Minerals and Their Forms
Types of Minerals
Minerals are classified into three main types:
Fuels:
These are used to provide power.
Examples: Coal, Petroleum
Metallic Minerals:
These can be further divided into two groups:
Non-ferrous minerals:
Minerals containing metals other than iron.
Examples: Tin, Aluminium, Copper
Ferrous minerals: Minerals containing iron.
Non-Metallic Minerals:
These do not contain metals.
Examples: Asbestos, Sulphur, Salt, Stone, Phosphates, Nitrates, Potash, Graphite, Mica
Formation and Occurrence of Metallic Minerals
Metallic minerals are formed from the cooling of molten magma within the Earth's crust. During
periods of intense geological activity, gases and liquids from the magma are forced into the
joints and cracks of crustal rocks. These metallic minerals solidify within the magma itself,
forming large masses called lodes, or in thin layers within the rock joints, called veins.
When lodes and veins are exposed at the Earth's surface, they are called reefs, often found in
ancient shield areas.
Most metals occur as compounds, such as oxides, carbonates, or sulfates. However, a few
metals, like gold, can be found in their pure state.
Weathering and erosion by rivers can break down rocks containing lodes and veins. The particles
of metallic minerals are transported and deposited at the base of slopes, mixed with rock
particles. These deposits are known as alluvial or placer deposits. An example is the extensive
tin deposits in Malaysia, which are placer deposits.
Mining of Metallic Minerals
The method of mining metallic minerals depends on the nature of the deposit:
Placer Deposits:
Opencast methods
Dredging
Vein and Lode Deposits:
Shaft (underground) methods
Non-Ferrous Metals
Copper
Historical Significance: One of the first metals used by humans. When smelted with tin, it
formed bronze, a harder alloy, leading to the Bronze Age. An alloy is a metallic substance
formed when two or more metals are smelted together.
Chief Uses:
Electrical equipment (due to its good conductivity).
Manufacturing of phosphor-bronze (a hard alloy used in engines).
Occurrence, Mining, and Processing:
Occurs in pure state and as compounds (sulfides and oxides).
Copper sulfide is a major source, with a copper content of about 20%.
Pure copper is found in small particles within rocks.
Most copper is produced through open-cast mining.
Processing: After mining, the ore is concentrated, smelted, and refined. Concentrated ores
(matte copper) have at least 70% copper content. Smelting matte copper produces blister
copper, which is nearly pure.
Major Producing Regions: USA (Arizona, Utah), CIS (Ural Mountains), Zambia, Zaire, Chile,
Canada.
Tin
Historical Significance: Used in ancient Mediterranean civilizations for making bronze and
pewter (an alloy of lead and tin). Its primary use until the mid-19th century was in these alloys
and in tin plating.
Occurrence, Mining, and Processing:
Found in lode, vein, and placer deposits.
Typically occurs as tin oxides in an ore called cassiterite.
Approximately 75% of global tin production comes from placer deposits (Malaysia, South
China, Thailand, Indonesia). The rest comes from lode deposits (primarily Bolivia).
Mining of Placer Deposits:
Tin Dredging: Large floating machines (dredges) scoop up alluvium containing tin ore,
separating cassiterite through washing. Rock particles are discarded as tailings.
Dredging is expensive and typically operated by large companies.
Hydraulic Mining: Uses powerful jets of water to break up tin-bearing alluvium.
Gravel Pump Mining: Similar to hydraulic mining, using monitors to wash away
material and pumps to extract the ore.
Mining of Lode Deposits: Involves digging shafts and excavating underground galleries
into the lode, similar to coal mining (e.g., in Bolivia).
Major Producing Regions: Malaysia, Bolivia, South China, Thailand, Indonesia.
Aluminium
Characteristics: Lightweight, strong, resistant to corrosion, good conductor of electricity,
malleable (easily rolled into sheets), and ductile (easily drawn into wire or molded).
Main Uses: Aircraft, railway carriages, buses, motor cars, electrical goods, domestic utensils,
beer and soft drink cans, electrical cables.
Occurrence, Mining, and Processing:
Main ores: Bauxite and Cryolite.
Bauxite is a clay rich in aluminium hydroxide, often found in humid tropical regions or
areas with a past tropical climate where leaching has occurred.
Cryolite contains aluminium oxide.
Mining: Primarily by opencast mining, as the ores are usually near the surface. Open-pit
mining is a common technique for bauxite.
Processing:
1. Bauxite is crushed, washed, and chemically treated to produce aluminium oxide
(alumina).
2. Alumina is smelted using large amounts of electricity to produce about 99% pure
aluminium. This is why alumina smelters are often located near hydroelectric power
plants.
Major Producing Regions: Australia, Jamaica, USA (Arkansas).
Lead
Characteristics: Soft, easy to work with, used for a long time by humans.
Main Ore: Galena (lead sulfide).
Smelting: Galena is roasted to remove sulfur, then heated with coke. The molten lead is
collected and solidified, then refined.
Main Uses: Battery plates, sheathing for electric wiring and cables, tanks for storing acids.
Zinc
Occurrence: Found in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe and North America.
Most Common Ore: Zinc Blende (zinc sulfide), often found with galena.
Extraction:
Distillation: Ore is roasted to form zinc oxide, and sulfur dioxide is released (used for
sulfuric acid production).
Electrolysis: Zinc blende is roasted to zinc oxide, which is then dissolved in sulfuric acid.
This method requires abundant hydroelectricity.
Main Uses:
Alloys: Making brass (an alloy of zinc and copper), increasingly used in the electrical
industry.
Galvanizing: Coating iron and steel to prevent rusting due to zinc's resistance to corrosion.
Miscellaneous: Roofing, toothpaste tubes, dry battery casings, paints.
Major Producing Regions: Canada (largest producer of zinc ore). Many lead mines also
extract zinc.
Silver
Uses: Coins, tableware, jewelry, photographic film.
Occurrence: Found as a native metal and in sulfide ores. It is often a by-product of lead and
copper mining.
Major Producers: USA.
Gold
Main Use: Historically, served as the basis for the monetary system of many countries
(though this use is declining).
Occurrence, Mining, and Processing:
Found in placer, vein, and reef deposits.
Uses: Coins, jewelry, decoration, dentistry, electronics, space programs. Gold bars are stored
to back national currencies.
Non-Metallic Minerals
Non-metallic minerals are generally less glamorous and less expensive than metals or energy
resources, but they are needed in large quantities.
Stone
Uses:
An important building material for a long time.
Common types: Limestone, granite, marble.
Slate: Splits into thin sheets, used for roofing tiles.
Phosphates
Occurrence: North Africa, USA, CIS.
Uses: Primarily for making fertilizers.
Nitrates
Uses: Making fertilizers. Atmospheric nitrogen is also utilized.
Major Deposits: Atacama Desert, Northern Chile.
Potash
Uses: Manufacturing of fertilizers.
Major Deposits: East Germany.
Graphite
Nature: A form of carbon. It is soft.
Uses: Manufacture of pencil leads, paints, dry batteries, lubricants.
Chief Deposits: Sri Lanka, Malagasy, Korea.
Rock Salt
Occurrence: Extensively found in oceans and seas (especially in tropics) and in certain rock
types.
Uses: Food seasoning and manufacturing of many chemicals.
Main Producing Regions: USA, Germany (Stassfurt), UK (Cheshire), Poland.
Mica
Occurrence: Found in igneous rocks. Can be split into thin sheets.
Properties: Resists high heat and electricity; semi-transparent.
Uses: Windows for furnaces, insulators in electrical equipment.
Producing Regions: North Carolina (USA), Damodar Valley (Northern India).
Asbestos
Nature: A fibrous mineral found in certain igneous rocks.
Properties: Highly resistant to electricity and heat.
Uses: Fireproof clothing and materials, insulating materials. Fibers can be spun and woven
into textiles.
Producing Regions: Eastern Canada, South Africa.
Sulphur
Occurrence: Mainly found in regions of volcanic activity and hot springs.
Uses: Manufacturing of a wide variety of chemicals, hardening of rubber, manufacture of
insecticides and medicine.
Deposits: Gulf Coast of USA, Sicily.