electrons.

12. Bibliography and further reading

Duncan T. (2014) Cambridge IGCE Physics 3rd edition. Hodder education and
Hatchet UK. London

Duncan T Duncan T (1997), physics for today and tomorrow, 2nd Ed. Hodder
Education. UK Company.

Pople S (2003), complete physics. Oxford.

127
Kanga L, (22017), senior secondary physics students book [Link] publishers,
Nairobi.

Instruction Manual and Experiment Guide for the PASCO Scientific Model WA-
9314B, PASCO Scientific, 1991.

(1997), physics for today and tomorrow, Hodder Education. UK Company. 2nd Ed

Pople S (2003), complete physics. Oxford.

Kanga L, (22017), senior secondary physics students book [Link] publishers,

Nairobi.

Instruction Manual and Experiment Guide for the PASCO Scientific Model WA-
9314B, PASCO Scientific, 1991.

128
 UNIT 11

Light and lenses

1. Introduction

In unit 23, you learnt about electromagnetic waves. In in this unit you will learn
about light and lenses. You will describe converging and diverging lenses;
determine focal length and how you form an image in a convex lens, explain how
lenses function in different optical devises and explain how the eye functions and
its defects. This unit will help you understanding functionality of optical devices
like cameras or projectors.

2. Success Criteria
By the end of this unit you must be able to:
a) describe converging and diverging lenses
b) determine the focal length of a converging lens
c) explain image formation by converging lens
d) describe image formation using ray diagrams
e) solve problems involving the lens and magnification formulae
f) describe the applications of lenses in various optical devices
g) explain image formation in the human eye
h) describe the defects of vision in the human eye and how they can be
corrected

3. Converging and diverging lenses

A lens is an optical device usually made of glass, although some are made of transparent
plastic. There are two types of lenses namely; converging lens and diverging lens as you
can see in figure [Link] 24.2. Use activity 1 to describe these two types of magnets

Figure 11.1 converging lens

129
 Figure 11.2 diverging lens

Activity 1

i. What other names do you call a converging lens and a diverging lens
ii. Describe the physical appearance of a converging lens
iii. Name any four optical instruments which use lenses
Write your answer in the space provided

Suggested answers to activity 1

i. You call converging lens a convex lens and diverging lens is a concave lens.
ii. A Converging lens is thick in the centre and thin at the edges it causes parallel rays
to converge. The figure 24.1 shows a converging lens. Likewise a diverging lens is
thin in the centre and thick at the edges. A diverging lens refracts light so the rays
spread out. The figure 24.2 shows a diagram of a converging lens.
iii. Lenses are an essential part of telescopes, eye glasses, cameras, microscopes and
other optical instruments.

4. Determining focal length of a converging lens

Focal length is the distance from the principal focus to the centre of the lens. You
can determine the focal length experimentally as is in activity 2.

Activity 2

Finding the focal length of a lens using mirror method

You will need

 mounted plane mirror
 cross wire on screen
 lens holder
 convex lens
 candle

130
 Describe the procedure you can follow to determine the focal length of a convex
lens using the material above.
Write your answer in the space provided.

Suggested answers to activity 2

Compare your procedure with the following
i. Position a convex lens vertically with a plane mirror behind it so that it reflects light
passing through the lens as you can see in figure 24.3. The object is a hole and cross
wires on a white screen on which a candle or electric lamp illuminates.

Figure 11.3

ii. Adjust the position of the lens until you form a sharp image of the cross wire
alongside the object OB.
iii. Measure the distance between the optical centre of the lens and the screen.
iv. Record the value of the distance between the lens and the screen (x)
v. Repeat the procedure two more times
Distance First trial Second trial Third trial

vi. Work out the average of the distance between lens and screen.
𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3
Average of the value of 𝑥 =
3

Note: The average value of the x is the focal length of the lens

5. Image formation by converging lens

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 A converging lens forms an image when rays of light meet at a focal point; you can
demonstrate using a ray diagrams how a convex lens forms an image. To form an image
using a ray diagrams, you need at least two ray to know the image position, nature , and
size of image. Use activity 3 to show these rays

Activity 3

i. Use your knowledge from junior physics course to draw three types of rays which
pass through the lens.
ii. Explain how these rays form an image.

Write your answer in the space provided

Suggested answers to activity 3

Compare your rays diagrams with the following

i. Ray 1: a ray of light parallel to the principal axis, passes through the principal
focus, (F) after leaving the lens as is in figure 24. 4

Figure 11. 4

Ray 2: a ray through the centre passes straight through the lens as in figure 24. 5

Figure 11.5

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Ray 3: a ray through F’ leaves the lens parallel to the principal axis.

Figure 11.6

ii. Where any of the two rays above meet, they will form an image. From the lens you
can find the image distance by measuring the distance from lens to the image.
6. Image formation using ray diagrams

To form an image any of the two rays must meet as you can see in figure 24.7. Study this
figure and use it to help you do activity 4. In this activity, you are also going to describe
the nature of the image solve problems involving image magnification.

Figure 11. 7: a ray diagram

Activity 4

i. From your observation in figure 24.7, describe the image in the ray diagram.
ii. Explain the two types of images.
iii. An object 2cm high stands on the principal axis at a distance at a distance of 9cm
from the convex lens. If the focal length of the lens is 6cm, what is the image’s
position and type?
iv. Deduce the formula for magnification of the image.
v. Find the magnification of an object of height 2cm when its image is 8cm?

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 vi. Calculate the magnification if an object placed 50cm in front of convex lens. A real
image is formed 10cm from the lens
Write your answer in the space provided.

Suggested answers to activity 4

i. The image from the ray diagram in figure 24.7 is real, inverted and smaller than
the object.

ii. A real image forms where rays of light from the object converge. A real image
forms on the screen, it is an Inverted image: meaning it is seen upside down, I
real image is usually Diminished: it means the image is smaller than the object.

Another type of images is virtual. This is an image that cannot form onto a screen,
it is erect: this image is upright. It is the same way as the object, and it is also magnified:
this means it is larger than the object

iii. In the diagram below, 1cm on the paper represent 2cm of actual distance.

Figure 11.8

The image forms 18cm from the lens, the image is real it is inverted and it has a height of
4cm.

iv. Linear magnification refers to how many times an image is bigger than the object.

The linear magnification (m) is given by:

height of image (ℎ1 )
m=
height of object (ℎ0 )
distance of the image from the lens(v)
or m =
distance of the object from lens (u)

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From the two formulae it means that the ratio of object height to image height is equal to
the ratio of object distance to image distance.
When linear magnification has a value less than 1, it means that the image is diminished.
When linear magnification has a value equal to 1, it means that the object and the image
have the same size.
When the linear magnification has a value of greater than 1 then it means the image is
magnified.
v. To solve this problem, first write down the formula for magnification. Do you
ℎ1
remember the formula magnification in this case? The formula is m =
ℎ0
8𝑐𝑚
Substituting into the formula 𝑚 = 2𝑐𝑚
𝑚 =∗ 4
This means that the image was 4 times bigger than the object
vi. To solve this problem, first write down the formula for magnification. Do you
v
remember the formula magnification in this case?M =
u
10
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎, 𝑚 =
50
𝑚 =∗ 0.2
7. Solving problems involving the lens and magnification formulae

You can also solve problems involving the lens using the lens formula. This formula
establishes the relationship between the position of an object, the position of an image and
1 1 1
the focal length of a lens. The lens formula is = + . Where f is the focal length, v is
f u v
image distance and u is object distance. Activity 5 will help you to use the lens formula.

Activity 5

Use figure 24.9 to derive the lens formula

Consider a convex lens of focal length (f), which forms a real image IM of an object OB as
you see in the figure 24.9

Figure 24.9

i. use this figure to derive the lens formula

ii. An object 45cm from the lens form an image of 22.5cm from the lens, find the focal
length of the lens?

135
 iii. An object is 5cm in front of a converging lens focal length 10cm. Calculate the image
distance?
Write your answer in the space provided

Suggested answers to activity 5

i. To derive the formula the concept of similar triangles is used;

Triangles OBP and IMP are similar (3 angles are equal)

𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝑃
∴ = (i)
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝑃

Draw a line DP perpendicular to the principal axis where DP=BO. Triangle PDF and IMF
are similar (3 angles are equal)

𝐷𝑃 𝑃𝐹
∴ = (ii)
𝐼𝑀 𝐼𝐹

Since DP=OB, from equations (i) and (ii)

𝑂𝑃 𝑃𝐹
𝐼𝑃
= 𝐼𝐹
(iii)

From the diagram you can deduce that

OP = u , IP = v , PF = f and IF = v − f

u f
∴ the equation becomes =
v v−f

Cross multiplying, u(v − f) = vf simplifying becomes vu − uf = vf

Dividing both sides by uvf

vu uf vf 1 1 1
− = the equation becomes = +
uvf uvf uvf f u v
1 1 1
The equation = + is called the lens formula
f u v

In this equation;

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u = stands for the object distance

v = image distance

f = focal length

ii. Given: v = 22.5cm u= 45cm Unknown is focal length (f)

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 45𝑐𝑚 22.5
1 1+2 3
= =
𝑓 45 45
45
𝑓=
3
𝑓 = 15𝑐𝑚
Therefore the focal length is 15cm
iii.
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
1 1 1
= +
10𝑐𝑚 5𝑐𝑚 𝑣
1 1 1
𝑆𝑜 − =
10𝑐𝑚 5𝑐𝑚 𝑣
1 1−2 −1
= =
𝑣 10 10
𝑣 = −10𝑐𝑚
The image is 10cm from the lens, the negative sign shows that it is a virtual image.
Focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens to the principal focus.

Activity 6

Finding the focal length of a converging lens using a distant object

You will need
 candle
 matches
 a lens holder
 convex lens (preferably of focal length 10cm)
 A white screen
 Meter rule
Method
Step 1: Arrange the candle, convex lens and screen as shown figure 24.10

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 Figure 24.10: determining focal length of a convex lens
Step 2: Light the candle
Step 3: With the candle at 50cm from the lens, produce a well-focused image of the flame
on the screen.
Step 4: Measure and record the image distance in the table of results.
Step 5: Repeat step 3 and 4 for the object distances shown in the table.
Table of results
Object distance u (cm) Image distance v (cm) 1 1
(𝑐𝑚)−1 (𝑐𝑚)−1
𝑢 𝑣

50

40

30

25

20

1 1
Step 6: plot a graph of against
𝑣 𝑢
Write your answer in the space provided

Suggested answer to the activity 6

You might have noted that you form an inverted image on the screen. You will also note
that the image distance will be increasing as the object distance is decreasing.

138
If you take accurate results, you will produce a straight line graph as you can see in figure
24.11

1 1 1
You have already used the lens formula = +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

1 −1 1
Rearranging this equation we obtain = +
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓

1 1 1
You can also write it as 𝑣
= −1 (𝑢) + 𝑓 (i)

The equation (i) above is similar to 𝑦 = −𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 (ii)

Comparing equation (i) and (ii)

1
The 𝑦 – 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑐 = (𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑚 = −1
𝑓

From the graph, we can find the value of intercept c on the y-axis.

1
Calculate the focal length f of the convex lens by using equation (iii) which becomes 𝑓 = 𝑐

8. Applications of lenses

You have come across a good number of optical instruments; almost all optical
instruments use lens. Many optical devices use a single lens or a system of lenses or a
combination of both convex and concave lens. Some of these instruments include cameras,
microscopes, binoculars, telescopes and even projectors. Use activity 7 to explain how
some of these devices work

Activity 7

Describe how the following optical devices work.

i. A camera
ii. Projector
iii. A telescope
Write your answer in the space provided

139
 Suggested answers to activity 7
Compare your answers with the following
i. Cameras are one reliable way of capturing information. Below is a description of
how parts of a camera work.

In its simplest form, a lens camera consists of a lens and sensitive film mounted in a light-
tight box with a provision for adjusting the distance between lens and firm. The camera
uses a convex lens to form a small, inverted, real image on a piece of film at the back. The
parts of the camera work in the following way

a) The lens moves in or out to make focusing adjustments. In some cameras this
happens automatically while in some cameras the lens is fixed.
b) The shutter opens and shuts quickly to let a small amount of light into the camera.
c) The film is always dark until the shutter opens. The film is where images are
formed.

d) Aperture (Hole): light rays enter through the aperture. Most cameras also have an
aperture of adjustable diameter to further control the intensity of the light reaching
the film.
e) Diaphragm is a set of sliding plates between the lens and the film. It controls the
aperture (diameter) of the hole through which the light passes.

The figure 24.12shows a camera

ii. The projector

A projector uses a convex lens to form a large, inverted, real image on a screen. The object
is a brightly lit piece of film with a picture on it. The diagram 24.14shows a slide
projector.

1. Light source

This is either a carbon electric arc or a quartz iodine lamp. It give a small but a high
intensity source of light.

2. Condenser

A condenser consist of two plano-convex lenses which collects light and make it to
converge through the slide on to the projection lens.

3. The projection lens

140
This forms the image on the screen. To get a large image, the lens has to be a long way
from the screen. The lens is moved backwards and forwards in its holder to make focusing
adjustments.

4. The slide

Contains the pictures to be viewed on the screen. The slide is placed in the projector
upside down so that the images is seen the right way up.

5. The film or transparency

This must be upside down to get an upright picture on the screen. As the image is large
and distant, the film must be positioned just outside the principal focus F’on the projection
lens.

6. The condenser lens

This concentrates light on the film so that it is very bright and evenly lit.

7. The screen

This is where a sharp image forms

iii. The telescope

The function of a telescope is to increase the angle which distant object appears to subtend
at the eye, and therefore produces the same effect as if the object were either larger or else
close to the eye. Figure 24.13. Below shows and astronomical telescope. For a very distant
object like a star, rays coming from any point on it are sensibly parallel on reaching the
telescope. As a refracting optical astronomical telescope uses lenses to collect and focus
light from stars and planets. A modern example uses two converging lenses while a
Galileo’s telescope (one of the old telescopes) used a converging and diverging lens. The
astronomical telescope has a common focal plane of both lenses. At this point

141
 Figure 24.13 astronomical telescope

Parts of a modern astronomical telescope

i. Objective lens

This is a converging lens. It converges rays from point on far distant object which arrive at
the telescope. A real image forms on the focal plane of the objective. For a high
magnifying power the objective should have a long focal length.

ii. Eyepiece lens

This is also a converging lens. The image I acts as an object for the eye lens and in normal
adjustment, a final. Virtual, greatly magnified image forms at infinity. For a high
magnifying power the eye lens should have a short focal length.

9. Image formation in the human eye

The human eye is in a number of ways similar to the camera. Light passing
through the eye lens crosses the vitreous humour to form an image on the retina.
The main refraction of the light entering the eye occurs at the cornea which has
more than twice the power of the eye lens. There is always alteration in the focal
length of the lens in order to control the sharpness of the image on the retina for
objects at different distances. You call this accommodation. Activity 8 will help
understand how the human eye forms an image

Activity 8

i. With the aid of well labelled diagram explain how different parts of a
human eye work. Write your answer in the space provided
ii. Explain any similarities between a human eye and a camera
iii. Explain any differences between a human eye and a camera

Suggested answers to activity 8

Compare your answer with the following.

i.

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 The figure 11:14 shows the human eye

1. The Cornea

This converges the light. It is a curved window over the front of the eye.

2. The lens

It makes focusing adjustments: the process is called accommodation.

3. The iris

This is the bit that makes the eyes brown or blue. Its function is to control the amount of
light entering the eye.

4. The retina

This is the screen on the back of the eye where the image is formed. The image on the
retina is upside-down.

5. ciliary muscle

Vary the thickness and curvature, and consequently the focal length, of the eye
lens

ii. Similarities between the camera and the eye

a) In both the eye and the camera a convex lens produces real images
b) Eyelid and shutter in the camera open and close to control the entry of light into the eye
and camera respectively.
c) Both produce a real, inverted, diminished images
d) The pupil in the eye and diaphragm in the camera control the size of the pupil, and the
aperture in the eye and camera respectively.
e) Iris in the eye and diaphragm in the camera control the size of the pupil, and aperture
in the eye and camera respectively.
f) The retina in the eye and the firm in the camera are both sensitive to light, images are
produced on them.

g) The eyeball and the camera box are all containers that protect the parts inside them.

143
 iii. Differences between the human eye and the camera

a) The human eye has fluid inside while a camera has no fluids inside.
b) The eye lens is a soft tissue while the camera lens is a rigid glass.
c) The eye produces clear images by the process of accommodation while the camera
produces clear images by focusing.

10. Defects of vision in the human eye and how they can be corrected an image

Mostly likely you see people using glasses, the question is why do people use glasses? Are
all glasses the same? The glasses that people wear are different and each person is
recommended glasses depending on the type of eye defect he/she have. Use activity 9 to
explain defects of vision in the human eye.

Activity 9

i. State types of human eye defects

ii. Explain the problem in each defect and how you can correct it
Write your answer in the space provided

Suggested answers to activity 9

i. There are two common eye defects we will look at in this unit; short sightedness
and long sightedness.

ii. A person suffering from short sight can only see nearby objects. In short sight the
lens fails to become thin enough when looking at distant objects. So the rays
converge before they reach the retina. To correct the fault a concave lens is placed
in front of the eye. As in figure 24: 15 (b)

A person suffering from long sight can see distant objects clearly but cannot see distinctly
objects lying closer than a certain distance. In long sighted eye, the lens fails to become
thick enough when looking at close objects. So the ray converge beyond the retina as you

144
see in figure 24: 16 (a). To correct this defect, a convex lens is place in front of the eye as
you can see in figure 24:16 (b).

11. Summary

In this unit you have learnt that a converging lens is a lens that is thick at the middle and
thin in its ends while a diverging lens is a lens that is thin at the middle. You have learnt
that you can find the focal length of a converging lens experimentally using a distant object.
You have also learnt how to find the focal length of a lens using mirror method. You can
use a ray diagram to demonstrate how to form an image using a converging lens. When you
form an image you can determine its magnification. You have learnt that the lens equation
is important in solving problems involving the lens. The lens is an important part of all
optical instruments. You find a lens in a camera, projector, and telescope among others. A
human eye also has a lens; it uses this lens to produce images at the retina. You have learnt
that a human eye can develop defects but these defects have solutions.

12. Exercise
1. State one difference between a convex and a concave lens?
2. Draw a convex lens
3. What is meant by the focal length of the convex lens?
4. Explain the difference between a virtual image and a real image.
5. You place an object 20cm from a converging lens of focal length 15cm. find
(a) nature
(b) position
(c) Magnification of the image?
6. Calculate the magnification if an object is 10cm in front of a lens and an image is
formed 15cm from the lens
7. State the function of the retina
8. State any three optical devices that uses the lens
9. An object of height 8cm is placed on the axis of a converging lens of focal length 10cm
at a distance of 16cm from the optical centre of the lens. Using a lay diagram find
Position of the image
10. How is short sight corrected?

13. Suggested answers

1) A convex lens is thick at the middle while a concave lens is thin at the middle

145
 2)
3) Focal length is the distance from the principal focus to the centre of the lens.
4) A virtual image does not form on the screen while a real image forms on a
screen.
5) (a) inverted, real, magnified
(b) v =60cm
(c) m= 3
6) M=1.5
7) This is where an image forms in the eye
8) Telescope, camera, projector
9) V= 25cm
10) Placing a concave lens in front of the eye
14. Glossary
1. Converging lens: these are lenses that are thick in the middle and thin at the edge
that causes parallel rays to converge.
2. Diverging lens; these are lenses thin in the middle and thick at the edge, which
causes parallel rays to diverge.
3. Ray; is a line drawn to represent the path travelled by a wave front.
4. A real image: this is formed where rays of light from the object converge. The
image that can be cast onto a screen.
5. Virtual image; this is an image that cannot be cast onto a screen.
6. Accommodation: this is the change of focal length in the eye in order to focus an
object
7. Short sight; an eye defect whereby a person only sees nearby objects.
8. Long sight; an eye defect where a person only see clear distant objects.
15. Bibliography and futher reading
Stephen Pople (2001), Complete Physics, Oxford
Tom Duncan, (2002), 4th edition. GCSE Physics, John Murray
A.F Abbot, (1989), Physics 5th edition Heinemann educational
LameckKaonga(2016), physics student’s book 4, longhorn publishers limited.
James T. Murphy, Physics principles and problems, Charles E. Merrill publishing
company.

146
 UNIT 12

Isotopes
1. Introduction
At junior level you were introduced to nuclear physics. In this unit you will
learn about isotopes, you will describe the nuclear structure of an atom and
describe isotopes. This unit will help you understand how you can apply
isotopes in production of nuclear energy.

2. Success criteria
By the end of this unit you must be able to:
a) describe the nuclear structure of an atom
b) describe isotopes

3. Nuclear structure of an atom

Do you still remember the structure of an atom from your junior physics? Can
you state the three sub atomic particles and where they are found in an atom?
An atom has three subatomic particles which are protons, neutrons and
electrons. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus and electrons are
found outside the nucleus in shells.

Activity 1
Draw the structure of an atom that has 3 protons, 3 electron and 4 neutrons.
Write your answer in space provided

Suggested answer to activity 1

Compare your answer with the following
Recall that in form 1 you learnt that the maximum number of electrons in first
shell is 2, second shell is 8 and third shell is 8. You must arrange the electrons
as 2, 1 and your diagram has to look like the one in figure 12.1.

147
 3p
4n

Figure 12.1. Structure of an atom

What is it you can say about the number of electrons and protons in an atom?
You recall that protons and electron are equal in number in an atom. Since a
proton carries positive charge and an electron carries negative charge, an atom
is a neutral particle.

You learnt that in the nucleus of an atom there are protons and neutrons. These
two are responsible for the mass of an atom.

Activity 2
Draw the structure of the nucleus of an atom whose atomic number is 4 and its
atomic mass is 9. Write your answer in space provide

Suggested answer to activity 2

Compare your answer with the following
You only need to draw the nucleus of an atom only. This atom has 4 protons
and 5 neutrons.

Proton

Neutron

148
 Nucleus

Figure 12.2 nucleus of an atom.

You recall that atomic number is the number of protons in an atom and atomic
mass is the sum of protons and neutrons.

Which letters are used in nuclear notation for atomic number and atomic mass?
In form 1 chemistry you learnt that Z is used to for atomic number and A is
used for atomic mass. The nuclear notation of an element X whose atomic mass
is A and its atomic number is Z is represented as 𝐴𝑍𝑋.

Activity 3

Aluminium has 13 protons and 14 neutrons. Write its nuclear notation. Write
your answer in the space provided.

Suggested answer to activity 3

Compare your answer with the following

You learnt that the sum of protons and neutrons is the atomic mass and the
number of protons is the atomic number. Therefore A for aluminium is 27 i.e.
(13 + 14) and Z is 13. The nuclear notation for aluminium is

4. Isotopes
What determines the identity of an atom? Is it an electron or a proton or a
neutron? Number of proton determines the identity of an atom since it is used
to describe the atomic number of an atom. Each and every element in the

149
periodic table has a unique number since different atoms have different
number of protons.

Activity 4
The diagrams in the figure below represent the structures of the nuclei of
atoms.

1P 17 P 2P

1n 20 n 2n

A B C

16 P 17 P
1P
18 n 18 n
2n

D E F
Figure 12.3. Nuclei of atoms
i. Which structures have the same atomic number? Give a reason.
ii. Do these structures have the same mass number? Give a reason.

Write your answer in the space provided

Suggested answers to activity 4

Compare your answers with the following

You recall that atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. Therefore
A and E have the same atomic number, so are B and F. These structures

150
although they have the same atomic numbers, they have different masses
because they have different number of neutrons.

The pairs you identified in activity 4 you call isotopes. So how would you
define the term isotopes?

Isotopes are elements that have the same atomic number but different atomic
masses due to different number of neutrons. Can you think of elements that
have isotopes in the periodic table?

The following are some of the common elements that have isotopes

i. Hydrogen
It has three isotopes which are; hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 (deuterium)
and hydrogen-3 (tritium)
ii. Carbon
It has two isotopes and these are carbon-12 and carbon-14
iii. Chlorine
It has two isotopes; chlorine-35 and chlorine-3

Activity 5

Write the nuclide symbols of isotopes of hydrogen.

Provide your answer in the space provided

Suggested answers to activity 5

Compare your answer with the following

The atomic number of hydrogen is 1 and you know that hydrogen has three
isotopes; hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3. The nuclide symbols of
isotopes of hydrogen are

151
 You see that one element may have many isotopes if it has different number of
neutrons.

5. Summary
You have learnt that an atom consists of nucleus surrounded by shells. Protons
and neutrons are found in the nucleus while electrons are found in the shells.
Electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged and that
the number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons such that
an atom is neutral. You also learnt that isotopes are atoms that have the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons.

6. Exercise
1. Describe where the following are located in an atom
i. Protons
ii. Neutron
iii. Electrons

2. Sodium has 11 protons and 12 neutrons. Write its nuclide notation.

3. In an atom, A = 11 and Z = 5. Draw the nuclear structure of the atom.
4. In the isotope carbon-14, what does the number 14 represent?
5. Explain why isotopes have different atomic masses

7. Answers
Suggested answers
1. Location of particles in an atom
i. Protons are found in the nucleus
ii. Neutrons are found in the nucleus
iii. Electrons are found outside the nucleus in shells or energy levels

2. The mass of sodium is 23 i.e. (11+12) and its atomic number is 11. So it
nuclide symbol is 23
11𝑁𝑎 .
3. Nuclear structure (The atom has 5 protons and 6 neutrons)

proton =

neutron =
152
 Figure 12.4 structure of an atom

4. 14 on carbon-14 represent the mass number of that isotope of carbon.

5. Isotopes of elements have different atomics masses because they have
different number of neutrons.

8. Glossary

Atomic number: it is the number of protons in an atom.

Atomic mass: it is the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Deuterium: It is an isotope of hydrogen of mass 2.

Tritium: it is an isotope of hydrogen of mass 3.

9. Bibliography and further reading

1. Duncan Tom, Advanced Physics Fourth Edition, 1994, United Kingdom,
London, John Murray Limited.
2. Kaonga Lameck, Senior Secondary Physics Book 4, 2017, Nairo, Kenya,
Longhorn Publishers Ltd.
3. Sambila Jackson Stanley, Arise with Physics Book 4, 2014, Blantyre Malawi,
CLAIM Limited

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 UNIT 13

Radioactivity

1. Introduction
In unit 25, you learnt about isotopes . In this unit you will learn about
radioactivity. You will explain radioactivity, describing radioactive emissions
and you will discuss dangers and applications of radioactivity. This unit will
help you use radioactivity in our day to day lives like producing electricity.

2. Success criteria
By the end of this unit you must be able to:
a) explain radioactivity
b) describe radioactive emissions
c) discuss dangers and applications of radioactivity

3. Radioactivity
Becquerel, a renowned physicist discovered that a sample of Uranium caused a
photographic plate, which was wrapped in an opaque paper, to fog. He
discovered this accidentally because he wanted to find out if sunlight could
cause uranium to emit x-rays.
He then established that uranium sample emitted radiation which caused
fogging of the photographic plate. Experiments also show that atoms whose
ratio of N: P (neutrons: protons) is equal to 1:1 are stable, but when the N: P
ratio is much greater or smaller than a certain range, then the atoms become
unstable.
The unstable atoms disintegrate and emit some particles and/or radiations to
become stable. The disintegration is known as radioactive decay.
The disintegration of unstable atoms is random and is without any order and
you cannot predict which atoms are going to disintegrate and at what time.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous random emission of particles from within the
nucleus of the atom. The particles are emitted in bursts at irregular intervals
and without giving the atom any form of energy.

154
 Natural and induced radioactivity
Radioactivity can take place naturally or can be artificially induced. Natural
radioactivity takes place naturally while induced radioactivity takes place
when a nucleus is exposed to specific radiation artificially. For example a
nucleus of a stable isotope can be bombarded with a neutron in nuclear
reactors.
Bombarding a stable nucleus with a neutron is possible because a neutron
(neutron is neutral), is not repelled by the nucleus so that it is captured into the
nucleus. Once in the nucleus it changes the nucleon number hence disturbing
both neutron-proton ratio (N: P) and the strong nuclear force. These changes
can sometimes make the nucleus unstable.
4. Radioactive emissions
The particles and/or energy emitted from the nuclei of unstable atoms are known
as radioactive emissions or radiations. Through experiments which were
performed to identify the radiations (radioactive emissions), it has been discovered
that there are three types of radiations namely: alpha (α) particles, beta (β)
particles, and gamma (γ) rays. These radiations can be identified by their different
penetrating power, ionising ability and behaviour in magnetic field and electric
field.
Alpha particles
The alpha particles can be described by the following points:
 They are the massive form of radiation
 They have been identified as Helium nuclei

 They have amass of 4atomic mass units(a.m.)and are positively charged

 They have a range of only few centimetres.
 Have very strong ionising effect
 Have a weak penetration power. They are stopped from penetration by skin and thick
piece of paper.
 They are deflected in a magnetic field
 In electric field they are deflected towards the negative.
 All α particles emitted by a particular radioactive source usually have the same
energy(they are mono-energetic)

155
When the alpha particles are being emitted from the unstable nucleus then there is alpha
radiation being emitted.

Figure 26.1 the deflection of α and β particles in magnetic and electric field

156
Figure 26.2 the penetration power of α, β, γ and neutron rays

Beta particles
The beta particles are the fast moving electrons from the nucleus. They have the following
properties:
 They are light
0
 Negatively charged particles with a charge of －they are denoted by 1 β.

 Their mass is the same as that of an electron

 They have an average speed of half the speed of light
 They have a range of some meters in air(with a maximum range of 5m)
 Have more penetration power than that of alpha particles.
 They get deflected in magnetic field
 Deflected in electric field towards positive
During a beta emission, a neutron which is slightly heavier than a proton, emits an
electron and becomes a proton.
Neutron proton + electron.
This shows that one neutron splits into one proton plus one electron.

157
Figure 26.3 Deflection of beta particles in magnetic and electric field

Gamma (γ) rays

Gamma (γ) rays are part of electromagnetic spectrum waves of very short wave length.
They have no mass and they carry no charge. It is denoted by 00 γ
Gamma rays have the following properties:
 They are uncharged electromagnetic radiation having no [Link] are like visible
light or x-rays, but have very short wavelength and high frequencies.
 Travel in a straight line, but have no well-defined path.
 Travel with speed of light, (3x108 m/s) in air.
 They are very penetrating and can pass through several centimetres of lead.
 Possess energy called photon energy
 They affect photographic film but their effect is less than the effect of alpha and beta
particles.
 They ionise the gas through which they travel.
 Have almost an infinite range in air.
 Are not deflected in either magnetic or electric field.
 Cause fluorescence on certain materials.
 Are transverse wave in nature.

Half-life of Isotopes
Different radioactive substances decay at different rates. This means that for some
their rate of decay is very high unlike others. For any radioactive substance as time
goes by, the number of undecided nuclei decreases since some of the nuclei have
already disintegrated. For example, let us consider a sample of radioactive nuclei

158
containing an original number of nuclei(N0),it means as time goes by some nuclei
will disintegrate and the number N0 reduces to Nain the same way when there
were N0 nuclei in the sample the time was t0 ,when there are N nuclei in the sample
the time is now tin other ways we can say that when N0 has changed to N, t0 has
changed to this means that there will be a time when the number of undecided
nuclei is exactly half of the original number N0 i.e. N=N0/2. During this time the
activity of the sample has reduced to the half the original rate. The time taken for
N0 of any radioactive substance to reduce to N0/2 is the half-life of that substance.
The half-life of a substance is defined as the average time for the activity to
decrease to half of the initial value or the time taken for half of the number of
radioactive nuclei present to decay.
If the original activity is A0, it reduces to A0/2 in one half period; A0/2reduces to
A0/4 in another half-life period, and so on. This can be shown by:

The idea of half-life period can be represented graphically as shown in the figure
below.

159
Figure 26.4 Decay curve for radioactive material

Each radioactive element has its own half-life hence half-life can be used to
identify specific radioactive element. The table below outlines half-lives of
different elements.

Element Mass number Half-life

Uranium 238 4500 ×106

Plutonium 239 2400 years

Carbon 14 5600 years

Radium 226 1600 years

Caesium 137 30 years

Iodine 131 8 years

Bismuth 210 5 hours

Sodium 24 15 hours

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 Polonium 218 3 minutes

Radon 220 54 seconds

Polonium 214 1.6 ×10-4 seconds

Bismuth 212 1 hour

Note that if N0 denotes the quantity of radioactive material present at the

beginning then the quantity N remaining after a given time T is given by:
1
N= N0 ( ) T/t, where it is the half-life of the substance.
2

Problems involving half -life of isotopes

Example 1
An iodine isotope was found to have an activity of 200Bq.75 minutes later the
activity had reduced to [Link] is the half-life of iodine?
Solution

A0 A0 A0
A0
2 4 8
From the question A0 = 200Bq, if A0 is substituted by 200Bq then we have:
200Bq 100Bq 50Bq 25Bq
It can be noted from the statement above that there are 3 half-lives from 200Bq to
[Link] the activity to decrease from 200Bq to 25Bq it has taken 75 minutes(3 half-
75 min utes
lives).Therefore 1 half-life = =25minutes
3half  lives
Example 2
The half-life of iodine -131 is 8 days. If at time t = 0, the mass of iodine is 10g, how
much of iodine-131 will be left after 48 days?
Solution
1
N = N0 ( ) T/t (where T= is the time taken for disintegration = half-life of iodine)
2
1 1
N = 10g × ( ) 48/8 = 10g × ( ) 6 = 0.15625g
2 2
The mass of iodine -131 left after 48 days is 0.15625g

161
Example 3
A radioactive substance has a half -life of [Link] fraction of the substance
will remain after 6 hours have passed?
Suppose x= total amount of the substance at the beginning,
1 1
Then N= x ( ) 6/2 = ( ) 3 of x
2 2
1
Of x will remain after 6 hours
8
Detection of radioactive emissions
The properties of the different types of radiations are used when detecting the
radioactive emissions.
(a) .Geiger-Muller tube
The Geiger-Muller tube consists of an earthed tube, with a metal that runs down
its [Link] metal wire and the tube are connected to terminals through through
an insulated [Link] wire has a positive potential of 400-450v,hence there is an
electric field between the metal and the tube. There is a very thin mica window
closing the end of the tube. This allows the radiation to pass easily into the tube.
1
The tube contains argon and a trace of bromine whose pressure is kept at of
7
atmospheric pressure.
When a radioactive particle enters the tube through the mica window it ionises the
gas in the tube .The electrical discharge produces a voltage which is recorded in a
scaler .The scaler feeds the voltage into the counter. The digital counter records the
number of ionisations hence the number of radiations entering the tube.

Figure 26.5 Geiger- Muller tube

Note: When the apparatus is set

up in position for an
experiment to detect radioactive
sources, the counter starts to
count before the radioactive
source is brought near. This is
called back ground count and is
due to background radiation
Which is always present. The sources of background radiation are:
162
 Cosmic radiation from outer space
 Radiation from the sun
 Rocks in the earth which contain traces of radioactive substances
 Naturally radioactive radioisotopes
 Artificial radioisotopes
 Products made from nuclear explosions e.g. strontium-90 which has a half lie
of 28years.

(b) The leaf electroscope

If a radioactive source emits alpha particles (e.g. Americium-241), and is brought
near the cap of a positively charged leaf electroscope, the electroscope gets
discharged as a result causing the leaf to fall.

Figure 26.6 a leaf electroscope

The alpha particles from the radioactive source will knock off electrons from the
surrounding air molecules leaving them with a positive charge and they become
ions. The electrons which have been knocked off the air molecules are attracted by
the positively charged leaf electroscope and the positive charge on the electroscope
is neutralized (i.e. is removed), hence causing the leaf to fall.

If the electroscope is negatively charged, the positively charged air

molecules(ions),are attracted to the cap and the electroscope is [Link] can

163
not work with gamma radiations because their ionising effects in air are not
sufficiently high enough.
(c) The spark counter
A spark counter is made up of thick copper wire,insulator,copper gauze and a
high potential voltage applied.

Figure 26.7 A spark counter

The air between the gauze and the metal wire conduct electricity due to the high
potential energy [Link] sparks are produced by the air when it has been
ionised by the radiations from the [Link] rays can be detected in this
[Link] sparks produced can be counted and used as a measure of the
radioactivity of the [Link] method is not appropriate for detection of beta and
gamma radiation because of their weak ionising effect.
(d) Diffusion cloud chamber
A diffusion cloud chamber consists of a perspex cylindrical container with a
perspex top and a strip of felt at the top containing excess of mixture of alcohol
and [Link] bottom compartment which houses a sponge has a removable
plastic base with wedges to keep the chamber horizontally (not tilted).The dark
metal base is kept at low temperature (-50℃),by dry ice (solid carbon dioxide)
packed below [Link] sponge keeps the dry ice in contact with metal plate.

164
Alcohol vapour diffuses continuously from the top to the metal base of the
chamber and the vapour becomes [Link] the perspex top is rubbed
with a dry cloth or duster,it gets charged by induction and it attracts the dust
particles that are suspended in the top [Link] makes the air molecules
to be dust free and the super-cooled alcohol vapour cannot condense on the
heavier dust free air molecules.
A radioactive source S is now introduced into the top compartment from the
[Link] radiations emitted by the source ionise the air [Link] super-
cooled alcohol vapour immediately condenses on these tiny ionised [Link]
tracks along which the positive ions pass remain behind and can be clearly seen
from the top.

Figure 26.8 Diffusion cloud chamber

Alpha particles produce straight thick tracks of short [Link] particles give rise
to thin broken erratic tortuous [Link] length of the tracks are greater than
those of alpha [Link] rays do not produce ionisation directly but release
electrons from the gas atoms which they [Link] electrons behave like beta
particles and produce their own tracks.
(e) Photographic film badge

165
They are sealed badges worn by scientists working with [Link] the
badges are exposed to radiations they become blackened. If the exposure exceeds a
certain level they are replaced. They are used to monitor nuclear radiations as a
protective mechanism.
(f) Ionisation detectors
These detect and measure the ionisation properties of radiations such as alpha,
beta and gamma rays.

(g)Scintillation counter
The scintillation counter uses a fluorescent screen together with a microscope of a
fluorescent crystal placed in contact with a photo multiplier. As the radioactive
rays strike the crystal, light rays (scintillation) are produced. These light rays are
detected by a photo multiplier.
Nuclear fission and fusion

Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the breaking of heavy unstable nuclides to produce energy in the
process. For example Uranium-235 can be split into 2 roughly equal parts by the
action of neutrons.
235
92 U + 01 n 236
92 U 141
56 Ba + 92 1 1 1
36 Kr + 0 n + 0 n + 0 n

Neutrons are able to penetrate deep into the positively charged nucleus because
they do not have charge. Upon penetrating the nucleus of Uranium -235, the
neutrons make the nucleus to become unstable and making it split into two lighter
nuclei releasing a lot of energy. The energy comes out in the form of heat which is
used to heat water and the steam produced is used to run power generation
machine (generator).

166
Figure 26.9 Nuclear fission

Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the fusing together of lighter nuclides in the process a heavier
nucleus is produced. The lost mass is produced in the form of heat energy. The sun
produces its light and heat through hydrogen fusion to form helium. Scientists are
still researching on this process about the sun.
2
1 H + 21 H = 23 He + 01 n
The sum of the exact masses of the helium atom and the neutron is less than the
sum of the two heavy hydrogen atoms. This lost mass is released as energy.

5. Dangers and applications of radioactivity

Radioactive substances are dangerous because the radiation they emit can ionise
the medium through which they travel. The chemical processes of the living cells
can be changed and damaged by these radiations. The wide spread damage of
cells may cause death. Radiations can also have the following immediate effects:
 Skin burns
 Vomiting
 Diarrhoea
There are also delayed effects of radiations;
 Loss of hair
 Cancer
 Leukaemia

167
 Genetic damage
 Sterility
 Some children born with serious abnormalities.

Precautionary measures to be taken against radiations

 No eating or drinking is allowed where radioactive materials are handled. The
alpha articles do not penetrate far into the body when they are outside so the
risk is small. When they are inside the body they ionise living cells so the risk
is very high because this ionisation of cells lead to dehydration.
 Disposable gloves, protective clothing (lead lined aprons) and masks should
be worn when handling radiations.
 The warning symbol should be displayed properly at the prominent places
where radioactive materials are kept.
 People exposed to external sources of gamma rays must be protected by
limiting the dosage of radiation using shielding metal (aluminium, lead) and
keeping the exposure time as short as possible, keeping large distance between
the source and the person.
 Use remote controlled tools to handle radioactive materials and sit behind a
shielding wall made of concrete and lead.
 People should use radiation badges.
 Radioactive materials which are used in medicine should have short-half life
so that materials reaching the body should quickly decay away.
 Radioactive materials used in school laboratories should be kept in lead
containers and handled with tongs,forceps,tweezers, etc for safety.
 Point the source of radiation away from people when handling them in the
school laboratory.
 Radioactive waste must be buried in deep trenches inside the earth far away
from place of human habitation and their activity be monitored until they
become harmless.
Applications of radioactivity
(a) Nuclear power generation
The energy released in the fission or fusion processes could be used to drive a
turbine of a generator to generate electrical [Link] fission or fusion processes
are carried out in nuclear reactors from where the heat energy is directed to where
it can be used i.e for heating water to produce steam.

168
Figure 26.10 a nuclear reactor

(b) Agriculture/biochemical tracers

 Tracer techniques are being used to monitor how plants take up fertilizers.
 Radiation can be used to sterilise insects to eliminate pests which destroy
crops.
 Gamma rays, when irradiated on wheat, maize, etc makes them to be stored
for a long time without damage.
(c) Industrial use
When a gamma ray source is put inside the pipe carrying water underground, the
gamma rays will emerge out through the crack if the pipe has cracked and give a
higher count rate than where there are no cracks in the pipes. This can be used to
trace a leakage in the pipes without digging long distances of earth.
Radiation can also be used in industry to make sure that products like rubber,
plastic, papers and metal have the standard thickness. This is done by monitoring
the changes in nuclear radiation that passes through them. If the amount of
radiation that passes through a product like a metal sheet increases it means the
thickness has decreased than the standard thickness hence the control unit of the
machine will adjust to the standard thickness.
(d) Medical(radiotherapy)

169
Radioactive materials can be used as tracers in medicine. For example a nuclide
like iodine -131 is used as a tracer to monitor the function of thyroid grand which
controls metabolic rate.
Blood clots can be traced by injecting radioactive sodium into the blood vessel and
using detectors to find where the blood clot has occurred. Strong sources of
radiation, such as gamma rays emitted by cobalt-60, are used to kill the harmful
tissues such as cancerous cells in the human body. The gamma rays can also be
used to sterilise medical equipment like disposable syringes used for inoculations.
(e) Sterilisation/food preservation
Packed food items are irradiated with gamma rays to kill bacteria and other
microorganisms like salmonella. This increases shelf life and reduces spoilage.

(f) Radio carbon dating

This is a technique that uses radioisotope carbon-14 to calculate the age of a
sample of a radioisotope.
The activity of any radioisotope sample decreases with time. The rate of decrease
of activity depends on half-life of the radioisotope of the sample. An example of
radioisotope is [Link] atoms of carbon-14 are found in living organisms in
large amounts. When an organism is living the content of carbon-14
In its body remains constant as a result the radiations emitted are almost constant.
This is the case because the natural intake of carbon-14 by an organism is balanced
by the natural processes that dispose of the [Link] example in humans
carbon-14 is taken in form of food (carbohydrates), and is taken out in form of
carbon dioxide which is breathed out.
When an organism has died the intake of carbon-14 stops and the remaining
carbon-14 decreases due to natural decay. It is possible to calculate the age of the
dead if the half-life and activity in the live body are known.

5. Summary
Nuclei isotopes can be stable or unstable depending on the strength of nuclear
forces and proportion of neutrons to protons. The unstable nuclei disintegrate
spontaneously and this process eject particles like alpha, beta and gamma rays.
The emission of the alpha, beta and gamma rays by unstable nuclei is called
radioactivity.

170
Radiations are dangerous because they can affect environment and human life.
They have immediate effects of; skin burns, vomiting and diarrhoea when one is
exposed to them. They also have delayed effects of: loss of hair, cancer, leukemia,
genetic damage and sterility. They have to be handled with care both in school
laboratories and elsewhere. Although radiations are dangerous they are used as
biochemical tracers, used in tracing leakages in underground water pipes, used in
radiotherapy and many other applications.
6. Exercise

1. Complete the following nuclear equations by filling the values represented

by dashes.
235 138 
(a) 92 U + 01 n  Ba + 36 Kr + 3( 01 n)
14 14
(b) 6 C -- + 7 N
2 2 
(c) H + H
1 1 He + 01 n
2. Define the terms
a) Radioactivity
b) Radioisotope

C) Half-life
d) Back ground radiation

171
 3. Give two properties of each of the following radiations
a) Alpha particles
b) Beta particles
c) Gamma rays
4. Explain two dangers associated with radiations
5. Explain two ways in which radiations can be applied in:
a) Treatment of diseases
b) Agriculture
c) Water supply systems

7. Suggested answers
1.
235
a. 92 U + 01 n 138
56 Ba + 94
36 Kr + 3( 01 n)
14 0 14
b. 6 C 1 e+ 7 N
2 2 3
c. 1 H+ H 1 2 He + 01 n
2.
a. Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus emitting
radiation in the process.
b. Radioisotope is a radioactive substance
c. Half-life is the time taken for an activity of a radioactive sample to be half of
the original activity value.
d. Back ground radiation is the ‘stray’ radiation present in the atmosphere and it
is not due to a particular radioactive material.
3.
a. Alpha particles
 They are deflected in electric field and magnetic field
 They are massive(have heavy mass)
b. Beta particles
 Have negative charge
 They are lighter than alpha particles
c. Gamma rays
 They are uncharged electromagnetic radiation without mass
 Travel at a speed of light
4.
i. They can ionise living cells and damage their chemical make up
ii. They can destroy environment
5.
a. Used to kill cancer cells(radiotherapy)
b. Used as tracers -Trace the uptake of chemicals like fertiliser by a plant

172
c. Used to trace leakages in underground water pipes.

8. Glossary
Renowned: Famous or widely known
Emit: To give off radiation/to discharge radiation
Radioactive decay: The disintegration of unstable nucleus when radiation is emitted
Mono-energetic: Having equal amounts of energy.

9. Bibliography and further reading

1. Duncan Tom, Advanced Physics Fourth Edition, 1994, United Kingdom,
London, John Murray Limited.
2. Kanga Lamarck, Senior Secondary Physics Book 4, 2017, Nair, Kenya,
Longhorn Publishers Ltd.
3. Stephen People (2001), Complete Physics, Oxford
4. Duncan Tom, (2002), 4th edition. GCSE Physics, John Murray
5. A.F Abbot, (1989), Physics 5th edition Heinemann educational
6. James T. Murphy, Physics principles and problems, Charles E. Merrill
publishing company.
7. Duncan T. (2014) Cambridge IGCE Physics 3rd edition. Hodder education and
Hatchet UK. London
8. Duncan T Duncan T (1997), physics for today and tomorrow, 2nd Ed. Hodder
Education. UK Company.
9. Instruction Manual and Experiment Guide for the PASCO Scientific Model
WA-9314B, PASCO Scientific, 1991.
10. (1997), physics for today and tomorrow, Hodder Education. UK Company.
2nd Ed
11. Jackson Stanley Sambora,(Arise with physics,2016)students’ Book4
12. Gilbert Rowel and Sydney Herbert(1995)physics (Cambridge low price
edition)
13. Kalbi, K. (2009) Physical Science in Practice for MSCE. Blantyre; Duke
Publishing Company Limited
14. People, S. (2001), Complete Physics, Oxford; Oxford University Press
15. Duncan T &Kennet H. (2002), 2nd edition. IGCSE Physics, London; Hodder
16. Duncan, T. & Kennett, H. (2009). IGCSE Physics. Hodder Education. UK.
17. Malawi Institute of Education (2013). Malawi Senior Secondary Syllabus for
Form 3 and 4 Physics. Domes.

173
18. Sambisa, J.S. (2014). Arise with Physics Book 4. Claim Limited. Malawi.
19. Tippers, P. E. (2007). Uniform Circular Motion. Southern Polytechnic State
University.
20. Chesnutt, B. What is Terminal Velocity? - Definition, Formula, Calculation &
Example Retrieved from[Link]
[Link].
21. Duncan T. &Heather (2001). K GCSE physics .fourth edition. Hodder
education. A Hachette UK Company.
22. Jackson S.S (2016) Arise with Physics. Students’ Book4
23. Gilbert Rowell and Sydney Herbert,(1995)Physics (Cambridge low price
Editions)

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