Chapter 2
Perception
(Concepts & Attitudes)
Introduction
No two individuals are similar. All organizations are composed
of individuals, with different personality, attitudes, values,
perception, motives, aspirations and abilities.
Moreover, organizations tend to hire people with the expectation that
those individuals have certain skills, abilities, personalities, and values.
Therefore, it is very essential to understand human behavior in today's
world as the existence of the organization depends on the
employees/individuals.
In order to understand human behavior, there is a need to see how the
perception of human being has changed from time to time. In the early
studies, theories of organization and management treated people as though
they were the same; scientific management was based on the similarities
among workers, not the differences. In contrast, modern theories of
human behavior are based upon the differences among people and how
those differences can affect the organization’s performance.
Perception
Perception is the organization, identification, and
interpretation of sensory information in order to
represent and understand the presented information or
environment.
All perception involves signals that go through the
nervous system, which in turn result from physical or
chemical stimulation of the sensory system.
Perception is the process by which individuals receive
information, organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.
1- Social Identity Theory
Social identity is a precise concept that is important for not only
understanding ourselves but also how we navigate the world around us. At
its simplest, we can understand social identities as the answer to the
question:
Who are you?
Social identities can be defined as groups that are based on the
physical, social, and mental characteristics of individuals. Our social
identity groups may sometimes be visible and obvious to others, and it
may sometimes be less obvious or visible to others. They are also
something that we create together as a society. I may claim specific
language around my identities, and others may look at me and ascribe
their own language on to me. When that language aligns, it can feel really
validating, but when that language doesn’t align, it can feel invalidating.
1- Social Identity Theory
A conceptualization recognizing that social perception, or
the way we perceive others, is based on their personal
identity and social identity:
Social perception the process of combining,
integrating and interpreting information about others to
gain an understanding of them.
Social Identity who a person is, as identified in
terms of his/her membership in social groups (class,
company, country…).
Personal Identity the characteristics that identify a
particular individual (appearance, skills...).
2- The Attribution Process
Attribution is a psychological concept that helps us understand how
people explain the causes of their own behaviors and those of others. It
focuses on the perceptions individuals hold regarding the reasons
behind successes and failures.
Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe what seems like a
typical behavior by an individual, we try to make sense of it. We
consider whether the individual is responsible for the behavior (the
cause is internal), or whether something outside the individual caused
the behavior (the cause is external). Internally caused behavior is
believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally
caused behavior is believed to result from outside causes; we see the
person as having been forced into the behavior by the situation.
2- The Attribution Process
The attribution process
The process through which people come to judge the
underlying causes of others’ behavior.
People judge others’ behavior in two different ways:
i. Making correspondent inferences (using acts to judge dispositions)
correspond what we have observed of the person’s actions to the
traits of that person that accounted for his/her actions.
ii. Causal attribution of responsibility base judgments on
someone’s behavior on two major explanations: internal causes and
external causes.
2- The Attribution Process
The attribution process
Two major explanations for the causes of someone’s
behavior:
Internal causes actions for which a person is responsible.
External causes situations over which a person has no
control.
For example, if a student is late for class, the instructor might
attribute his lateness to partying till morning and then
oversleeping. This would be an internal attribution. On the
other hand, if the instructor assumes a major automobile
accident tied up traffic on the student’s regular route to school,
that is making an external attribution.
2- The Attribution Process
Kelly’s theory of Causal attribution
People will believe others’ actions to be caused by internal or external
factors based on three types of information:
1) Consensus: the extent to which other people behave in the same
manner as the person being judged.
Others behave similarly high consensus.
2) Consistency: the extent to which the person being judged acts the
same way at other times.
Person acts the same at other times high consistency.
3) Distinctiveness: the extent to which the person behaves the same
way in other situations.
Person behaves the same way in other situations low distinctiveness.
2- The Attribution Process
Kelly’s theory of Causal attribution
2- The Attribution Process
Kelly’s theory of Causal attribution (An example)
Ali an Amr came late to the lecture. To determine whether this
You conclude
was because of internal causes or external causes, you note
that…
that:
Ali always Ali is usually late
No one else came Ali is irresponsible
comes late to other lectures
late except Ali (low (internal
(high too (low
consensus) attribution)
consistency) distinctiveness)
Amr is Amr is not late to Amr arrived late
Several others also
usually not other lectures because of external
came late (high
late (high (high causes (external
consensus)
consistency) distinctiveness) attribution)
2- The Attribution Process
Kelly’s theory of Causal attribution
Summary:
Low consensus + high consistency + low
distinctiveness Internal attribution
High consensus + high consistency + high
distinctiveness External attribution
3- Perceptual biases
Halo Effect: the tendency for the overall impressions of
others to affect objective evaluations of their specific traits.
Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to
attribute others’ actions to their traits (internal causes) and
ignoring the external causes that may have influenced their
behavior.
Similar-to-me effect: the tendency for people to perceive
positively others who are believed to be similar to them in any
way.
Selective perception: the tendency to focus on some
aspects of the environment while ignoring others.
3- Perceptual biases
First impression error: the tendency to base judgments of others on
initial impressions of them.
Stereotyping: a belief that all members of specific groups share
similar traits and are prone to behave identically.
Self-fulfilling prophecy: the tendency for someone’s expectations
about another to cause that person to behave in a way consistent with
those expectations.
Two effects may result:
1- The Pygmalion effect resulting from positive expectations.
(a psychological phenomenon in which high expectations lead to
improved performance in a given area )
2- The Golem effect resulting from negative expectations.
(a psychological phenomenon in which lower expectations placed
upon individuals either by supervisors or the individual themselves
lead to poorer performance by the individual.)
3- Perceptual biases
General Managers Workers
Managers Managers’
case of behave respond to
form behavior
self- consistently how they
expectations affects
fulfilling with were treated
of workers workers
prophecy expectations by managers
Emotional
and Added
Pygmalion Positive experience Good
professional
effect expectations and boosted performance
support
given confidence
Emotional
and Limited
Golem Negative Poor
professional experience
effect expectations performance
support and lowered
withheld confidence