Chapter Two

Computer Network
 Outlines

 Introduction to Computer Networks

 Types of Computer Networks

 Current and future networks

 Components of the network

 Network Devices

 Network Topologies
 Computer Network
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
• A computer network is a collection of interconnected computing devices
(computers, servers, routers, switches, printers, smartphones, etc.) that
communicate and share resources through communication links using
agreed-upon protocols.
• It is a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single
technology.
• Computer networks emerge relatively in the late 1960s.
• Examples: Home Wi-Fi, office LAN, the Internet
 Key Technical Elements

• Nodes: Devices connected to the network

• Transmission Medium: Wired or wireless channel

• Protocols: Rules governing communication

• Network Devices: Router, Switch, Access Point, etc

• Addressing System: IP addresses

 Networking Criteria
• Network Criteria A network must be able to meet a certain number of
criteria.
• The most important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
• Network performance: refers to how efficiently and quickly a network
transmits data between devices.
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel
from one device to another.
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• It measures the quality and speed of communication within a network.
 Cont..
• Key Performance Metrics
• Network performance is measured using:
• Bandwidth: Maximum data transmission capacity
• Measured in Mbps or Gbps
• Throughput: Actual data transfer rate achieved
• Latency (Delay): Time taken for data to travel from source to
destination
• Jitter: Variation in packet delay
• Response Time: Time required for a system to react to a request
• Factors that affects performance of a network are number of users, type
of transmission media, hardware, topology, distance between nodes
etc
 Cont..
• Network reliability/Fault Tolerance: refers to the ability of a network to
operate continuously without failure for a specific period.
• Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a
catastrophe
• It measures: Stability, Availability, Failure frequency
• Reliability Metrics
• Failure Rate: How often the network fails.
• Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF): Average time a network runs
before failing.
• Recovery Time: Time required to restore the network after failure.
• Availability: Percentage of uptime (e.g., 99.9%)
 Cont..
• Quality of Service (QoS): The Internet is currently providing an acceptable
level of fault tolerance and scalability for its users.

• But new applications available to users over internetworks create higher

expectations for the quality of the delivered services.

• Voice and live video transmissions require a level of consistent quality and
uninterrupted delivery that was not necessary for traditional computer
applications.

• Quality of these services is measured against the quality of experiencing the

same audio or video presentation in person.
 Cont..
• Traditional voice and video networks are designed to support a single
type of transmission, and are therefore able to produce an acceptable
level of quality.

• New requirements to support this quality of service over a converged

network are changing the way network architectures are designed and
implemented.
 Cont..
• High-reliability networks use: Backup links, Redundant servers
• How to Improve Reliability
• Redundant links
• Backup power supply (UPS)
• Multiple servers
• Regular maintenance
• Network security refers to the protection of network data, devices, and
services from unauthorized access, misuse, or attack.
• It ensure protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.
• It ensures confidentiality, integrity, availability
 Cont..
• Confidentiality: Only authorized users can access data.
• Integrity: Data cannot be modified without permission.
• Availability: Authorized users can access data when needed.
• Common Security Threats
• Malware
• Phishing
• Ransomware
• Denial of Service (DoS)
• Data interception
 Cont..
• Scalability: A scalable network can expand quickly to support new users and
applications without impacting the performance of the service being delivered to
existing users.
• Thousands of new users and service providers connect to the Internet each week.
• The ability of the network to support these new interconnections depends on a
hierarchical layered design for the underlying physical infrastructure and logical
architecture.
• The operation at each layer enables users or service providers to be inserted without
causing disruption to the entire network.
• Technology developments are constantly increasing the message carrying
capabilities and performance of the physical infrastructure components at every
layer.
• These developments, along with new methods to identify and locate individual users
within an internetwork, are enabling the Internet to keep pace with user demand.
 Questions ?

 What happens if a network is fast but not secure?

 Data can be stolen.
 What happens if it is secure but unreliable?
 System frequently crashes.
 What happens if it is reliable but slow?
 Poor user experience.
 Network Applications Areas
• Business and Enterprise Networks: Modern businesses rely heavily on
computer networks for Internal communication, Data sharing,
Centralized databases, Online services, Supply chain management, etc
• Example: ATM, online banking, ERP etc
• Education Sector: Application in Schools and Universities
• Networks are used for Computer labs, Online exams, Learning
Management Systems, Research databases, Digital libraries etc
• Healthcare Systems: Application in Hospitals
• Hospital networks enable Electronic Health Records (EHR),
Laboratory systems, Patient monitoring, Telemedicine etc. .
 Cont..
• Government and Public Administration: E-Government Services

• Governments use networks for tax systems, national ID systems,

online licensing, digital records management etc.
• Communication and Social Media: Personal Communication
• Networks support Email, Messaging, Video calls, Social networking

• Example: WhatsApp, FB
• E-Commerce and Online Business: Online Shopping Platforms
• Networks enable product browsing, Secure payments, Order tracking, Online
banking
• Example: Amazon, Alibaba
 Advantages of Computer Networks
• Resource Sharing: Networks allow multiple users to share hardware (printers,
scanners), software applications, storage devices

• Data Sharing and Collaboration: Users can access and update shared files from
different locations such as shared databases, Cloud storage, team collaboration tools

• Fast Communication: Networks enable Email, Messaging, Video conferencing, VoIP

• Centralized Management: Administrators can control user access, perform backups,

update software centrally, monitor network traffic

• Remote Access: Employees can access company systems from anywhere via VPN,
Cloud services, Remote desktop
 Disadvantages of network
• Security Risks: Networks are vulnerable to hacking, malware, data theft,
phishing attacks

• High Installation Cost: Initial setup requires servers, switches, routers,

structured cabling, security systems

• Maintenance and Management Complexity: needs skilled professionals

• Dependency on Network Infrastructure: If the network fails work stops,

communication stops, systems become unavailable

• Virus and Malware Spread: In a network, malware can spread quickly from
one computer to another.
Advantages Disadvantages

Resource sharing Security risks

Fast communication High setup cost

Centralized control Maintenance complexity

Remote access Network dependency

Collaboration Malware spread

 Types of Computer Networks
• Computer networks are classified based on various factors. They includes:
Geographical span, Inter-connectivity, Administration, Architecture
 Based on Geographical Span: networks are distinguished based on their
geographical span.
 A network can be as small as distance between your mobile phone and
its Bluetooth headphone and as large as the internet itself, covering the
whole geographical world.
 Personal Area Network(PAN): it is smallest network which is very
personal to a user.
 This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled
devices.
 PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.
 Cont..
 PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth
enabled headphones, wireless printers, and TV remotes.
 For example, Piconet is Bluetooth enabled Personal Area Network which
may contain up to 8 devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.
 Local Area Network(LAN): A LAN is a network that connects computers
and devices within a small geographical area such as A room, A building,
A school campus, An office etc.
 A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single
administrative system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN).
 Usually, LAN covers an organization offices, schools, colleges or
universities.
 Cont..
 Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as much
as 16 million.
 LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The
resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable
among computers
 LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment.
 It may contains local servers serving file storage and other locally shared
applications.
 It mostly operates on private IP addresses and does not involve heavy routing.
LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.
 LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology
 Ethernet is most widely employed LAN technology and uses Star topology, while
Token-ring is rarely seen. LAN can be wired, wireless, or in both forms at once.
•
Cont.
Characteristics
• High data transfer speed (100 Mbps – 10 Gbps)
• Low latency
• Privately owned
• Limited coverage area
• Uses Ethernet or Wi-Fi
• All devices are connected within one building  LAN.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): it covers a city or large campus area.
• It connects multiple LANs within a metropolitan region.
• It expands throughout a city such as cable TV network.
• It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed
Data Interface (FDDI)
 Cont..
• Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs.
• This service enables its users to expand their Local Area Networks. For
example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its offices in a city.
• Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics.
• MAN works in between Local Area Network and Wide Area Network.
• MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.
• Characteristics
• Covers 5–50 km
• High-speed fiber connections
• Usually managed by telecom providers
• Connects branches within a city
 Cont..
• Wide Area Network (WAN): A Wide Area Network (WAN) connects
networks over large geographical areas such as countries, continents, globally

• As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area
which may span across provinces and even a whole country.

• Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network.

• These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are
equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network
equipment.
 Cont..
• WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM), Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).

• WAN may be managed by multiple administration.

• Characteristics

• Uses satellite, fiber, microwave links

• Slower than LAN (due to distance)

• High infrastructure cost

• Public or private ownership

 Classification Based on Architecture
• Peer-to-Peer Network: In peer-to-peer architecture, all devices (peers) are equal
participants in the network.

• There is no central server; each device can act as both client and server without a
central authority .

• This decentralized model promotes direct communication and resource distribution

among nodes.

• Characteristics

• Simple configuration

• No dedicated server

• Suitable for small networks

 Cont..
• Client-Server Network: In the client-server architecture, the network is
organized around a central server that provides resources, services, or data
to multiple client devices.
• The server acts as a dedicated host, managing requests and responses,
while clients are endpoints that request and consume those services.
• This is a hierarchical model where the server has more power and
responsibility.
• Characteristics
• Centralized control
• Strong security
• Scalable
• Professional management
 How client Server work?
• Clients: Initiate communication by sending requests (e.g., via HTTP) to the
server. Examples include web browsers or email clients.

• Server: Processes requests, performs computations or retrieves data, and sends

responses back. Servers often use databases for storage.

• Communication: Typically uses protocols like TCP/IP. The server listens on a

port, and clients connect to it.

• Tiers: Can be single-tier (simple), two-tier (client directly to database server),

or multi-tier (e.g., three-tier with presentation, logic, and data layers) for better
separation of concerns.
 Based on Administration
• When we classify networks based on administration, we focus on
ownership, access control, management authority, security
responsibility
• Private Network: A Private Network is a network that is owned,
controlled, and managed by a single organization or individual.
• Access is restricted to authorized users only.
• Characteristics
• Internal use only
• Controlled access
• Strong security policies
• Managed by internal IT department
• Example: LAN, VPN etc
 Cont..
• Public network: it is an open system accessible to anyone with the necessary
connection, without restrictions on users or devices.
• The most prominent example is the internet, but it also includes public Wi-Fi
hotspots or shared cellular networks.
• Inter-connectivity is high, allowing global data exchange, but with minimal
built-in security.
• Characteristics
• Open access
• Managed by service providers
• Large-scale infrastructure
• Less direct control by users
 Based on Inter-Connectivity
• This classification focuses on how devices are physically or logically connected to
communication links.
• Point-to-Point Network: Direct link between two devices.
• A Point-to-Point (P2P) Network is a type of network connection in which a dedicated
communication link connects exactly two devices.
• The entire bandwidth of the link is reserved for communication between those two
devices only.
• Key Characteristics
• Direct connection between two nodes
• Dedicated communication channel
• High data transmission efficiency
• Simple configuration
• Secure (no shared access)
 Cont..
• Multipoint Network: A Multipoint Network is a network in which multiple
devices share a single communication link.

• The bandwidth is divided among all connected devices.

• Key Characteristics

• One link shared by multiple nodes

• Cost-effective

• Requires access control mechanism

• Devices take turns transmitting

• Example: Bus network

 Current and future networks
• Current networks refer to the networking technologies and
architectures widely deployed today.
• Current network exists in different ways
• Internet-Based Networks
• The backbone of modern communication is the
Internet
• It connects, Governments, Businesses, Universities,
Individuals
• Broadband Networks
• Broadband provides high-speed internet access via
Fiber optics, DSL, Cable modem, 4G LTE etc.
 Cont..
• Mobile Networks: it evolved from 1G → 2G → 3G → 4G → 5G.
• 4G LTE
• High-speed mobile internet
• Supports HD video streaming
• 5G
• Ultra-low latency (≈1 ms)
• Supports IoT and smart cities
• Cloud Networking: Modern systems rely heavily on cloud platforms such as:
Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure
• Characteristics:
• Virtualized servers
• Distributed data centers
• On-demand scalability
 Limitations of Current Networks
• Despite improvements, current networks face challenges:

• Increasing bandwidth demand

• Cybersecurity threats

• Network congestion

• Limited scalability

• High infrastructure cost

 Future networks
• Future networks refer to emerging and next-generation
networking technologies.
• Future networks aim to solve those limitations happened
in current networks.
• It designed to support:
• Higher bandwidth
• Ultra-low latency
• Massive connectivity
• Intelligent automation
 Cont.…
• 6G Networks

• Next generation after 5G.

• Expected features:
• Terahertz communication

• AI-integrated networking

• Extremely low latency (<1 ms)

• Massive IoT connectivity

 Cont..
 Internet of Things (IoT)
• IoT connects billions of smart devices:
• Smart homes
• Smart cities
• Industrial sensors
 Artificial Intelligence in Networking
• AI-powered networks can:
• Detect intrusions
• Predict failures
• Optimize routing
• Self-heal
 Cont..
 Edge Computing
• Instead of processing data in distant cloud servers:
• Data is processed near the source
• Reduces latency
• Improves performance
 Quantum Networking (Future Vision)
• Uses quantum mechanics principles for:
• Ultra-secure communication
• Quantum encryption
• Still in research phase but promising for high-security
systems.
 Components of the network
• Computer networks are built using two major categories of
components

• Hardware: the physical devices used to create and operate

the network.

• Software: the programs and protocols that control

communication and manage the network.

• Both components work together to enable data communication,

resource sharing, and internet connectivity.
 Network Devices(hardware components)
• Network hardware refers to the physical devices used to interconnect
computers and other devices within a network.

• Network Interface Card (NIC): is a hardware component installed

in a computer that allows the device to connect to a network.

• Functions

• Enables communication between a computer and the network.

• Converts data into signals suitable for transmission.

• Provides a unique physical address called MAC Address.

 Cont..
• Types

• Wired NIC – uses Ethernet cables.

• Wireless NIC – connects through Wi-Fi.

 Cont..
• Hub: is a networking device that connects multiple computers in a
network and broadcasts data to all connected devices.

• Characteristics

• Works at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.

• Data sent by one computer is broadcast to every device.

• Does not filter or manage traffic.

• Example: In an early small office network, 5 computers connected to a

hub share files. When one computer sends data, all computers receive
it, but only the intended computer processes it.
 Cont..

Typical number of ports: 4, 8, 16, or 24 ports

 Cont..
• Switch: is a networking device that connects devices in a Local
Area Network (LAN) and forwards data only to the intended
device.
• Characteristics
• Operates at Data Link Layer (Layer 2).
• Uses MAC addresses to identify devices.
• Reduces network traffic compared to hubs.

• Example: In a university computer lab, a switch connects 30

computers. When one student sends a file to another computer,
the switch sends the data only to the destination device.
 Cont..

• Typical number of ports: 8, 16, 24, or 48 ports

 Cont..
• Router: A router connects different networks that use the same
communication protocol, typically IP (Internet Protocol).

• Functions

• Routes data between networks

• Connects local networks to the Internet

• Uses IP addresses to determine the best path for data.

• Example: LAN with WAN, MAN with WAN, LAN with MAN

• Typical number of ports: 2 to 8 ports (sometimes more)

 Cont..
• Routers operate at the network layer of the OSI model,
examining packet headers to determine the optimal path
using routing tables.

LAN (IP Network) → Router → WAN (IP Network)

 Cont..
• Modem (Modulator-Demodulator): converts digital signals from a
computer into analog signals for transmission over telephone or cable
lines and vice versa.

• Functions

• Connects networks to Internet Service Providers (ISP)

• Converts signals between digital and analog.

• Example: In many homes, the modem connects the ISP cable line to
the router, allowing internet access.
Cont..
•
Cont..
Bridge: is a networking device that connects two or more LAN
segments that uses the same protocol and filters traffic between
them based on MAC addresses.
• It operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
• A bridge reduces unnecessary traffic by sending data only to the
segment where the destination device exists.
• Functions
• Connects two LAN segments.
• Filters data frames using MAC addresses.
• Reduces network congestion.
• Extends the size of a local network.
• Typical number of ports: 2 ports
Cont..
 Cont..
• Gateway: is a networking device that connects two different
networks that use different communication protocols.
• It acts as a translator between networks.
• It operates at the Application Layer (Layer 7) of the OSI
model, although it may work across multiple layers.
• Functions
• Connects different network architectures.
• Translates data formats and protocols.
• Enables communication between incompatible networks.
• Acts as an entry and exit point of a network.
Cont..
Telephone Network (Analog) → VoIP Gateway → Internet (IP)

ZigBee Sensor Network → IoT Gateway → Internet (TCP/IP)

Typical number of ports: Varies (2 or more ports)

 Cont..

• Repeater is a simple hardware device that makes a weak

signal strong again so it can travel further in a network.

• It does not read IP addresses or MAC addresses, t only

boosts the signal.

• Its main function is to regenerate and amplify signals so

that data can travel longer distances without degradation.
Cont..
 Cont..
• Wireless Access Point(WAP): allows wireless devices to
connect to a wired network.

• In a university campus, students connect their laptops to

Wi-Fi through access points installed in classrooms.
 Cont..
• Server: is a powerful computer that provides services, resources, or
data to other computers (clients) in a network.

• Types of Servers

• File Server

• Web Server

• Database Server

• Mail Server
 Network Software Components
• Network Operating System: is specialized software that manages
network resources and enables communication between computers.

• Functions

• User authentication

• File sharing

• Printer sharing

• Security management
• Examples: Microsoft Windows Server, Linux, Novell NetWare
 Cont..
• Network Protocol: is a set of rules that govern how data is transmitted
and received across a network.

• Common Protocols

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable data

transmission.

• IP (Internet Protocol): Provides addressing system for devices.

• HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Used for web communication.

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files.

 Cont..
• Security software: it protects networks from unauthorized access and
cyber threats.
• Examples: Firewalls, Antivirus programs, Intrusion Detection Systems
(IDS)
• Network management software: it monitors and controls network
performance.
• Functions
• Monitoring traffic
• Detecting faults
• Managing devices
• Improving performance
 Network Topologies
• Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of
devices (nodes) and communication links in a computer network.

• It describes how computers, cables, and other network devices are

connected and how data flows between them.

• Why is a Network Topology important?

• A network layout gives a clear picture of where each device sits in the network.

• It also aids in proper planning and well as quick identification of problems when
they occur.
 Cont..
• A physical network topology is a representation of how network
components are connected through cables, or wirelessly, indicating how
the physical connections run from one network component to another.

• A logical network topology: defines the architecture of the

communication mechanism for all nodes in a network

• It serves to illustrate the positioning of the device based on other

network aspects like the flow of information, addressing and logical
groupings.
 Cont..
• Types of Network Topology
• The most common network topologies are:

• Bus Topology

• Star Topology

• Ring Topology

• Mesh Topology

• Tree Topology

• Hybrid Topology
 Cont..
• Bus topology is a network configuration where all devices
are connected to a single central cable called the backbone
or bus.

• All computers share the same communication line.

• Data is transmitted in only one direction.

• The use of bus topology is not common in today’s networks.

• Terminators are placed at both ends of the cable.

Cont..
 Cont..
• Advantages
• Simple and easy to install

• Requires less cable than other topologies

• Cost effective for small networks

• Disadvantages
• If the backbone cable fails, the entire network stops

• Difficult to troubleshoot

• Performance decreases with more devices

 Cont..
• Star topology, all devices are connected to a central device such as a
switch or hub through which they transmit and receive information.

• The central device manages communication between nodes.

• Communication passes through the hub or switch.

• Every computer or device has a dedicated connection to the central

network device

• It is a modern network topology used today

Cont..
 Cont..
• Advantages of Star Topology
• Better performance
• Easy to identify and solve problems in such a network
• Easy to set up and modify
• If one computer is disconnected, the connectivity of other computers is not
interrupted
• Another switch can be added to expand the network, making expansion easy

• Disadvantages of Star Topology

• Network devices are expensive, so it adds to the cost of installation
• If the central network device fails, then all computers connected to it also
fail
 Cont..
• Ring topology, each computer is connected to two other
computers forming a circular data path.

• Data travels around the ring until it reaches the

destination.

• Data moves in one direction (single ring) or both directions

(dual ring).

• Each device acts as a repeater.

Cont..
 Cont..
• Advantages of Ring Topology

• Data is transmitted in two directions

• It is less costly to install and expand

• Disadvantages of Ring Topology

• Identifying and solving problems is difficult in ring topology

• Adding or removing the computers can cause network interruptions

• If one computer fails it may disrupt the network

 Cont..
• Mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device
in the network.

• Here every device has a direct point to point link between every
other device.

• A fully connected mesh can have n(n-1)/2 physical channels to

link n devices.

• Provides multiple paths for data transmission.

• Very reliable network structure.

 Cont..

• ccc
 Cont..
• Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Each computer has a dedicated connection to each computer.
• It eliminate the traffic problem.
• Communication between computers cannot be interrupted by events
in other parts of the network
• Finding a problem is easy when two computers cannot communicate
• Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• It involves a great amount of installation and configuration
• Requires a lot of cabling and Expansion is not easy.
• When a new computer is added, it needs to be connected to each
computer that is currently on the network
 Cont..
• Hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different
network topologies.

• When a combination of two or more of the topology types

discussed above are used, then it makes the topology
Hybrid .

• Flexible network design

• Can support large networks

Cont..
 Cont..
• Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• More reliable

• Easy to expand

• Flexible

• Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

• The setup is complex

• It is expensive to install and operate

Thank you