Chapter 1.

Fundamentals of Classical Mechanics.

Introduction
The equation of motion is the second-order differential equation that results from the application of
Newton’s second principle:
F⃗net = m⃗a = m⃗r¨
It is often convenient to obtain its solution x(t) by solving two first-order differential equations.

Some important relations:

H
- Work: W = F⃗ · d⃗r. Note that inside the integral is a scalar product of two vectors.

- If the force is conservative, the work is a state function (independent of the path), and we can
R
define the potential energy U as: U = −W = − F⃗ · d⃗r. Conversely, F⃗ = −∇U ⃗ .
R
- Impulse: I = F⃗ (t) dt

Forces depending on time

In this case, the first integral is immediate and will yield v(t):
Z Z
m dv = F (t) dt.
R
Once we have an expression for v(t), we can obtain x(t) = x0 + v(t)dt.

Forces depending on the velocity

As in the case of forces depending on time, we can convert the second-order differential equation into two
first-order differential equations. After the first integration and variable isolation, we get v(t), and the
second integration gives us x(t). One of the most important applications of velocity-dependent forces is
friction modelling.
The force of friction experienced by a body submerged in a fluid is called drag. For small velocities,
drag can be written as

D = −b v v̂
where b is a constant (with units of kg/s), and v̂ = ⃗v /v is a unit vector that points in the direction of
motion of the object.
If the velocity is larger, the functional form of drag changes to

D = −Cv 2 v̂
where the constant C is
1
C= ρ S CD
2
where ρ is the fluid density, S is the cross-section of the body submerged in the fluid, and CD is the
drag coefficient, a dimensionless parameter that depends on the object’s geometry and its velocity.

1
Forces depending on the position
If a force depends on the position, let’s say on coordinate x as generalization is immediate, F⃗ = F⃗ (x)
we can use
dv dv dx dv
a= = =v
dt dx dt dx
to integrate the equation of motion. Then,
Z Z
mv dv = F (x) dx.

dv
The former integral gives us a relation between v and x. Using the definition v = dt and calculating
a second integral we get the solution x(t).

1 Brief questions
BQ1. Are Newton’s principles universally valid? That is, are they applicable in all reference frames?

BQ2. What is the physical meaning of the equation of motion? What is the physical meaning of its
solution?
BQ3. Why does an astronaut feel weightless while orbiting Earth, even though gravity still acts on her?
What is the net force she experiences?

BQ4. Why does a feather fall more slowly than a rock in the presence of air but not in a vacuum?
BQ5. Why does an object moving in a circle at constant speed experience acceleration?
BQ6. An astronaut measures her weight on the Earth just before her launch and sees that it is 706 N.
Once she gets to her quarters on the Moon a few hours later, she sees a scale and measures her
weight again, finding that it is just 117 N. What has happened to her mass?

BQ7. Fermi problem: how many piano tuners are there in Chicago?

2
2 Fundamentals of Mechanics

2.1.1. A particle with mass moves in the X-Y plane so that its position as a function of time can be
expressed as ⃗r(t) = (t2 − 4t + 4)⃗ı + 2t2⃗ȷ m.
a) Compute the velocity ⃗v and the acceleration ⃗a of the particle at time t = 1.
b) Compute the unitary vector tangent to the trajectory as a function of time. Is there any time
when the trajectory is locally parallel to axis X?
c) Compute the intrinsic components of the acceleration (tangential at and normal an compo-
v|
nents). Check that at fulfils at = d|⃗
dt .
d Determine the particle’s trajectory.

Solution:
a) ⃗v (1) = −2⃗ı + 4⃗ȷ m/s. ⃗a(1) = 2⃗ı + 4⃗ȷ m/s.
b) ⃗ut (1) = −⃗√ı+2⃗
5
ȷ
. At t = 0.
6
c) ⃗at (1) =√5 (−⃗ı + 2⃗ȷ) m/s. ⃗aN (1) = 15 (16⃗ı − 8⃗ȷ) m/s.
d) y = 2( x + 2)2 .

2.1.2. A small exploring rover on Mars moves along a circular trajectory of radius R, so the Cartesian
coordinates of its position vector are x = R cos(ω t) and y = R sin(ω t). Determine the acceleration
vector of the rover, ⃗a, and its intrinsic components (tangential, at , and normal, an ). What are at
and an if the rover moves at constant angular velocity?
If the rover is to explore increasingly wider areas by following a spiral trajectory of coordinates
x = Aθ cos(θ) and x = Aθ sin(θ), with constant A, and angle θ such that θ̇ ̸= 0 and θ̈ = 0, and its
initial value θ(0) = 0), determine the tangential acceleration of the rover at . After an accident, the
maximum tangential acceleration that the rover can have without losing a damaged component is
at = 0.5 m/s2 . Will the rover keep its integrity, knowing that A = 1 m and the maximum angular
acceleration θ̈max = 0.2 rad/s2 ?
Solution:
Circular trajectory:
Variable θ̇: at = Rθ̈, an = a = ω 2 R.
Constant θ̇: at = 0, an = a = ω 2 R.
θ
Spiral trajectory: at = Aθ̇2 √1+θ 2

2.1.3. A mass m = 1 kg is subject to two forces whose value depends on the position of the particle
F⃗1 = −4z 2⃗k N and F⃗2 = (x+1)
1 ⃗
2 i N. The particle moves in 3D along a rail which only generates

forces normal to the trajectory. Friction is negligible.

a) Setting the total potential energy U = 0 at the origin, compute an expression for the total
potential energy U (x, y, z)
b) Compute the change in potential energy when the particle moves from ⃗rA = 0.2⃗j + 0.4⃗k to
⃗rB = 0.3⃗i
c) What is the change in mechanical energy when the particle moves from ⃗rA to ⃗rB ? Is it possible
for the particle to have no velocity at ⃗rA and reach ⃗rB ? If so, what will be the velocity at ⃗rB
in this case?
Solution:
1
a) U (x, y, z) = 1+x + 43 z − 1.
b) ∆U = −0.316 J.
c) ∆E = 0 (F⃗ conservative). Yes, because ∆U > 0 ⇒ ∆K = −∆U > 0 ⇒ K > 0.
vf = 0.795 m/s.

3
2.1.4. Compute the force associated with the gravitational potential energy of a point mass m at a
distance r from a much larger point mass M . Let G be the gravitational constant.
Mm
U (r) = −G
r

Solution: F⃗ = − GM m
r 2 r̂.

2.1.5. We are charged with delivering some equipment to the bottom of an open-ceiling hole in a lava
tube on the Moon. The maximum mass that a short steel cable length of linear mass density
λ = 1.35 kg/m can lift is 614 kg under Lunar conditions (gMoon = 1.625 m/s2 ). If the hole is 115
m deep (from the surface to the bottom), which is the maximum mass that can be safely deposited
in the cave? If the cable breaks, where will it be severed? If the cable does not break and carries
the maximum load, how much work has been done to lower the equipment?
Solution:
The maximum mass that can be lowered is 458.75 kg. The break would appear at the top of the
cable.
The required work is 1.0024 × 105 J, of which 1.4506 × 104 J correspond to the cable.

2.1.6. A mass m is suspended from a massless cord of length L under the effects of gravity (g). If the
ensemble is located on a cart which experiences an acceleration a, determine the angle the rope
will make with the vertical.
 
a
Solution: θ = atan g

2.1.7. Consider three boxes on an ice table of masses m1 , m2 and m3 . At the beginning only m1 is
moving and it has velocity v1 . When m1 collides against m2 the two boxes stick together and start
moving with v2 . Next, the system m1 + m2 collides against m3 and the three boxes stick together
and start moving with v3 . Knowing that 10% of the initial energy is lost during the first collision
and that another 10% of the remaining energy is lost during the second collision, determine m2
and m3 as a function of m1 .
Solution: m2 = 19 m1 , m3 = 10 81 m1
V1 V2 V3

m1 m2 m3

2.1.8. A person of mass m is on a wagon with mass M which carries N bricks, each with a mass mb .
The wagon moves at an initial velocity v0 .
a) The person takes one brick and throws it away with a perfectly horizontal velocity −vb with
respect to the cart. Determine the velocity of the system (person + wagon + remaining
bricks). What will the system’s velocity (person + wagon) be after an arbitrary number ’n’
of bricks have been ejected simultaneously? And when all the bricks have been ejected
simultaneously?
b) Now imagine that the bricks are tossed away one by one. What is the velocity variation of
the cart after the first launch ∆v1 = v1 − v0 ? and after the ’ith ’ launch ∆vi = vi − vi−1 ?
What is the velocity of the cart after ’n’ bricks have been tossed away?
Solution:
[M +m+(N −1)mb ]v0 +mb vb m b vb
a) 1 brick tossed away: v1 = M +m+(N −1)mb = v0 + M +m+(N −1)mb ) ;
[M +m+(N −n)mb ]v0 +nmb vb nmb vb
n bricks tossed away: vn = M +m+(N −n)mb = v0 + M +m+(N −n)mb ) ;
(M +m)v0 +N mb vb
N (all the) bricks tossed away: v1 = M +m .
mb vb
b) First brick tossed away: ∆v1 = M +m+(N −1)mb
m b vb
ith brick tossed away: ∆vi = M +m+(N −i)m
PN b m b vb
After n bricks tossed away:vn = v0 + i=1 M +m+(N −i)mb

4
2.1.9. One particle of mass m1 = m0 moves with velocity v0 and collides with another particle m2 = 2m0 .
After the collision, m1 is deviated θ1 = 45o with respect to its initial direction and moves with
velocity v1 = v0 /2.
a) Obtain the final velocity of m2 and the angle that it forms with the initial direction of m1 .
b) Is the energy conserved in this collision?

mo v1=v0/2

mo vo θ1
2mo θ2?
v2?
2mo

Solution:
a) v2 = 0.369 v0 θ2 = 0.5 rad.
b) ∆K ̸= 0 ⇒ E is not conserved.

5
3 Time-dependent forces
1.3.1. A time-dependent force can be expressed as

F⃗ (t) = K e−t/τ ı̂.

Knowing that the force acts on an object of mass m that starts its motion at the origin, with initial
velocity v0 , determine its velocity and position as a function of time. Check that, for very long
times, the object will move at constant velocity.
τ 2 k −t/τ
Solution: v(t) = v0 + τk
m (1 − e−t/τ ), x(t) = (v0 + τk
m )t + m (e − 1).
1.3.2. A time-dependent force can be expressed as

F⃗ (t) = Ke−t/τ ı̂ − 2K ȷ̂.

Knowing that the force acts on an object of mass m that starts its motion at the origin from rest,
determine its velocity and position as a function of time. Check that, for very long times, the
object will follow a parabolic trajectory.
Solution:
τ 2 k −t/τ
vx (t) = τmk (1 − e−t/τ ), x(t) = τk
m t + m (e − 1).
vy = −2 K K 2
m t, y(t) = − m t
k mx
y(x) = − m ( τ K + τ )2 .
1.3.3. An electron is in the ionosphere at a height of 350 km above sea level and is subjected to the effects
of a variable electric field given as
⃗
E(t) = E0 cos (ω t + ϕ),

where E0 = 0.0016 V/m ı̂. Assuming that at a certain time t0 its velocity is v(t0 ) = 100 m/s:
a) Write the equation of motion of the electron.
b) Determine the electron’s acceleration and velocity.
Note: me = 9.10938356 × 10−31 kg and e = 1.602176634 × 10−19 C.
Solution:
q E0 cos(ω t + ϕ) = m dv(t)
dt ;
a(t) = dv(t)
dt = q E0
m cos(ω t + ϕ) = −2.81 × 108 cos(ω t + ϕ) m/s2 ;
8
v(t) = v0 + qmω
E0
[sin(ω t + ϕ) − sin(ϕ)] = v0 − 2.81×10
ω [sin(ω t + ϕ) − sin(ϕ)].

4 Velocity-dependent forces
1.4.1. An aircraft of mass m = 2000kg lands at a speed of 100m/s and then deploys a parachute in order
to stop. The resistance to the onward motion given by the parachute is given by D = 21 CD ρAv 2 ,
where CD is the drag coefficient, ρ is the density of air, and A is the area of the front section of
the parachute. Take CD = 1.2 and ρ = 1.2475kg/m3 to determine:

a) the area of the front section of the parachute if the deceleration achieved is a = −5g, where
g = 9.81m/s2 .
b) the interval of time that the aircraft needs to decrease its speed from 100m/s to 60m/s.
c) the distance covered in that interval of time.

Solution:
a) A = 15.76 m; q 
q
b) v(t) = − mg bg b
p
b cotanh m (t − t 0 ) − acotanh mg 0 ;
v
v(t) = −40.82 cotanh {0.24t + 0.433} → t = 1.65 s;
c) y(1.65 s) = 29.82 m

6
1.4.2. A metal sphere of mass M and radius R sinks in a fluid of density ρ. Find its terminal velocity for
a) drag D = −b v and b) D = −K v 2 . Write the respective equations of motion and solve them to
find v(t) for both cases. Compute the limit of v(t) for a very long time and prove that

lim v(t) = vterminal .

t→∞

Solution:
M − 43 ρπR3
Case D = −bv: vterminal = − g.
q b 4
2 M − 3 ρπR3
Case D = −bv : vterminal = − b g.

1.4.3. A spherical balloon rises with a constant speed of 1 m/s subjected to gravity, buoyancy, and a
drag force given as D = −b v. If the balloon has a diameter of 1 m and a mass of 0.35 kg, and air
density is ρair = 1.225 kg/m3 . Take g = 9.8 m/s2 .
a) Make a diagram showing all the forces acting upon the balloon, and write the equation of
motion;
b) find the dimensions of the constant b, and
c) determine its value.
Solution:
h i
a) ρair · 43 π( ∅2 )3 − m ⃗g − b⃗v = m⃗a = ⃗0 b) [b]= M
T c) b=2.87 kg/s.

1.4.4. A small probe of mass 100 kg enters the atmosphere of an unknown planet at an initial speed
v01 =100 m/s pointing downward. We know that the planet’s gravitational acceleration is 70%
that of the Earth’s, that is, gp = 0.7 g. In the first re-entry phase, the probe reaches a speed limit
of 69 m/s (pointing downward). You may assume that the force of friction due to the atmosphere
may be modelled as F⃗f = −b⃗v and that g = 9.8 m/s2 .
a) Determine the value of the friction coefficient, b1 , as well as the expression for the velocity of
the probe as a function of time in this phase of the re-entry, v1 (t).
b) After 10 minutes (when ti = 600 s), the probe enters a new zone of the planet’s atmosphere.
We observe that the probe suddenly decreases its velocity, and shortly afterwards, it reaches
a new limit velocity equal to 34.5 m/s (pointing downward). Determine the value of the
friction coefficient, in this case, b2 . Adapt the expression you obtained for v1 (t) to determine
the probe’s velocity in this second re-entry phase, v2 (t).
c) Make an approximate sketch of the probe’s velocity in the entire re-entry. Knowing that the
limit velocity in the second phase is reached very quickly, determine and justify briefly the
type of motion the probe will undergo during most of the second stage.
Solution:
a) b1 = 9.94 kg/s; v1 (t) = −69 − 31e−0.0994t ;
b) b2 = 19.88 kg/s; v2 (t) = −34.50 − 34.5e−0.1988t ;
1.4.5. As part of her training, an astronaut of mass m = 60 kg jumps vertically from a tower of height
H = 828 m. Assuming that she jumps with an initial velocity v0 = 0, determine:
a) The velocity and position of the astronaut at time t = 10 s after the jump (when friction is
practically negligible).
b) At the time t = 10 s the astronaut opens a parachute, and then her fall is affected by a force
of friction such that |Ff |= bv 2 , with b = 7.5 kg/m.
b.1) Write the equations of motion during the fall and make an approximate sketch of the
student’s velocity as a function of time.
b.2) Write the initial conditions in this part of the trajectory. Determine the astronaut’s
velocity as a function of time v(t).
b.3) Determine the limit velocity of the astronaut. What fraction of the limit velocity will the
astronaut have reached when time is t = 19 s?
c) What will be the astronaut’s position when time is t = 19 s?

7
 Solution:
a) v(10s) = −98 m/s; y(10s) = 338 m above the ground;
b.1) 0 ≤ t ≤ 10 s : −mg =m dv
dt ; t > 10 s : −mg + bv 2 = m dv
dt ;
p mg q q
bg b
b.2) v(t) = − b cotanh m (t − t0 ) − acotanh mg v0 ;

v(t) = −8.85 cotanh {1.107(t − 10) + 0.090}.

b.3) vl = −8.85 m/s; v(19) ≃ vl .
c) y(19 s) = 243.94 m above the ground.

5 Forces depending on the position

1.5.1. In a strange zone of the universe, there seems to be an unknown conservative force F = xk3 , where
x is the distance to a certain point of a galaxy. Determine the position as a function of time x(t),
for a given initial position x0 and velocity v0 .
q
Solution x(t) = 2E 2 2 1 2
m t + x0 , where E = V (x) + 2 mv is the energy.

1.5.2. We are working on experiments to understand the motion of a rover prototype on the surface
of a planet. Assume the rover moves along a surface whose topography is locally associated
with y = −x2 − 2x. The rover prototype has a mass of 10 kg, and the planet’s gravity may
be approximated to 10 m/s2 . It starts from the origin, with negative velocity, and has energy
E=100 J. Determine the gravitational potential energy of the rover as a function of the horizontal
coordinate x, the gravitational force it experiences, and the solution to the equation of motion
that describes its horizontal advance x(t). Can the rover reach the point of maximum potential
energy? What is the maximum horizontal displacement the rover may reach? and its energy?
Solution:
2
U (x) = −100(x
√
+ 2x) , F (x) = 200(x + 1) N,
−2 5t
x(t) = e − 1 m (t in s), Position at max displacement: x = −1m, U (xmax )=100 J.