EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Comprehensive Study Notes - Unit 6
1. Introduction to Systems and Embedded Systems
What is a System?
A system is a way of working, organizing, or performing tasks according to a fixed plan, program, or
set of rules. It's an arrangement where all units work together according to a specific plan.
Examples of Systems:
Watch: A time display system with hardware (needles, battery, dial, strap) following rules like
clockwise movement and 12-hour cycles.
Washing Machine: An automatic clothes washing system with components like status display,
motor, sensors, and control unit performing wash, rinse, and dry cycles.
What is an Embedded System?
An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware and software designed for a specific
function. It may function within a larger system and can be programmable or have fixed
functionality.
Common Applications:
• Industrial machines
• Consumer electronics
• Medical equipment
• Automobiles
• Digital watches
• Household appliances
• Mobile devices
• Vending machines
2. Components of Embedded Systems
Hardware Components:
• Processor
• Timers
• Interrupt controller
• I/O Devices
• Memories
• Ports
Software Components:
Application Software: Performs series of tasks, can handle multiple tasks concurrently.
Real-Time Operating System (RTOS): Defines system behavior, supervises application software,
and sets execution rules. Not needed in small-scale systems.
3. Embedded System Constraints
Three Main Constraints:
• Available system memory
• Available processor speed
• Power dissipation limits (especially for continuous operation)
4. Key Characteristics
What makes embedded systems different:
• Real-time operation
• Size considerations
• Cost efficiency
• Time constraints
• Reliability requirements
• Safety standards
• Energy consumption
• Security features
5. Classifications of Embedded Systems
Small Scale Embedded Systems:
• Single 8-bit or 16-bit microcontroller
• Minimal hardware and software complexity
• Often battery-operated
• Developed using "C" language
• Tools: Editor, Assembler, Cross Assembler
Medium Scale Embedded Systems:
• Single or few 16-bit or 32-bit microcontrollers
• Moderate hardware and software complexity
• Tools: RTOS, Source Code Engineering Tool, Simulator, Debugger, IDE
Sophisticated Embedded Systems:
• Enormous hardware and software complexity
• May require scalable/configurable processors and programmable logic arrays
• Constrained by processing speed
• Programming tools may be expensive or not readily available
6. Processors
The Heart of Embedded Systems
A processor contains two essential units:
• Control Unit (CU)
• Execution Unit (EU)
Operations: Fetch and Execute
Types of Processors:
• General Purpose Processor (GPP): Microprocessor Microcontroller Embedded Processor
Digital Signal Processor
• Application Specific System Processor (ASSP)
• Multi-Processor System using GPPs
• Microprocessor
• Microcontroller
• Embedded Processor
• Digital Signal Processor
Microprocessor:
Single-chip semiconductor device containing ALU, program counter, stack pointer, registers, clock
timing circuit, and interrupt circuit. Requires external components (ROM, RAM, memory decoder,
oscillator, I/O ports) for complete system.
History of Microprocessors:
• 1st Generation: 4-bit processors (4004, 4040)
• 2nd Generation: 8-bit processors (8008, 8080, 8085)
• 3rd Generation: 16-bit processors (8086, 8088, 80186, 80286)
• Later: 32-bit (80386, 80486) and 64-bit (Pentium series)
Microcontroller:
Functional computer system-on-a-chip containing processor, memory, and programmable I/O
peripherals. Has integrated CPU, RAM, program memory, and I/O capabilities.
7. Sensors
7.1 IR (Infrared) Sensor
Definition: Electronic device that emits light to sense objects in surroundings. Can measure heat
and detect motion.
Key Specifications:
• Wavelength: 780 nm to 1 mm
• Frequency range: 300 GHz to 400 THz
• Maximum range: 5 cm
• Active high sensor
Components:
• Transmitter: IR LED (materials: GaAs, GaP, GaAsP)
• Receiver: IR photodiode (materials: Silicon, Germanium, Indium gallium arsenide)
• Distance adjustment potentiometer
• Power and signal LEDs
Working Principle:
When IR transmitter emits radiation, it reflects off objects and returns to the IR receiver. Output
depends on reception intensity.
Types of IR Sensors:
• Active IR Sensor: Contains IR source and detector; emits and receives radiation (works like
radar)
• Passive IR Sensor (PIR): Detects infrared rays emitted by objects; used for motion detection
(humans/animals)
Applications:
• Night vision devices
• Radiation thermometers (non-contact temperature measurement)
• Infrared tracking/homing (missile guidance)
7.2 Ultrasonic Sensor
Definition: Device that measures distance using ultrasonic sound waves at frequencies too high for
humans to hear (30-500 kHz).
Pin Configuration:
• VCC: +5V supply
• TRIG: Trigger input (receives 10 µs pulse from microcontroller)
• ECHO: Echo output (monitored by microcontroller to detect obstacles/distance)
• GND: Ground
Working Principle:
Uses sound waves instead of light for detection. Can detect virtually all materials regardless of
color, even transparent materials and thin foils. Works through dust and ink mists.
Where: D = Distance, T = Time, C = Speed of sound (~343 m/s)
Example Calculation:
If time = 0.025 seconds, then:
D = 0.5 × 0.025 × 343 = 4.2875 meters
Operation Sequence:
• Send 10 µs trigger pulse to Trig pin
• Sensor sends eight 40 kHz sound waves
• Wait for rising edge at Echo pin
• Start timer when rising edge detected
• Stop timer at falling edge
• Calculate distance from time count
Applications:
• Obstacle avoidance and detection in robots
• Distance measurement (2 cm to 4 m range)
• Object mapping by rotating sensor
• Depth measurement (wells, pits) - waves penetrate water
7.3 Temperature Sensor
Definition: Device that measures degree of hotness or coolness and converts it into readable units.
Applications:
• Domestic: thermometers, water heaters, microwaves, refrigerators
• Geotechnical: monitoring concrete, structures, soil, water, bridges
Components:
• Extension cables and wires
• Sensing elements
• Thermocouple
Types of Temperature Sensors:
1. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor:
• Higher resistance at low temperatures
• Resistance drops as temperature increases
• Operating range: -50°C to 250°C (glass) or 150°C (standard)
• Non-linear output
2. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD):
• Resistance changes with temperature (almost linear)
• Materials: Platinum (most accurate), Nickel, Copper
• Range: -200°C to 600°C
• Excellent stability, accuracy, and repeatability
3. Thermocouples:
• Two dissimilar metals electrically bonded
• Varying voltage reflects temperature changes
• Non-linear (requires lookup table)
• Widest range: -200°C to 1750°C
• Lower accuracy: 0.5°C to 5°C
4. Semiconductor-Based Sensors:
• Incorporated into ICs
• Uses two identical diodes with temperature-sensitive characteristics
• Linear response but lowest accuracy
• Slowest response, narrowest range: -70°C to 150°C
Benefits of Temperature Sensors:
• Precise and extremely reliable
• Low cost
• Suitable for embedded and surface applications
• Low thermal mass = fast response
• Excellent hysteresis and linearity
• Long-term stability
• Easy readout and remote scanning capability
8. Arduino
What is Arduino?
Open-source programmable circuit board for makerspace projects. Contains a microcontroller that
can be programmed to sense and control objects in the physical world.
Key Features:
• Introduced in 2005 in Italy by Massimo Banzi
• Low cost and flexible
• Responds to sensors and inputs
• Interacts with LEDs, motors, displays
• Includes IDE (Integrated Development Environment) for programming
Arduino Board Components:
• RESET button
• AREF (Analog Reference)
• GND (Ground pins)
• Digital I/O pins
• PWM (Pulse Width Modulation pins)
• USB connector
• TX/RX (Transmit/Receive LEDs)
• ATMEGA microcontroller
• Power LED Indicator
• Voltage regulator
• DC power jack
• 3.3V pin
• 5V pin
• GND pins
• ANALOG input pins
Types of Arduino Boards:
• Official Arduino boards
• Clones (Adafruit, Sparkfun) - less expensive but same quality
• LilyPad: For wearable/e-textile projects
• Arduino Pro Mini: Small footprint for compact projects
Programming Arduino:
Sketch: Program uploaded to Arduino with instructions for the board.
Two Main Parts of Arduino Sketch:
• void setup(): Runs once at startup; initializes settings
• void loop(): Contains instructions that repeat continuously until board is turned off
Software: Arduino IDE (free download from [Link])
9. IoT Applications in Embedded Systems
9.1 Agriculture (Smart Farms)
Soil quality monitoring through IoT sensors provides data on:
• Soil moisture
• Acidity levels
• Nutrient presence
• Temperature
• Chemical characteristics
Benefits:
• Control irrigation
• Efficient water use
• Optimal sowing times
• Disease detection
9.2 Smart Grid and Energy Saving
Intelligent energy meters with sensors enable monitoring from production plants to distribution
points.
Customer Side:
• Smart meters for power consumption
• Interoperability between networks
• EV charging management
• Energy efficiency optimization
Provider Side:
• Bidirectional communication
• Fault detection
• Decision making support
• Consumption pattern analysis
• Energy-saving recommendations
10. Cloud Computing
Definition:
Delivery of computing services over the Internet ("the cloud") including servers, storage, databases,
networking, software, analytics, and intelligence.
Key Concepts:
• On-demand availability of computer resources
• Data storage and computing power without direct user management
• Data centers accessible to many users over the Internet
Benefits:
• Faster innovation
• Flexible resources
• Economies of scale
• Access from any internet-connected computer
• Improved collaboration and productivity
• Significant cost reductions for businesses
Business Advantages:
Cloud computing allows businesses to scale resources dynamically, reduce infrastructure costs,
and improve team collaboration through centralized data access and real-time updates.
End of Notes
Embedded Systems Basics and Applications - Unit 6